Communication & Communication

System

Communication is defined as the exchange of information between sender

and receiver devices with the help of means of communication. The
communication can be local or remote. The local communication occurs
face to face whereas the remote communication occurs over distance.

A communication system is a collection of devices, networks, and protocols

that enable the transmission and exchange of information between two or
more parties. It provides a means for people or machines to share data,
ideas, and messages over short or long distances.

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 Elements of Communication

Message:
The message is the information to be transmitted. It can be in the form of
text, voice, video, or any other form of data.

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 Elements of Communication
Sender:
The sender is a device that sends message(s) to the receiver and it can be
computer, workstation or any networking devices.

Receiver:
The receiver is a device that receives message(s) from the medium and it
can be computer, workstation or any networking devices.

Transmission medium:
It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from
sender to the receiver and vice versa. The medium can be wired or wireless.

Protocol:
It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices.
Both sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each
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 Data Communication

Data communications refers to the transmission of digital data between

two or more computers and a computer network . The data communication
takes place between source and receiver. The device that transmits the data
is known as source and the device that receives the transmitted data is
known as receiver.
Data communication mainly used in the transfer of data, the method of
transfer, and the preservation of the data during the transfer process.

Direction of signal flow

Source Source
Source TX Channel RX Sink
Encoder Decoder

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 Elements Data Communication

Source:
A source generates the information. The information is in different form for
communication, news, feeling, visual scene, and so on.

Source Encoder:
A source encoder is a translator that converts the information into an
electrical form called message signal. This encoded message then
transferred to the transmitter.

Transmitter:
It is a physical medium which connects the transmitter block with the
receiver block. It is used to convert the message signal into a form
acceptable to the channel.

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 Elements Data Communication
Channel:
The channel is the path or link that connects the transmitter and the
receiver. The type of channel depends on the purpose of the
communication system.
Receiver:
A receiver performs an inverse function of that of the transmitter to recover
the message signal. The receiver receives the incoming modified version of
the message signal from the channel. Then processes it to recreate the
original form of the message signal.

Transmitter:
It is a physical medium which connects the transmitter block with the
receiver block. It is used to convert the message signal into a form
acceptable to the channel.
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 Elements Data Communication

Source Decoder:
A source decoder converts the electrical signal back to a form acceptable to
the receiver. This decoded message then transferred to the user.

Sink:
A sink is the user of the information generated by the source. It is the final
block in the communication system which receivers the message signal.

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 Communication Mode

The Communication Mode also called Transmission Mode defines the

direction of the flow of information between two communication devices
i.e. it tells the direction of signal flow between the two devices.

Transmission Mode

Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

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 Communication Mode
Simplex
In simplex transmission mode, the
communication between sender and
receiver occurs in only one direction. The
sender can only send the data, and the
receiver can only receive the data. There is
no mechanism for information to be
transmitted back to the sender.
Communication is unidirectional. TV
broadcasting is an example. Simplex
transmission generally involves dedicated
circuits. Simplex circuits are analogous to
escalators, doorbells, fire alarms and
security systems.
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 Communication Mode

Half Duplex
The communication between sender and
receiver occurs in both directions in half
duplex transmission, but only one at a
time. The sender and receiver can both
send and receive the information, but only
one is allowed to send at any given
time. For example, in walkie-talkies, the
speakers at both ends can speak, but they
have to speak one by one. They cannot
speak simultaneously.

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 Communication Mode

Full Duplex
In full duplex transmission mode, the
communication between sender and
receiver can occur simultaneously. The
sender and receiver can both transmit and
receive at the same time. Both the
connected devices can transmit and receive
at the same time. Therefore it represents
truly bi-directional system. The link may
contain two separate transmission paths
one for sending and another for receiving.
For example, communication in a
telephone, cell phone etc.
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 Communication Mode
Key Differences of the Three Transmission Modes
1. In simplex mode, the signal is sent in one direction. In half duplex mode, the signal
is sent in both directions, but one at a time. In full duplex mode, the signal is sent
in both directions at the same time.
2. In simplex mode, only one device can transmit the signal. In half duplex mode,
both devices can transmit the signal, but one at a time. In full duplex mode, both
devices can transmit the signal at the same time.
3. Full duplex performs better than half duplex, and half duplex in turn performs
better than simplex.
4. Simplex: The keyboard sends the command to the monitor. The monitor cannot
reply to the keyboard.
5. Half duplex: Using a walkie-talkie, both speakers can communicate, but they have
to take turns.
6. Full duplex: Using a telephone, both speakers can communicate at the same time.
7. The full duplex transmission mode offers the best performance among the three,
on account of the fact that it maximizes the amount of bandwidth available.
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 Transmission Media (Communication Channel)
A transmission media is a pathway along which information is sent from one
place to another (i.e. between sender and receiver devices). A transmission
media or channel may connect two endpoints directly, or it may be one of
several channels that are connected together in some way to form an end-to-
end connection. The transmission media includes cable and wireless
technology that allow networked device to contact each other. Transmission
media are classified into two categories: bounded (guided/wired) and
unbounded(unguided/wireless).

