Research Methodology & IPR

Lecture Review

Dr. Kalyan N
Assistant Professor
Dept. of CSE (Data Science)
B.M.S College of Engineering
Bengaluru - 560019.
[email protected]
Homepage
October, 2024.
Research Methodology & IPR

Contents

1 Research Methodology 3
1.1 Meaning of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Objectives of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Types of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Research Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Significance of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Research methods vs Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Research and scientific method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8 Research Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.9 Criteria of Good Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Define the Research Problem 22

2.1 What is research problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 Selecting the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Necessity of Defining the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Technique involved in Defining a Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Research Design 29
3.1 Meaning of Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Need for Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 Features of Good Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4 Important concepts Relating to Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5 Different Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5.1 Research Design in Exploratory Research Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5.2 Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5.3 Research Design in Hypothesis-Testing Research Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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Module - 1
Chapter - 1

1 Research Methodology
1.1 Meaning of Research
Introduction
Research, in common parlance, refers to the search for knowledge. It can be defined as a scientific and systematic
search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is often described as the art of scientific
investigation. The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English defines research as a careful investigation or
inquiry, especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. [1].
Redman and Mory [2] define research as a systematized effort to gain new knowledge. Some view research as
a movement from the known to the unknown: a voyage of discovery. Inquisitiveness, the mother of all knowledge,
drives this process. When confronted by the unknown, humans probe, leading to fuller understanding. The methods
used to obtain knowledge of the unknown are what we term as research.

Research as an Academic Activity

Research is an academic endeavor and should be understood in its technical sense. According to Clifford Woody,
research involves defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions, collecting, orga-
nizing, and evaluating data, and finally testing conclusions to determine whether they align with the formulated
hypothesis [4].
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson, in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, define research as the manipulation of
things, concepts, or symbols for the purpose of generalizing, extending, correcting, or verifying knowledge, whether
that knowledge aids in theory construction or in the practice of an art [3].

The Purpose of Research

Research contributes original insights to the existing body of knowledge, advancing its understanding. It is the pursuit
of truth through study, observation, comparison, and experimentation. In short, research involves finding solutions
to problems through an objective and systematic method. The systematic approach to generalization and theory
formulation is also considered research. Therefore, research refers to the methodical process of defining a problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting data, analyzing the facts, and arriving at conclusions—either as solutions to the
problem or as generalizations for theoretical formulation.

Motivation in Research
People undertake research for various reasons, including:

1. Desire to obtain a research degree and its benefits;

2. Interest in solving practical, unsolved problems;

3. Intellectual satisfaction from creative work;

4. Aspiration to serve society;
5. Desire for respect and recognition.

Other factors like government directives, employment conditions, curiosity, and social awareness may also motivate
individuals to engage in research.

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1.2 Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The
main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered yet. Though each
research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into the following broad
groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are
termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group (studies with this object
in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else
(studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).

1.3 Types of Research

The basic types of research are as follows:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical Research

Descriptive Research: Descriptive research involves surveys and fact-finding inquiries that aim to describe the
current state of affairs. This type of research is often employed in social sciences and business studies. The researcher
in this case does not have control over the variables, and they merely describe what is happening in the environment.
Ex post facto research, where the researcher studies the effect of an independent variable without manipulating it,
is an example of descriptive research.
Example: A survey to determine the average time people spend on social media platforms.
Pros:
• Provides a detailed description of a situation or phenomenon.
• Helps in understanding trends, frequencies, and patterns in a particular domain.
• Useful for generating hypotheses that can be further tested in future studies.

Cons:
• Does not establish cause-effect relationships.
• The researcher cannot manipulate variables, limiting the ability to explore deeper insights.

• Findings might be superficial if not analyzed properly.

Analytical Research: Analytical research, in contrast, involves using available information and data to make
a critical evaluation. This type of research requires the researcher to analyze, interpret, and evaluate data that
has already been gathered, often to form new understandings or conclusions. Unlike descriptive research, analytical
research allows for deeper investigation and offers conclusions based on logic and evidence.
Example: Analyzing historical economic data to evaluate the impact of financial crises on small businesses.
Pros:
• Enables critical thinking and problem-solving based on available information.
• Allows for deeper analysis and interpretation of existing data.

• Can be used to explore and validate theoretical models.

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Cons:
• Limited to the quality of data available for analysis.
• Time-consuming and requires expertise in analytical techniques.
• Findings may be biased based on how data is interpreted.

2. Applied vs. Fundamental Research

Applied Research: Applied research focuses on finding a solution for an immediate practical problem. It is often
conducted in business, engineering, and healthcare to address specific challenges faced by industries or communities.
The objective is to apply existing knowledge to solve real-world problems or improve processes. Applied research is
typically conducted in real-life settings and often aims to produce tangible results.
Example: Developing a new software tool to optimize supply chain management for a company.
Pros:
• Solves immediate, real-world problems, making it highly practical and beneficial.
• Contributes directly to industry or societal improvements.
• Often has a clear, actionable outcome.
Cons:
• Limited to specific problems, with less focus on broader theoretical knowledge.
• Solutions may not be generalizable across different settings.
• May be constrained by immediate needs, limiting exploratory or innovative approaches.
Fundamental Research: Also known as pure or basic research, fundamental research seeks to generate new
knowledge and theories without immediate practical applications. It is driven by curiosity and the desire to expand
scientific knowledge. Fundamental research focuses on advancing general understanding of phenomena and often
forms the foundation for future applied research.
Example: Investigating the principles of quantum computing to understand its theoretical possibilities.
Pros:
• Contributes to the development of new theories and knowledge.
• Provides a foundation for applied research.
• Promotes innovation and long-term advancements.
Cons:
• Often lacks immediate practical applications.
• Can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.
• May not produce tangible results in the short term.