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Transmission Media

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 Transmission Media

Guided Media:
The term guided media essentially refers to a physical connection between
two devices - usually a cable of some kind. In guided media communication
happen throw wires and cable. The guided media is also known as bounded
media. The bounded media are used normally to connect computers in a
small area like a room, building or within compound. The guided media limit
the mobility of computers on the network. It is further divided into following
types:
• Twisted-pair cable
• Co-axial cable
• Fiber optic cable

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 Guided Media

Twisted Pair Cable:

The twisted pair cable consists or a pair of insulated copper wires twisted
around each other. One wire of the pair is used to transmit data signal and
the other is used to receive data signal . The number of twisted pair may be
1, 2, 4 or more. All transmissions are prone to noise, interferences, and
crosstalk. Therefore twisted pair cabling is often used to help avoid certain
kinds of signal interference. The twisted pair cable comes in two categories.
They are:
1) Unshielded twisted pair(UTP)
2) Shielded twisted pair (STP)

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 Guided Media

Twisted Pair Cable:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
An unshielded twisted pair cable consists of a number of insulated twisted pair
of copper wires with in a simple plastic casing. It is similar to telephone cable but
it has capability of transferring high frequency data. It is less expensive than
shielded twisted pair and not good protection from interference. It can support
data rate from 10 to 100 Mbps(millions of bits per second). These cablings are
widely used in Local Area Networks for Star topology where both segments of
cables are connected to RJ-45 jack. Unshielded twisted pair cables are of
different categories(cat1 to cat7). The category 1, category 2 and category 3 are
not used these days. The band width of UTP depends on the category.

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 Guided Media
Twisted Pair Cable:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

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 Guided Media

Twisted Pair Cable:

1. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Shielded twisted pair (STP) cable was originally designed by IBM for
token ring networks that include two individual wires covered with a foil
shielding, which prevents electromagnetic interference, thereby
transporting data faster.

STP is similar to unshielded twisted pair (UTP); however, it contains an

extra foil wrapping or copper braid jacket to help shield the cable signals
from interference. STP cables are costlier when compared to UTP, but
has the advantage of being capable of supporting higher transmission
rates across longer distances. It can support data transfer rate from 16 to
500 Mbps.
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 Guided Media
Twisted Pair Cable:
1. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

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 Guided Media
Twisted Pair Cable:
Advantages:
• It is inexpensive and suitable for digital data transmission.
• It is easier for clamping connector and flexible for wring purpose.
• Best performance in short distances.
• It has higher data transfer rate up to Gbps.
• These cable are suitable for Data and voice infrastructure.

Disadvantages:
• It is not possible to transmit data for long distance(maximum up to 200 meter).
• Attenuation is very high.
• It emits electromagnetic interference.
• It provides poor security and is relatively easy to tap.
• Low durability (must be maintained regularly).

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 Guided Media

Coaxial Cable:
A coaxial cable is a type of shielded and insulated copper cable that is used in
computer networks and to deliver cable TV services to end users. Coaxial cable is
a type of electrical cable consisting of an inner conductor surrounded by a
concentric conducting shield, with the two separated by a dielectric (insulating
material). The cable is protected by an outer insulating jacket.
Coaxial cable is a type of transmission line, used to carry high-frequency
electrical signals with low losses. It is used in such applications as telephone
trunk lines, broadband internet networking cables, high-speed computer data
busses, cable television signals, and connecting radio transmitters and receivers
to their antennas. It is further classified into two categories:
1. Thinnet coaxial cable
2. Thicknet coaxial cable

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 Guided Media
Coaxial Cable:
Thinnet Coaxial Cable: It is also known
as 10Base2 which refers to the
specifications for thinnet coaxial cable
carrying 10 Mbps signals maximum up to
200 meters. This cable is popular in bus
topology network.

Thicknet Coaxial Cable: It is also known as

100Base5 which refers to the specifications
for thicknet coaxial cable carrying
100Mbps signal up to 500 meter. This cable
is popular in Cable TV network.

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 Guided Media
Coaxial Cable:
Advantages:
• It has higher bandwidth than unshielded twisted pair cable.
• It is less effective by electromagnetic interference.
• It can support multiple channel in a medium.
• It has great durability.
• It can be used in both analog and digital data transmission.

Disadvantages:
• It is expensive than unshielded pair cable.
• It has limitation for connecting number of nodes.
• Susceptible to damage from lightening strikes.
• Limited mobility
• It can get cross talk with longer cable run.
• It is easily tapped.

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 Guided Media
Optical Fiber Cable:
A cable which contains very thin glass fibers
surrounded by a protective insulator is known as
optical fiber/ fiber optic cable. Fiber optic cables use
light pulses instead of electric signals for transmitting
data. Fiber optic cable supports data
transfer rate of 2 billions bits per second. So, more
amount of information can be transferred in the short
period of time through the fiber optic cable. It offers
low data error and is unaffected by electromagnetic
interference. Since the data are transmitted in the
form of light, the signals do not become weak in the
fiber optic cable. Due to these all features fiber optic
cables are used for transmitting data over long
distances.
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 Guided Media
Optical Fiber Cable:

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 Guided Media
Optical Fiber Cable:
Advantages:
• It provides higher bandwidth.
• Less power loss and allows data transmission for extended distances.
• Optical cable is resistance for electromagnetic interference.
• Data is transmitted in the form of light, so it is difficult to tap from the
middle of cable.
• They are much thinner and lighter then the others.

Disadvantages:
• These cable are very difficult to merge so there’ll be loss of beam within
cable.
• These cable are highly vulnerable while fitting.
• They are expensive than others.
• They are not flexible than other cable, so it is difficult to bend.
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 Unguided Media
Transmission media which do not use any physical connection between two
communicating devices are called unguided media or unbounded media or
wireless media. Such type of media use radio waves, microwaves and satellite.
Wireless media such as infrared, Bluetooth and WIFI are also common for short
range data transmission. The wireless network is done specially where cabling is
not possible. The wireless network is flexible to use. The commonly used wireless
communication systems are:
• Radio wave
• Microwave System
• Satellite
• Infrared Transmission
• Bluetooth Technology
• Wi-Fi Technology

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 Unguided Media

Radio Wave:
Radio waves are used for wireless transmission of sound
messages, or information for communication, as well as
for maritime and aircraft navigation. The frequencies
below 1000 MHz are radio frequencies. Radio waves
transmitted by antennas in certain directions are bent or
even reflected back to Earth by the ionosphere. Common
examples of radio frequencies are: AM or FM.

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 Unguided Media

Radio Wave:
Advantages:
• It is inexpensive and easy to produce.
• It can bend and pass obstacles.
• It covers larger geographical area.

Disadvantages:
• The data transfer rate is slower than that in wired media.
• The quality of data transmission is very poor.

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 Unguided Media

Microwave:
High frequency electromagnetic wave(ranges from 1GHz to 300GHz) is known as
microwave. The microwave can transmit data signal from one point to another
point through the space without using cables. Microwave system can support data
transfer rate about 16Gbps. Since the microwave cannot bend or pass obstacles like
hills or buildings, so it requires line of sight transmission. The transmitter and
receiver of microwave system must be mounted on very high towers. The line of
sight due to earth's curvatures is only 50 KM within the horizon. Therefore, the
microwave must be placed within the distance. Specially, microwave is used in
WAN or MAN communication, satellite communication and telephone
communication

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 Unguided Media
Microwave:

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 Unguided Media

Microwave:
Advantages:
• It has higher bandwidth than radio wave.
• The quality of data transmission is better than radio wave.

Disadvantages:
• It cannot bend and pass obstacles so require line of sight for data
transmission.
• It does not cover very large space because of earth’s curvature.

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 Unguided Media
Satellite:
Satellite is set in the geostationary orbits
of the earth, which is 22000 miles above
for the earth surface. It continuously
rotates the earth in the same orbit so that
it appears stationary from the earth . The
communication is done through uplink and
downlink from the earth’s stations. The
data transfer rate of uplink is lower than
that of downlink. Communication satellite
are used for telecommunication, radio,
television transmission, mobile
communication, GPS, etc.