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research: Quantitative research involves the measurement of quantity and typically includes statis-
tical analysis of numerical data. It is used when research needs to assess measurable outcomes and identify patterns.
This approach is widely employed in fields such as economics, psychology, and engineering.
Example: A study analyzing sales data to understand the effect of marketing campaigns on revenue.
Pros:
• Provides precise, measurable data that can be easily analyzed.
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• Enables the identification of trends, correlations, and patterns.

• Results can be generalized to a larger population if the sample is representative.
Cons:

• Limited in exploring complex, subjective phenomena such as emotions or motivations.

• May oversimplify social or behavioral variables that cannot be easily quantified.
• Requires a large sample size for statistical accuracy.
Qualitative Research: Qualitative research focuses on understanding phenomena through non-numerical data,
such as interviews, observations, and text analysis. It is widely used in behavioral sciences to explore complex human
behaviors, motivations, and experiences.
Example: Conducting in-depth interviews to understand the motivations behind consumer choices in the tech-
nology sector.
Pros:

• Provides in-depth insights into complex human experiences.

• Allows for a deeper understanding of social and cultural contexts.
• Flexible, as it can adapt to new findings as the research progresses.
Cons:

• Results are not easily generalizable to larger populations.

• Subject to researcher bias in interpretation.
• Data analysis can be time-consuming and difficult to standardize.

4. Conceptual vs. Empirical Research

Conceptual Research: Conceptual research is based on abstract ideas and theories. It is used by philosophers and
theorists to develop new concepts or reinterpret existing theories. The goal is to explore theoretical frameworks rather
than gathering empirical data. Conceptual research is valuable for exploring new ideas and pushing the boundaries
of current knowledge.
Example: Developing a new theory on the nature of consciousness in cognitive science.
Pros:
• Helps in the development of new theories and concepts.

• Encourages innovative thinking and theoretical advancements.

• Can lay the groundwork for future empirical research.
Cons:
• Lacks empirical data to support theoretical claims.

• Difficult to validate or refute without practical evidence.

• May remain abstract without practical application.
Empirical Research: Empirical research is data-driven and based on observations or experiments. Researchers
collect and analyze data to draw conclusions and test hypotheses. Empirical research is widely used in the natural
and social sciences to provide evidence-based insights.
Example: Conducting a clinical trial to test the effectiveness of a new drug.
Pros:

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• Provides evidence-based conclusions that can be verified.

• Can test and validate theories using real-world data.
• Offers practical and actionable insights.

Cons:
• Requires significant time and resources for data collection and analysis.
• Subject to biases in data collection and interpretation.
• Results may not always generalize to other settings.

5. Other Types of Research

One-Time vs. Longitudinal Research: One-time research studies are conducted over a single time period, while
longitudinal research involves multiple time periods to observe changes over time.
Example: One-time research might involve a survey on consumer preferences, while longitudinal research could
track consumer behavior over several years.
Pros:
• One-time research is quicker and more cost-effective.

• Longitudinal research provides insights into trends and changes over time.
Cons:
• One-time research may not capture changes or trends.
• Longitudinal research requires more time and resources.

Field-Setting vs. Laboratory Research: Field-setting research is conducted in natural environments, while
laboratory research is carried out in controlled, artificial settings.
Example: Field research could involve studying animal behavior in the wild, while laboratory research might
focus on testing chemical reactions in a controlled environment.
Pros:

• Field research provides real-world applicability.

• Laboratory research allows for greater control over variables.
Cons:
• Field research can be affected by uncontrolled variables, leading to less reliable data.

• Laboratory research may lack ecological validity, as findings might not translate to real-world scenarios.

Conclusion
Understanding the various types of research—descriptive vs. analytical, applied vs. fundamental, quantitative vs.
qualitative, conceptual vs. empirical, and the distinctions between one-time vs. longitudinal and field-setting vs.
laboratory research—is crucial for selecting the appropriate methodology for a specific study. Each research type has
its advantages and limitations, and the choice often depends on the research question, the objectives of the study,
and the available resources. Careful consideration of these factors can lead to more effective research designs and
more meaningful findings.

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1.4 Research Approaches

Introduction
The description of research types reveals two fundamental approaches: quantitative and qualitative research. Each
approach has its distinct characteristics, methods, and applications, making them suitable for different research
objectives.

Quantitative Approach
The quantitative approach involves generating data in numerical form, which can be subjected to rigorous statistical
analysis. This approach is particularly useful for testing hypotheses and establishing patterns. It can be further
categorized into three subtypes:

1. Inferential Research
Inferential research is designed to draw conclusions about a population based on the analysis of a representative
sample. This approach often involves statistical techniques that allow researchers to generalize findings beyond the
immediate data collected. By carefully selecting a sample that reflects the larger population, researchers can make
informed inferences about the broader group.
Example: A researcher studying the impact of a new educational program on student performance might conduct
a survey of 500 high school students from various schools within a district. By analyzing the survey results, the
researcher infers that the educational program could enhance the performance of all students in the district, not just
those surveyed. This type of research often employs techniques such as confidence intervals and hypothesis testing
to quantify the uncertainty of the inferences made.
Pros:
• Allows generalization to a larger population.
• Utilizes statistical methods to quantify uncertainty.
• Cost-effective as it involves a smaller sample size compared to studying the entire population.
Cons:
• Results may be biased if the sample is not representative.
• Requires careful design and statistical analysis, which can be complex.
• Potentially high margin of error if sample size is inadequate.