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 Unguided Media
Infrared:
Infrared is the short-range wireless transmission media. It uses beams of light
through which files and other digital data of a computer are transferred to
another computer. It works only when both the computing devices are on the
line-of-sight.
There are two common types of infrared communications: line-of-sight
infrared communication, the beams of light travel in the straight line. This
type of transmission is used in the networking of two computers. In the
scattered infrared communication beams of light are sent out in multiple
directions that bounce off wall and ceilings until it eventually hits the receiver.
This type of communication is used in a home-entertainment remote-control,
cordless modem, fire sensors, etc.

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 Unguided Media

Infrared:

Advantages:
• Infrared transmission requires minimum power to operate
and can be set up at a low cost.
• This is a secure way to transfer data between devices as
the signal cannot pass beyond a room or chamber.
Disadvantages:
• Infrared can be used for a small range distance.
• Infrared signals are interpreted by objects and people.

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 Unguided Media
Bluetooth Technology:
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology
standard used for exchanging data between fixed
and mobile devices over short distances using
UHF(Ultra High Frequency) radio waves, from 2.402
GHz to 2.48 GHz, and building personal area
networks (PANs). It is mainly used as an alternative
to wire connections, to exchange files between
nearby portable devices and connect cell phones
and music players with wireless headphones. It is a
short range data transmission medium up to
10 meters (30 feet). The name of the technology
Bluetooth is given in the honor or King Harald
Bluetooth, the Danish king.

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 Unguided Media
Wi-Fi Technology:
Wi-Fi(Wireless Fidelity) is a wireless technology
commonly used for local area networking of devices
and Internet access, allowing nearby digital devices
to exchange data by radio waves. These are the most
widely used computer networks in the world, used
globally in home and small office networks to link
desktop and laptop computers, tablet computers,
smartphones, smart TVs, printers, and smart
speakers together and to a wireless router to
connect them to the Internet, and in wireless access
points in public places like coffee shops, hotels,
libraries and airports to provide the public Internet
access for mobile devices.

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Transmission Impairments Terminology:
In communication system, transmission impairments means the signals that are
transmitted at the beginning of the medium are not the same as the signals that
are received at the end of the medium that is what is sent is not what is received.
These impairments tend to deteriorate the quality of analog and digital signals.

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 Transmission Impairments Terminology:
Jitter:
It is the disturbance in the normal sequence of sending data packets. It is also
called fluctuation in delay as packets are being transferred across a network. The
jitter is measured in milliseconds(ms). Actually, it is the variation in the time
between data packets arriving which is caused by network congestion or route
changes. The longer data packets take to transmit, the more jitter affects audio
quality.

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 Transmission Impairments Terminology:
Echo:
Actually, echo is a sound that is repeated because the sound waves are reflected
back. So, in telecommunication, it is a sound that is a copy of another sound and
that is produced when sound waves bounce off a surface.

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 Transmission Impairments Terminology:
Crosstalk:
Crosstalk is a feature of copper cables only. It is a form of interference in which
signal in one cable induce electromagnetic interference(EMI) in an adjacent cable.
The twisting in twisted pair cabling reduces the amount of crosstalk.

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 Transmission Impairments Terminology:
Distortion:
Distortion is changes in the form or shape of the signal. In communications and
electronics it is the alteration of the waveform of an information bearing signal
such as an audio signal representing sound or a video signal representing images. It
is use to describe an interruption of transmitting signals that cause an unclear
reception It is more common in sound generation, video, display signals data
cables.

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 Transmission Impairments Terminology:
Noise:
Noise is random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal. It is the
disturbance that corrupts the quality of the signals. The noise causes signal loss or
connection poor or data loss.

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 Networking

A networking is any collection of independent computers that communicate with

one another over a shared network medium. A computer network is a group of
interconnected nodes or computing devices that exchange data and resources with
each other. A network connection between these devices can be established using
cable or wireless media. Once a connection is established, communication
protocols, such as TCP/IP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Hypertext Transfer
Protocol are used to exchange data between the networked devices.

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Networking

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 Networking
Advantages of Networking:
• It enhances communication and availability of information.
• It allows for more convenient resource sharing.
• It makes file sharing easier.
• It provides flexibility to the users to access the information or resources.
• It increases cost efficiency.
• It boosts storage capacity.
Disadvantages of Networking:
• It is expensive to build computer network.
• The connected systems on a network entirely depend on the main server.
• It poses security difficulties.
• It allows for more presence of computer viruses and malware.
• A technical person is required to handle and manage computer network.

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 Types of Computer Network

The computer network broadly categorized in to two categories:

1. On the basis of geographical area.
• LAN
• MAN
• WAN
2. On the basis of architecture.
• Client Server network architecture
• Peer-to-Peer network architecture

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 Types of Computer Network

1. On the basis of Geographical Area.

a) Local Area Network(LAN):
• LAN is small privately owned network that covers only few kilometers (up to
3KM).
• It offers the higher bandwidth for transferring data (100Mbps – 1000Mbps).
• It is least expensive type of network.
• It uses different type of transmission media such as twisted pair cable,
coaxial cable, or wireless.
• It is highly secured network and low error rate.
• Common LAN topologies are bus, ring, star, mesh, tree, and hybrid.
• The most common types of protocols are Ethernet or Token passing.

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 Types of Computer Network

1. On the basis of Geographical Area:

b) Metropolitan Area Network(MAN):
• MAN is complex and heterogeneous type or network and it may be either
public or privately own.
• The size of MAN is bigger than LAN and it covers maximum up to 100KM.
• It has lower data transfer rate than LAN (maximum up to 100Mbps).
• It is less secured network and higher error rate than LAN.
• It is more expensive than LAN.
• It uses different types of media such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, microwave
etc.
• It uses mesh and hybrid topologies.
• It can connect 100s of LAN and 1000s of individual computers.
• The most common MAN protocols are ATM, Frame Relay, X.25.

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 Types of Computer Network

1. On the basis of Geographical Area:

c) Wide Area Network(WAN):
• WAN is basically public network that covers millions of kilometers around the
world.
• It has low data transfer rate.
• It is less secured network and it has highest error rate.
• It is most expensive type of network.
• It uses various types of transmission media such as telephone line, optical
fiber, radio wave, microwave, satellite, etc.
• It uses numbers of different protocols such as TCP/IP, FTP, HTTP, ATM, etc.
• It can connect unlimited LANs and MANs.

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 Types of Computer Network

1. On the basis of Network Architecture:

a) Client Server Network Architecture:
In this architecture, there are two types of computers, one is server and the
other is client. Server is the main computer in a network that controls,
manages and provides various services to the clients such as print server, file
server, database server, web server etc. Server is a very high performance
computer and it is expensive too. A client is normal workstation that is
connected to server. A client requests for services to the server and the server
responses for the respective services.

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 Types of Computer Network

1. On the basis of Network Architecture:

a) Client Server Network Architecture:

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 Types of Computer Network
Client Server Network Architecture:
Advantages:
• It is easier for centralized administration, controlling and monitoring the
entire network from server.
• More secure since files and everything else is centralized on such networks.
• Client server networks are highly scalable. Whenever the user needs they
can increase the number of resources such as clients and servers.
• Since all the files are stored in the central server, it is rather easy to manage
files.
• The server is highly accessible since it can be accessed remotely from
multiple platforms.

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 Types of Computer Network

Client Server Network Architecture:

Disadvantages:
• Resource are centralized to the server, so if any problem occurs in the server
the entire network will down.
• It is more expensive since servers are costly to buy, set up and maintain.
• There may be maximum data traffic at server so there may be chances of
data collision.

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 Types of Computer Network

1. On the basis of Network Architecture:

b) Peer-to-Peer Network Architecture:
In this architecture, each workstation can have equal capabililities and
responsibilities in a network. There is no server, each workstation acts like
server as well as client. Message is transmitted from on e workstation to
another workstation in one to one basis by making peer. Network resources are
distributed throughout the network and each workstation has responsibility to
store, process and share data to others. It is suitable for small sized private
owned networks such as home, school, cyber cafe, etc.

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 Types of Computer Network

Peer-to-Peer Network Architecture:

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 Types of Computer Network

Peer-to-Peer Network Architecture:

Advantages:
• It has simple architecture and easy to install.
• The overall cost of building and maintaining a peer to peer network is
relatively inexpensive.
• Each node has equal privileges to access to the resources.
• Peer to Peer network is not dependent on a centralized system.
• It is suitable for small sized network which has maximum 10 nodes.