2. Experimental Research
Experimental research is characterized by the manipulation of one or more independent variables to determine
their effect on dependent variables. This method allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships by
controlling for extraneous variables. It typically involves a controlled environment where variables can be isolated.
Example: In a study to understand the effects of a new teaching method on student engagement, a researcher
might randomly assign students to two groups: one using the traditional teaching method and the other using the
new method. By measuring engagement levels through observations and questionnaires, the researcher can analyze
differences in engagement caused by the teaching methods. This level of control helps ensure that any observed
effects are likely due to the manipulation of the independent variable (teaching method).
Pros:
• Strong ability to infer causality due to controlled conditions.
• Facilitates replication and validation of findings.
• Can identify specific factors that influence outcomes.
Cons:
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• May lack ecological validity as controlled environments may not reflect real-world settings.
• Ethical considerations may limit certain types of experiments.
• High complexity in design and implementation, requiring careful planning.

3. Simulation Research
Simulation research involves creating a model of a real-world system to study its behavior under various conditions.
This approach allows researchers to examine complex systems and explore outcomes without the constraints of real-
world experimentation. Simulations can be particularly useful in scenarios where experimentation is impractical,
dangerous, or costly.
Example: A city planner may use simulation research to model traffic patterns in a newly designed urban area.
By inputting data on population density, road capacity, and travel behavior into the simulation, the planner can
observe how different traffic management strategies, such as traffic signals and road layouts, impact congestion and
travel times. This allows for the exploration of various scenarios before implementing changes in the real world.
Pros:
• Enables exploration of complex systems and scenarios that are difficult to study in reality.

• Allows for manipulation of variables to observe potential outcomes.

• Can provide insights into potential future conditions and behaviors.
Cons:
• Results are only as good as the model and assumptions used.

• May overlook real-world complexities and nuances.

• Requires significant expertise in modeling and simulation techniques.

Qualitative Approach
In contrast, the qualitative approach focuses on the subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.
This research method relies heavily on the insights and impressions of the researcher and is typically not subject to
rigorous quantitative analysis.

1. Techniques Used in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research employs various techniques to gather in-depth information on participants’ thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors. This research method focuses on understanding the meaning behind human experiences and is often
exploratory in nature.

2. Focus Group Interviews

Focus group interviews involve guided discussions with a small group of participants to gather their perceptions and
attitudes towards a particular topic. A moderator facilitates the discussion, encouraging participants to share their
opinions and build on each other’s responses.
Example: A company launching a new product might conduct focus group interviews with potential customers
to explore their thoughts on product features, pricing, and marketing strategies. This method provides valuable
insights into consumer preferences and helps the company refine its product offerings.

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3. Projective Techniques
Projective techniques are designed to elicit underlying emotions and thoughts by encouraging participants to project
their feelings onto ambiguous stimuli. These techniques can uncover deeper insights that may not be accessible
through direct questioning.
Example: A researcher interested in brand loyalty might use a word association test, where participants respond
to a series of words related to a brand. Analyzing their responses can reveal associations and feelings that influence
their loyalty to the brand, providing insights into customer motivations.

4. In-Depth Interviews
In-depth interviews involve one-on-one interactions between the researcher and the participant, allowing for a com-
prehensive exploration of the participant’s experiences and perspectives. These interviews are often semi-structured,
providing flexibility for follow-up questions based on the participant’s responses.
Example: A sociologist studying the experiences of immigrants might conduct in-depth interviews with indi-
viduals from different backgrounds. This approach enables the researcher to gain a nuanced understanding of the
challenges faced by immigrants, including cultural adaptation and social integration.
Pros:

• Provides rich, detailed insights into complex issues.

• Allows for exploration of participants’ perspectives in their own words.
• Flexible methods enable researchers to adapt questions based on responses.
Cons:

• Data analysis can be subjective and time-consuming.

• Findings may not be generalizable due to small sample sizes.
• Requires skilled researchers to facilitate discussions and interpret results.

1.5 Significance of Research

”All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry
leads to invention.” This quote by Hudson Maxim encapsulates the vital role of research in fostering progress and
innovation. Research promotes scientific and inductive thinking, facilitating the development of logical reasoning
and organizational skills.
The importance of research in applied economics—whether for business or the broader economy—has notably
increased in modern times. The complexities of business and government operations have heightened the need for
research to address various operational challenges. Specifically, research underpins economic policy formulation,
guiding government budgets based on public needs and available resources.
Through research, alternative policies can be devised and their potential consequences evaluated. While decision-
making is distinct from research, the latter significantly enhances policymakers’ capabilities. Research addresses issues
related to agriculture, industry, working conditions, trade union activities, and resource allocation. Furthermore,
governments employ research to collect essential information about the nation’s economic and social structure, which
is critical for understanding current dynamics and future changes. The three phases of research in government
include:

• Investigation: Continuous compilation of economic facts.

• Diagnosis: Analyzing events and underlying forces.
• Prognosis: Predicting future developments.
In the realm of business and industry, research is crucial for solving operational and planning challenges. Tech-
niques such as operations research, market research, and motivational research play a key role in decision-making.

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• Market Research: Investigates market structure and development to inform purchasing, production, and
sales policies.
• Operations Research: Applies mathematical and analytical methods to optimize business operations.
• Motivational Research: Explores consumer behavior to understand motivations behind market choices.