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 Types of Computer Network

Peer-to-Peer Network Architecture:

Disadvantages:
• It’s performance becomes poor for large size network(more than 10 nodes).
• There is no central server, thus files are stored on individual machines.
• There is no central administration and monitoring mechanism for the
network.
• Network security problems due to equal privileges of the node.

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 Some Basic Terms and Tools

IP Address:
An IP address represents a unique address that distinguishes any device on the
internet or any network from another. An IP address is the identifier that enables
your device to send or receive data packets across the internet. It holds
information related to your location and therefore making devices available for
two-way communication. The internet requires a process to distinguish between
different networks, routers, and websites. Therefore, IP addresses provide the
mechanism of doing so. Each number in the set can range from 0 to 255.
It defines IP address as a 32-bit number and it is known as IPV4(Internet Protocol
Version 4). However, due to enormous growth of the Internet a new addressing
system called IPV6 has been developed that uses 128 bits for the address.
Examples of IP address is: 192.168.1.1(for IPV4) and
2001:0:DB8:1234:0:5678:8:1(for IPV6)

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 Some Basic Terms and Tools

Subnet Mask:
A subnetwork or subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network. The practice of
dividing a network into two or more networks is called subnetting. A subnet mask is a
32-bit number created by setting host bits to all 0s and setting network bits to all 1s.
In this way, the subnet mask separates the IP address into the network and host
addresses.
It uses the same format as an IPV4 address. Each section of the subnet mask contains
a number from 0 to 255. There are five classes of subnet: Class A to Class E:
Class A: First Octet Value 0-127
Class B: First Octet Value 128-191
Class C: Frist Octet Value 192-223
Class D: First Octet Value 224-239
Class E: First Octet Value 240-255

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 Some Basic Terms and Tools

Gateway:
A gateway is a network node used in
telecommunications that connects two
networks with different transmission
protocols together. Gateways serve as an
entry and exit point for a network as all data
must pass through or communicate with the
gateway prior to being routed.

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 Some Basic Terms and Tools
MAC Address:
A MAC (Media Access Control) address, sometimes referred to as a hardware or
physical address, is a unique, 12-digit hexadecimal number that is used to identify
individual electronic devices on a network. The First 6 digits (say 00:40:96) of the
MAC Address identify the manufacturer, called the OUI (Organizational Unique
Identifier). IEEE Registration Authority Committee assigns these MAC prefixes to its
registered vendors. The rightmost six digits represent Network Interface Controller,
which is assigned by the manufacturer. It is a 48 or 64-bit address associated with a
network adapter.

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 Some Basic Terms and Tools
Internet:
Internet is a global computer network providing a variety of information and
communication facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using standardized
communication protocols. It is a global network of billions of computers and other
electronic devices. With the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information,
communicate with anyone else in the world, and do much more.
The internet consists of two major components; network protocols and hardware.
The protocols are the set of rules iin order to complete tasks such as TCP/IP. Without
protocols, machines do not able to communicate. The hardware devices are the
devices in which data can be transferred in the internet.
Internet works by using a packet routing network that follows Internet Protocol(IP)
and Transmission Control Protocol(TCP). TCP and IP work together to ensure that
data transmission across the internet is consistent and reliable.

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 Some Basic Terms and Tools
Intranet:
An intranet is a computer network for sharing information, easier
communication, collaboration tools, operational systems, and other computing
services within an organization. It is a private network used by an organization. The
primary purpose is to help employees securely communicate with each other, to
store information, and to help collaborate. It utilizes the tools and techniques of the
Internet to provide services limited to local network users. An Intranet is a
companywide network making it possible to share documents, databases, and
applications.

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 Network Connecting Devices

Network connecting devices are electronic devices which are required for
communication and interaction between devices on a computer network.
Specifically, they mediate data transmission in a computer network. Some of the
commonly used networking devices are, Hub, Switch, Repeater, Bridge, Router,
Gateway and MODEM, etc.

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 Network Connecting Devices
NIC:
A network interface card (NIC) is a
hardware component, typically a circuit board
or chip, which is installed on a computer so it
can connect to a network. It works on layer
two of OSI model. Each network interface card
is uniquely identified by a special number
called MAC address. Early network interface
controllers were commonly implemented on
expansion cards that plugged into a computer
bus and most newer computers have a
network interface built into the motherboard,
or is contained into a USB-connected dongle.