Research into demand and market factors enables firms to align supply with projected demand, making market
analysis integral to business strategy. Effective sales forecasting leads to efficient production and investment plan-
ning, replacing intuition with scientific decision-making. For social scientists, research is essential in studying social
relationships and addressing various societal issues. It serves both intellectual curiosity and practical application, con-
tributing to a deeper understanding of human interactions and providing guidance for resolving immediate problems.
The significance of research can also be understood from various perspectives:
• For Students: It represents a pathway to academic and professional advancement.
• For Professionals in Research Methodology: It serves as a source of livelihood.
• For Philosophers and Thinkers: It is an avenue for exploring new ideas.
• For Literary Figures: It facilitates the development of new styles and creative expressions.
• For Analysts and Intellectuals: It leads to the formulation of new theories.
In conclusion, research is a fountain of knowledge that not only enriches understanding for its own sake but also
provides essential guidelines for addressing diverse business, governmental, and social challenges. It represents a
formal training ground that enables individuals to stay abreast of developments in their respective fields.

1.6 Research methods vs Methodology

Research methods refer to the techniques used for conducting research. They encompass all the methods employed
by researchers to study their research problems. Research methods can be categorized into three main groups:
1. Data Collection Methods: These methods are essential for gathering information when existing data are
inadequate to address the research problem. Data collection methods can be further classified into:

• Surveys: Surveys involve the systematic collection of information from a sample of individuals, usually
through questionnaires or interviews. They are useful for obtaining quantitative data on opinions, behav-
iors, or characteristics of a population.
• Experiments: Experimental methods involve manipulating one or more variables to observe the effect
on another variable. This allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships and control for
extraneous variables.
• Observations: Observational methods entail directly watching and recording behaviors or events as they
occur in natural settings. This technique is particularly useful in social sciences and behavioral research
to gather qualitative data.
• Focus Groups: Focus group discussions involve a small group of individuals who provide feedback on
specific topics or products. This qualitative method allows for deeper insights into participants’ attitudes,
beliefs, and perceptions.
• Secondary Data Analysis: This method utilizes existing data collected by other researchers or organiza-
tions. It is cost-effective and time-saving but requires careful consideration of the data’s relevance and
validity.

2. Statistical Techniques: This group includes a variety of statistical methods used to analyze data and establish
relationships between known variables and unknown factors. Common statistical techniques include:

• Correlation Analysis: This technique measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two
variables. It helps researchers understand how changes in one variable may relate to changes in another.
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• Regression Analysis: Regression analysis is used to model the relationship between a dependent variable
and one or more independent variables. It allows researchers to predict outcomes and assess the impact
of different factors.
• ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): ANOVA is used to compare means across multiple groups to determine if
at least one group mean is significantly different from the others. This technique is useful in experimental
research.
• Chi-Square Tests: This statistical test assesses the association between categorical variables. It helps
determine whether observed frequencies differ from expected frequencies in a contingency table.
• Multivariate Analysis: This technique involves examining multiple variables simultaneously to understand
their effects on a particular outcome. Techniques such as factor analysis and cluster analysis fall under
this category.

3. Evaluation Methods: Evaluation methods are used to assess the accuracy and reliability of research findings.
These methods ensure that the results obtained are valid and can be generalized to a larger population. Key
evaluation methods include:

• Reliability Testing: This involves assessing the consistency of a measure or instrument over time. Common
reliability tests include test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability, and internal consistency.
• Validity Testing: Validity measures whether a research instrument accurately reflects the concept it is
intended to measure. Types of validity include content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct
validity.
• Triangulation: This method involves using multiple data sources, methods, or researchers to cross-check
findings. Triangulation enhances the credibility and reliability of research results by providing a compre-
hensive view.
• Peer Review: In this process, research findings are evaluated by other experts in the field before publi-
cation. Peer review helps identify potential biases, methodological flaws, and ensures the quality of the
research.
• Sensitivity Analysis: This technique examines how the variation in the output of a model can be attributed
to different variations in the input parameters. It helps researchers understand the robustness of their
results under varying conditions.

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Figure 1: Difference between methods and techniques of data collection

While research methods focus on the tools and techniques used in research operations, research methodology is the
systematic approach to solving research problems. It involves understanding the steps adopted by researchers in
studying their problems and the logic behind these steps. It is crucial for researchers to grasp both research methods
and methodology. They should not only know how to apply specific techniques (like calculating the mean or using
chi-square tests) but also understand the relevance and implications of these methods. Additionally, researchers
must be aware of the assumptions underlying various techniques and the criteria for selecting appropriate methods
for specific problems.
For instance, just as an architect evaluates the basis for their design decisions (like the size and placement of doors
and windows), a researcher must critically assess their research choices. This involves specifying the decisions made,
justifying why certain methods are used, and explaining the rationale for excluding others. In summary, research
methodology encompasses a broader scope than research methods. It includes the evaluation of the logic behind
chosen methods and the reasoning for their application. Questions typically addressed within research methodology
include:
• Why the research study was undertaken.
• How the research problem was defined.
• The formulation of hypotheses.
• The types of data collected.
• The chosen methods and techniques for data analysis.
Thus, research methodology is not just about methods but also about understanding and evaluating the decisions
made during the research process.

1.7 Research and scientific method

To grasp the concept of research, it is essential to understand the scientific method. Research can be defined as an
inquiry into the nature, reasons, and consequences of a particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances
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are controlled or observed naturally. The researcher seeks more than just specific results; they are interested in the
repeatability of results and their applicability to broader situations.

Scientific Method
The scientific method encompasses the philosophy that underpins various research methods and techniques, regard-
less of the scientific discipline. According to Karl Pearson, “The scientific method is the same across branches of
science, focusing on the logical reasoning of trained minds.” The core of the scientific method lies in its approach to
systematically interrelate facts through experimentation, observation, and logical reasoning.