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 Network Connecting Devices
MODEM :
A MODEM (Modulator-Demodulator) is a
networking device that enables a computer to
transmit data, information and files through a
telephone line. A MODEM is used for converting
digital signal to analog signal and vice-versa. The
conversion of a digital signal into its analog form
is known as modulation and the reverse process
is called demodulation. The MODEM is classified
into two types: Internal and external modem.
The internal modem is placed in the slots of
computer system and the external modem is
placed outside computer system.

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 Network Connecting Devices
Switch:
Switch is also a multiport network connecting device which
helps to connect multiple computers to a server in a LAN. It is
generally used in star topology. A switch is nearly identical to
network hub. But hub works on half-duplex mode where as
the switch works on full-duplex mode. A switch is capable of
inspecting data packets as they are received and can
determine source and destination device of that packets. As
the network switch transmits the electric signals only to the
concerned computer on the network, it reduces the amount
of unnecessary network traffic and offers generally better
performance than hub. Therefore, its functionality is same as
bridge so switch is also known as multiport bridge. It works
on layer two of OSI model.

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 Network Connecting Devices
ROUTER:
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets
between computer networks having same protocols.
Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the
Internet. It is highly intelligent and protocol sensitive linking
device used to connect two different LANs or WANs.
Moreover it also helps for data filtering, routing the packets
and isolating the networks. A router keeps track of the
address of all the segments of a network and can even
determine the best path for sending data.

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 Network Topologies

Network topology is the physical layout of cabling for connecting computers on the
network. It can be defined as the arrangement or connection pattern of computers
on a LAN. A LAN topology describes how the computers are physically connected and
how do they communicate on the network. It determines the data paths that may be
used between any pair of nodes of the network. There are three basic network
topologies. They are Bus topology, Ring topology, and Star topology, Tree topology,
Mesh topology and Hybrid topology.

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 Network Topologies
Bus Topology:
Computers are connected to a single continuous cable is called 'bus'. It acts as
backbone. A bus must be terminated on both sides to prevent signal bounce and
computers are connected to the bus with the help of drop line and T-connector (tap).
A bus runs throughout the office to which all the computers are connected. Message
originating from a computer is transmitted in both direction on the bus. It is based
on client server network architecture.

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 Network Topologies
Bus Topology:
Advantages:
 It is simple and easy to setup and extend the network.
 Since nodes are arranged in the linear form, it requires the less amount of cables.
 The coaxial cables used for networking are inexpensive and joining connectors on the
cables is also easy.
 The position of server computer can be anywhere on the bus topology.
 Failure of any node does not affect other nodes on the network.
 It is more flexible because we can easily connect and disconnect any number of nodes
in the bus.
Disadvantages:
 Data traffic is very high in bus so there may be chances of data collision.
 The length of bus should be small otherwise the performance of the network goes
down.
 If there is problem in bus (main cable) then the entire network goes down.
 Finding fault on this topology is not easy.
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 Network Topologies

Ring Topology:
Computers are interconnected to each other by making
a closed circular structure that means each computer is
connected to other two adjacent computers in either
side. It is based on peer-to-peer network architecture.
Communication is done in single direction only. When
one computer receives the massage, then it compares
the destination address of the message and its own
address, if it matches then it accepts the message
otherwise the message is retransmitted to the next
computer in the network.

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 Network Topologies

Ring Topology:
Advantages:
 It is simple and inexpensive topology.
 There is less chance of data collision because the data transmission is
unidirectional.
 There is no server so each computer has equal access facilities to the resources.
 Its performance is better than bus topology for small size network.
Disadvantages:
 It is not flexible topology so it is difficult for adding and removing new nodes.
 It is not suitable for large size network (not more than 10 nodes).
 If there is problem in any computer or connection then the entire network goes
down.
 It is very difficult to find out the faults in the network, if occurred.

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 Network Topologies

Star Topology:
Star topology is the most popular topology to connect
computers and other network devices on the
network. In star topology all nodes are connected
through a centrally located device, called hub or
switch, in the form of star. But the shape of
arrangement of computers is not necessarily to be
star. A twisted pair cable (specially unshielded twisted
pair cable) is used for connecting a computer and a
hub or switch. It is based on client server
architecture. The communication is done through the
central hub or switch in the entire network. The hub
controls traffic on the network.

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 Network Topologies
Star Topology:
Advantages:
 It is simple, reliable and easy to setup and re-configuration.
 Computers can be added or removed easily without affecting the network.
 If any of the computer or connecting cable fails, it does not affect the entire network.
 Fault detection is very easy in star topology.
 It is easy to extend so it is suitable for a large network.
 It is one of the most reliable network topology.
Disadvantages:
 It requires more cables.
 It is expensive topology, as it requires more cabling and additional networking device.
 The entire network will go down if there is problem occurred on the hub or switch.
 The data traffic is high in central device hub so there may be chances of data collision.