Characteristics of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is based on several fundamental principles:

1. Empirical Evidence: Research relies on observable and measurable data. For instance, a study investigating
the effects of a new drug must gather data from clinical trials.
2. Relevant Concepts: It utilizes concepts that are pertinent to the research problem. In a study of consumer
behavior, relevant concepts may include purchasing habits and brand loyalty.
3. Objective Considerations: The scientific method prioritizes objectivity, ensuring that personal biases do not
influence results. A researcher studying climate change should base conclusions on data rather than personal
beliefs.
4. Ethical Neutrality: The method aims to make accurate statements about the population under study without
ethical biases. For example, public health research should focus on the data without any moral judgments about
behaviors.
5. Probabilistic Predictions: The results often lead to predictions that have a degree of uncertainty. For
instance, predicting the likelihood of a product’s success based on market research can involve probabilities.
6. Transparency in Methodology: The methodology used in research should be clear and accessible for
critical review. A researcher studying the impact of education on income should openly share their methods
for replicability.
7. Formulation of General Theories: The scientific method seeks to develop broad theories that explain
phenomena. For example, the theory of evolution explains a wide range of biological diversity.

Components of the Scientific Method

1. Experimentation: This involves testing hypotheses to discover relationships among variables. For example,
a study might test how varying levels of sunlight affect plant growth.
2. Survey Investigations: Surveys collect scientifically-gathered information that can inform conclusions. For
instance, a survey on consumer preferences can help companies tailor their marketing strategies.

Common Pitfalls in Research

While conducting research, conclusions drawn from experimental data may face criticism due to:

• Faulty Assumptions: Assumptions made without adequate evidence can lead to incorrect conclusions. For
example, assuming all participants in a drug trial have similar responses without considering individual differ-
ences.
• Poorly Designed Experiments: Lack of control variables can skew results. For example, not accounting for
temperature differences in a plant growth experiment may yield misleading results.
• Faulty Interpretations: Misinterpreting data can lead to incorrect conclusions. For instance, inferring
causation from correlation without sufficient evidence.
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Conclusion
The scientific method promotes a rigorous, systematic approach to research that minimizes bias and enhances the reli-
ability of findings. By adhering to logical reasoning and objective procedures, researchers can ascertain demonstrable
qualities of phenomena, ensuring that their investigations are both valid and replicable.

1.8 Research Process

Before delving into the specifics of research methodology and techniques, it is essential to provide a brief overview of
the research process. The research process encompasses a series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research, along with the desired sequencing of these steps. The research process consists of several closely related
activities, which are illustrated in Figure 2. This chart indicates that the research process comprises multiple steps,
denoted from I to VII. However, it is crucial to note that these activities often overlap continuously rather than
following a strictly prescribed sequence. While the steps may not necessarily follow a specific order, the following
sequence provides a useful procedural guideline for the research process:
1. Formulating the research problem.
2. Conducting an extensive literature survey.
3. Developing the hypothesis.
4. Preparing the research design.
5. Determining the sample design.
6. Collecting the data.
7. Executing the project.
8. Analyzing the data.
9. Testing the hypothesis.
10. Generalizing and interpreting the results.
11. Preparing the report or presenting the results (i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached).

Figure 2: Research Process in Flowchart

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1. Formulating the research problem

Research problems can be classified into two main types: those related to states of nature and those that concern
relationships between variables. The first step for a researcher is to identify the specific problem they wish to study,
which involves deciding on a general area of interest within a subject matter.
Initially, the problem may be expressed in broad terms, but it is essential to resolve any ambiguities associated
with it. The feasibility of potential solutions should also be considered before arriving at a working formulation of
the problem. Thus, the formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem constitutes the first step in
scientific inquiry, involving two key activities:

1. Understanding the problem thoroughly.

2. Rephrasing the problem into meaningful, analytical terms.

To understand the problem better, researchers should engage in discussions with colleagues or experts in the
field. In academic settings, seeking help from experienced mentors or guides can be particularly beneficial. For
instance, a research advisor may present a general problem, allowing the researcher to narrow it down and phrase
it operationally. In business or governmental organizations, the problem is usually designated by administrative
agencies, with whom researchers can discuss the problem’s origins and potential solutions.
Simultaneously, researchers should conduct a comprehensive literature review to familiarize themselves with the
selected problem. This review includes examining conceptual literature (theories and concepts) and empirical litera-
ture (previous studies related to the proposed research). The outcome of this review enables researchers to ascertain
what data and resources are available for operational purposes, allowing for a more specific and meaningful research
problem formulation. Once the researcher has developed a solid understanding of the problem, they can rephrase it
into analytical or operational terms. This task is of utmost importance, as a clearly defined research problem aids
in distinguishing relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the
background facts concerning the problem.
For example, if a researcher wishes to study the impact of remote work on employee productivity, they might initially
state the problem as: ”What is the effect of remote work on productivity?” Through discussions and literature review,
this can be refined to: ”How does remote work influence productivity levels among software engineers in the tech
industry during the COVID-19 pandemic?” This refined statement specifies the variables, target population, and
context, making it more manageable and researchable.
The formulation of the research problem is crucial because it determines the data to be collected, the characteristics
of the relevant data, the relationships to be explored, the techniques to be employed in these explorations, and the
structure of the final report. Therefore, formulating a research problem often follows a sequential pattern where
successive formulations are more specific, analytical, and realistic concerning the available data and resources.