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 Network Tool

Packet Tracer:
Packet Tracer is a cross-platform visual simulation tool designed by Cisco
Systems that allows users to create network topologies and imitate
modern computer networks. The software allows users to simulate the
configuration of Cisco routers and switches using a simulated command line
interface. Packet Tracer makes use of a drag and drop user interface, allowing users
to add and remove simulated network devices as they see fit.

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 Network Tool

Packet Tracer:

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 OSI Reference Model
OSI stands for Open System
Interconnection is a reference
model that describes how
information from a software
application in one computer
moves through a physical
medium to the software
application in another computer.
The OSI model, created in 1984
by ISO(International Standard
Organization). OSI consists of
seven layers, and each layer
performs a particular network
function.

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 OSI Reference Model
1. Physical Layer:
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in
the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer.

2. Data Link Layer(DLL):

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another,
over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the
DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.

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 OSI Reference Model

3. Network Layer:
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

4. Transport Layer:
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible
for the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error
is found.

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 OSI Reference Model

5. Session Layer:
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures security.

6. Presentation Layer:
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network. For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

7. Application Layer:
It allows application to access network services. It is completely user-oriented layer. Some
of its functions are file transfer, accessing remote file, database, e-mail, etc.

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 Internet Protocol Addressing

A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on

a network. The information exchanged between devices through a network or other
media is governed by rules and conventions that can be set out in communication
protocol specifications. It is necessary for all computers on a network to use the
same protocol in order to communicate. The protocol defines the rules, syntax,
semantics and synchronization of communication and possible error recovery
methods. Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a combination
of both. The common protocols used on the network are: TCP/IP, SMTP, FTP, HTTP,
POP, IPX/SPX, NetBEUI, TOKEN RING, ETHERNET, etc.

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 Internet Protocol Addressing

1. Transmission Control Protocol(TCP): TCP represents a transport layer protocol

that provides end-to-end reliable transmission of data. It includes functions such
as flow control, error control and exchange of status information. It is
connection oriented protocol.
2. Internet Protocol(IP): IP represents a network layer protocol. It determines
where packets are routed to, based on their destination address. The main job of
the Internet protocol is to get raw data and transmit it to the destination area. It
is connectionless protocol.
3. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP): It is an application layer protocol that
helps to transmit e-mail messages to the mail-server.
4. Post Office Protocol(POP): It is also an application layer protocol. POP is used to
receiving e-mail message from a email server to client computer.

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 Internet Protocol Addressing
5. File Transfer Protocol(FTP): FTP is one of the oldest application layer protocol
that helps to transfer files between two computer systems. It is client server
based protocol where an FTP client accesses an FTP server. An FTP client is
simple application that can be installed in our computer.
6. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol(HTTP): HTTP is most commonly used application
layer protocol for transmitting hyper text documents in the internet. It provides a
platform for data communication in WWW.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocols Secure(HTTPS): HTTPS is a combination of HTTP
protocol and some security protocols to provide secure and encrypted
communication between two networks. It is reliable and popular protocol for
transmitting hyper text.
8. TELNET: TELNET is remote login protocol for executing commands on a remote
host. It is based on client server mode and it uses TCP protocol for data
transmission. A client provides a TELNET request to the TELNET server.

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 Some Related Terms
1. Server: A server is a main computer or system that provides resources, data,
services, or programs to other computers, known as clients, over a
network(Client-Server Architecture). Generally, there are three categories of
server.
• File server: It is used to share storage space for file.
• Print server: It is used to handle printing works of all the workstation
connected in the network.
• Modem server: It is used to get connected to other network or simply to use a
telephone.
2. Client: In computing, a client is a piece of computer hardware or software that
accesses a service made available by a server as part of the client–server model
of computer networks. A client may be a PC or a workstation on a network.

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 Some Related Terms

3. Workstation: In client-server architecture, generally the clients are called

workstation. So, they run under the control of server and workstations are
always seeking to share the resources of the network and they always receive
services from the server.
4. Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the amount or volume of data that can be
transferred through communication channel form one point to another within a
network at a time. Bandwidth is the data transfer capacity of a network in bits
per second (bps).

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