2. Extensive literature survey

Once the research problem has been formulated, it is essential to write a brief summary of the problem. For
researchers pursuing a Ph.D., submitting a synopsis of the topic to the appropriate Committee or Research Board
for approval is a mandatory step. At this point, the researcher should undertake an extensive literature survey related
to the problem. This involves utilizing various resources, such as abstracting and indexing journals, published and
unpublished bibliographies, academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, and relevant books. The
choice of sources should be guided by the nature of the research problem.
It is important to remember that one source often leads to another. Researchers should meticulously examine earlier
studies similar to the current investigation, as these can provide valuable insights and context. A well-equipped
library can be an invaluable resource during this stage of the research process, aiding in the collection of pertinent
information and fostering a comprehensive understanding of the existing body of knowledge surrounding the research
problem.

3. Development of Working Hypothesis

After conducting an extensive literature survey, the researcher should clearly state the working hypothesis or hypothe-
ses. A working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made to explore and test its logical or empirical consequences.
The development of working hypotheses is crucial as they serve as the focal point for research, influencing data

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analysis methods and the quality of required data.

A well-defined hypothesis should be specific and tailored to the research at hand, guiding the researcher by narrowing
the research area and maintaining focus on key aspects of the problem. It also indicates the type of data needed and
the methods for analysis. To develop working hypotheses, researchers can follow these steps:

1. Discuss the problem with colleagues and experts to understand its origin and objectives.
2. Examine available data and records for trends and clues related to the problem.
3. Review similar studies in the field or related areas.
4. Conduct exploratory personal investigations, including field interviews, to gain insights from interested parties.

Working hypotheses typically emerge from careful consideration of the subject matter, analysis of available data, and
consultations with experts. While there may be instances, such as exploratory research, where working hypotheses
are not necessary, specifying them is generally a fundamental step in most research processes.

4. Preparing the Research Design

Once the research problem is clearly formulated, the researcher must prepare a research design, which serves as the
conceptual structure for conducting the study. A well-prepared design facilitates efficient research, yielding maximal
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time, and money. The effectiveness of the research design largely
depends on the research purpose, which can be categorized into four types: (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii)
Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.

For exploratory studies, a flexible research design is ideal, while a design minimizing bias and maximizing reliability is
suitable for descriptive studies. Research designs may be experimental or non-experimental, including informal (e.g.,
before-and-after without control) and formal designs (e.g., completely randomized, randomized block, or factorial
designs). When preparing a research design, the researcher should consider the following factors:

1. The means of obtaining information.

2. The availability and skills of the researcher and any staff.
3. The organization and rationale behind the chosen methods of data collection.
4. The time available for research.
5. The financial resources allocated for the research.

5. Determining sample design

In any field of inquiry, all items of interest constitute a ’universe’ or ’population.’ A complete enumeration of this
population is known as a census inquiry, which aims for the highest accuracy by including all items. However, this
is often impractical due to the time, money, and effort required. For example, blood testing is typically conducted
on a sample basis rather than a full census.

Thus, researchers often select a subset, or sample, from the population, guided by a predetermined sample design.
Sample designs can be classified into two categories: probability samples, where each element has a known chance
of selection, and non-probability samples, where this probability is unknown.

Types of Sample Designs

1. Deliberate Sampling: Selection based on specific criteria.
Example: Choosing expert opinions on a new technology.
2. Simple Random Sampling: Every member has an equal chance of being selected.
Example: Randomly selecting 100 names from a list of 1,000 students.
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3. Systematic Sampling: Selection at regular intervals.

Example: Choosing every 10th person from a list.
4. Stratified Sampling: Population is divided into strata, and samples are taken from each.
Example: Sampling from different age groups within a population.

5. Quota Sampling: Selection until a predetermined quota is reached.

Example: Surveying 50 males and 50 females in a study.
6. Cluster Sampling: Dividing the population into clusters and randomly selecting some clusters.
Example: Randomly selecting schools within a district and surveying all students in those schools.

7. Multi-Stage Sampling: Combining several sampling methods.

Example: First selecting clusters, then performing random sampling within those clusters.
8. Sequential Sampling: Data is collected in sequences until a decision is made.
Example: Continuously sampling until sufficient evidence is gathered to confirm a hypothesis.

6. Collecting Data
In addressing real-life problems, researchers often find that existing data are inadequate, necessitating the collection
of appropriate data. Various methods are available for data collection, each differing in terms of cost, time, and
resources.
Primary data can be gathered either through experiments or surveys. In experiments, quantitative measurements
are taken to test hypotheses. In surveys, data collection can occur via several methods:

1. Observation: Information is collected based on the researcher’s own observations without interacting with
respondents. This method captures current behaviors but is costly and limited in scope.
Example: A researcher observes shopping patterns in a supermarket without engaging customers.

2. Personal Interview: Data is collected through structured, in-person interviews, where a set of predetermined
questions is asked. The quality of information depends significantly on the interviewer’s skills.
Example: Conducting face-to-face interviews with customers about their satisfaction with a product.
3. Telephone Interviews: Respondents are contacted by phone for data collection. While not as commonly
used, this method is efficient for time-sensitive industrial surveys.
Example: A company conducts a quick survey of employees’ opinions on new workplace policies over the phone.
4. Mailing Questionnaires: Researchers send questionnaires to respondents who complete and return them.
This method is prevalent in economic and business surveys. A pilot study is typically conducted beforehand
to refine the questionnaire.
Example: A researcher sends out a questionnaire to local businesses regarding their service usage, requesting
feedback by mail.
5. Schedules: Enumerators are trained and provided with structured schedules to collect data from respondents.
The success of this method largely relies on the enumerators’ capabilities.
Example: Enumerators visit households with a set of questions about demographic information and community
needs, filling in responses directly.

7. Execution of the Project

The execution of a research project is crucial for ensuring that the collected data are adequate and reliable. Re-
searchers should follow a systematic approach and adhere to timelines. If structured questionnaires are used, coding
questions and possible answers facilitates machine processing.

When data collection involves interviewers, proper selection and training are essential. Training materials should
clearly outline the interviewers’ responsibilities, and regular field checks should ensure adherence to protocols. Re-
searchers must remain vigilant for unanticipated factors to maintain the realism of the survey, keeping it under

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statistical control to meet predefined accuracy standards. In cases of non-cooperation from respondents, strategies
to address non-response should be implemented. One effective approach is to create a list of non-respondents, select
a sub-sample, and engage experts to encourage participation.
Example: If certain participants in a customer satisfaction survey do not respond, researchers might contact a subset
of those non-respondents to better understand their concerns and encourage their feedback.

8. Analysis of Data
Once data collection is complete, the researcher proceeds to analyze the data through a series of related operations:
establishing categories, coding, tabulation, and drawing statistical inferences.

First, raw data should be classified into manageable categories. This involves coding, where data categories are
transformed into symbols suitable for tabulation and counting. Editing improves data quality prior to coding. Fol-
lowing coding, the data is tabulated, often using computers to handle large datasets efficiently, which allows for
simultaneous analysis of multiple variables. Analysis after tabulation typically involves computing percentages and
applying statistical formulas to test relationships or differences relevant to hypotheses. For example, if two samples
of weekly wages from factories in different city areas yield different mean values, statistical tests can determine if
the difference is significant or due to chance. If the statistical test indicates a significant difference, we conclude
the samples originate from different populations. Conversely, if the difference is attributed to random variation, the
samples may belong to the same population.

Additionally, the technique of analysis of variance (ANOVA) can be employed to examine if three or more seed
varieties yield significantly different results, aiding in understanding agricultural outcomes.
Example: In a study comparing the average heights of plants grown from three different seed types, ANOVA can
determine if any observed height differences are statistically significant.

9. Hypothesis Testing
After analyzing the data, the researcher can test previously formulated hypotheses to determine if the facts support
or contradict them. Various statistical tests, such as the Chi-square test, t-test, and F-test, are employed based on
the nature of the research inquiry. The outcome of hypothesis testing will either result in acceptance or rejection
of the hypothesis. If no initial hypothesis were established, generalizations can be formulated based on the data for
future testing.
Example: In a study examining the impact of a new teaching method on student performance, a t-test can be used to
compare test scores before and after the implementation to determine if the method had a significant effect.

10. Generalizations and Interpretation

When hypotheses are consistently supported, researchers can arrive at generalizations, contributing to theoretical
frameworks. The essence of research lies in deriving generalizations, while findings without prior hypotheses may
require interpretation based on existing theories, often leading to new questions and further research.
Example: If repeated studies show that increased study time correlates with higher exam scores, a generalization can
be made about the importance of study habits in academic success.

11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis

The final step involves preparing a detailed report of the research, structured as follows:

1. Report Layout: The layout of the report should be structured as follows:

(a) Preliminary Pages: The report should include the title, date, acknowledgements, and foreword. Fol-
lowing this, there should be a table of contents, along with lists of tables and graphs or charts included
in the report.
(b) Main Text: The main body of the report should consist of the following parts:

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i. Introduction: This section must present a clear statement of the research objective and an explanation
of the methodology used to achieve the research goals. Additionally, the scope of the study and its
limitations should be articulated.
ii. Summary of Findings: Following the introduction, a summary of findings and recommendations
should be provided in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be succinctly
summarized.
iii. Main Report: The main body should be presented in a logical sequence and divided into clearly
identifiable sections.
iv. Conclusion: At the end of the main text, the researcher should concisely reiterate the results of the
research, effectively summarizing the findings.
(c) End Matter: At the conclusion of the report, appendices should be included for all technical data.
A bibliography listing consulted books, journals, and reports should be provided, along with an index,
especially in a published research report.
2. Writing Style: The report should be written in a concise and objective style, using simple language and
avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems,” “there may be,” etc.
3. Use of Illustrations: Charts and illustrations in the main report should only be used if they enhance the
clarity and impact of the information presented.

4. Confidence Limits: Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be included, and any constraints encountered during
the research operations should also be stated.
Example: A research report on the effects of a new diet may include sections detailing the methodology used for data
collection, a summary of key findings related to weight loss, and a conclusion reiterating the effectiveness of the diet
based on statistical evidence.

1.9 Criteria of Good Research

Regardless of the types of research works and studies, all must adhere to the scientific method. Scientific research
should satisfy the following criteria:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined, and common concepts must be used.

2. The research procedure should be described in sufficient detail to enable another researcher to repeat the study,
maintaining continuity with previous findings.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as
possible.
4. The researcher must report any flaws in the procedural design with complete transparency and estimate their
effects on the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently comprehensive to reveal its significance, and the methods of analysis
used must be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be thoroughly checked.
6. Conclusions should be restricted to those justified by the research data and limited to those for which the data
provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research,
and possesses integrity.

In summary, the qualities of good research can be outlined as follows:

1. Good research is systematic: Research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence
according to a well-defined set of rules. This characteristic does not exclude creative thinking but does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in drawing conclusions.

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2. Good research is logical: Research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning. The logical processes of
induction (reasoning from part to whole) and deduction (reasoning from a premise to a conclusion) are valuable
in conducting research. Logical reasoning enhances the meaningfulness of research in decision-making contexts.
3. Good research is empirical: Research is fundamentally related to one or more aspects of a real situation
and involves concrete data that provides a basis for the external validity of research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the
study, thereby establishing a sound basis for decisions.

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Module - 1
Chapter - 2

2 Define the Research Problem

In the research process, the initial and most crucial step is selecting and clearly defining a research problem. A
researcher must identify the problem and articulate it in a way that makes it amenable to investigation. Similar to a
medical doctor, a researcher needs to examine all the relevant symptoms—either observed or reported—related to the
issue at hand before making an accurate diagnosis. To define a problem effectively, a researcher should understand
what constitutes a problem.

2.1 What is research problem

A research problem typically refers to a challenge faced by a researcher in either a theoretical or practical context,
for which a solution is sought. The existence of a research problem can be confirmed if the following conditions are
met:

1. There is an individual, group, or organization (I ) to whom the problem can be attributed, existing within an
environment (N ) defined by uncontrolled variables (Yj ).
2. At least two courses of action (C1 and C2 ) must be available, each defined by one or more controlled variables.
For example, the quantity of items purchased at a specific time represents one course of action.
3. There must be at least two potential outcomes (O1 and O2 ), with one being preferable to the other, establishing
an objective for the researcher.

4. The courses of action must provide varying chances of achieving the objective, ensuring that they do not have
equal efficiencies for the desired outcomes. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

P (O1|I, C1, N ) ̸= P (O2|I, C2, N )

Furthermore, an individual or organization possesses a research problem only if they are uncertain about the best
course of action. Thus, a research problem encompasses the following components:

1. An individual or group facing a difficulty.

2. Specific objectives to achieve; without desires, there cannot be a problem.
3. Alternative means (courses of action) to reach the objectives, requiring at least two options.
4. Doubt about the selection of alternatives, necessitating research to determine their relative efficiencies.

5. A relevant environment affecting the difficulty.

In essence, a research problem demands that a researcher identify the optimal course of action to achieve a given
objective within a specific environment. Various factors may complicate this problem, such as changes in the envi-
ronment, a large number of alternatives, and reactions from uninvolved parties.

The restaurant has received numerous complaints about slow service during peak hours.

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Key Components of the Research Problem

1. Individual or Group: Restaurant management team.
2. Objectives: Improve customer satisfaction ratings by reducing wait times.

3. Alternative Courses of Action:

a. C1: Hire additional staff during peak hours.
b. C2: Implement a new table management system.
4. Outcomes:

a. O1: Increased customer satisfaction.

b. O2: Decreased complaints regarding wait times.
5. Doubt about Selection: The management is uncertain whether hiring more staff or implementing a table
management system will yield better results in terms of customer satisfaction.

6. Relevant Environment: The local market conditions, such as staffing availability and competition from
other restaurants, may affect the outcomes of the chosen course of action.

A research problem arises when an individual or group is uncertain about the best course of action to achieve desired
outcomes. This uncertainty indicates a need for research to identify the most effective solution. The components of
a research problem include:
1. Individual or Group: There must be an individual or group experiencing a difficulty.

2. Objectives: There should be specific objectives to achieve; without goals, there is no problem.
3. Alternative Courses of Action: At least two options must exist to pursue the objectives.
4. Doubt about Alternatives: The researcher must have uncertainty regarding the best option, necessitating
an analysis of their relative effectiveness.

5. Relevant Environment: The problem should relate to specific environmental factors influencing the out-
comes.
Research problems can become complex due to changing environments, numerous alternatives, and external influences
on decision-making. Identifying these elements is crucial for effective research.

2.2 Selecting the problem

Selecting a research problem is crucial and often challenging. While a research guide can assist in choosing a subject,
the problem must originate from the researcher. It is akin to a plant growing from its own seed; the researcher must
engage actively in the process.

Guidelines for Selecting a Research Problem

To select an effective research problem, researchers should consider the following:

1. Avoid Overdone Subjects: Choose topics that haven’t been extensively studied. For instance, researching
the effects of social media on youth should focus on a specific demographic rather than a general study.
2. Steer Clear of Controversial Topics: Avoid issues that could lead to heated debates without clear conclu-
sions, such as the impact of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) on health.
3. Select Problems of Appropriate Scope: Avoid topics that are either too narrow (e.g., the effect of a single
brand of coffee on sleep) or too vague (e.g., studying happiness).

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4. Choose Familiar and Feasible Subjects: The researcher should select a topic that they are familiar with
and that has accessible research materials. For example, a researcher familiar with urban development may
explore affordable housing strategies in their city.
5. Consider Practicality: Researchers should assess:

• Their qualifications to carry out the research.

• The budget required for the study.
• The availability of cooperation from subjects involved in the research.
6. Conduct a Preliminary Study: Before finalizing a problem, conduct a feasibility study, especially for new
fields. For example, if researching renewable energy sources in a specific region, understanding existing studies
and technologies is essential.

When a research problem is chosen thoughtfully, it transforms from a chore into an engaging endeavor. The
researcher should remain passionate and dedicated to their study.

2.3 Necessity of Defining the problem

The adage ”a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved” emphasizes the critical role of defining a research
problem. A well-defined problem allows researchers to differentiate relevant data from irrelevant data, enabling a
focused investigation.

Consequences of Poor Definition

An ill-defined problem can lead to confusion and obstacles, making it difficult to address fundamental questions such
as:
• What data should be collected?
• Which characteristics of the data are relevant?

• What relationships should be explored?

• What methodologies are appropriate?

Examples
• Well-Defined Problem: ”What is the impact of social media usage on the academic performance of high
school students in urban areas?”
• Poorly Defined Problem: ”How does social media affect students?” (Too vague; lacks specificity in demo-
graphics and outcomes.)

Defining a research problem is essential for creating a research design and successfully executing the study. In many
cases, formulating the problem is more critical than finding a solution.

2.4 Technique involved in Defining a Problem

Defining a research problem involves establishing clear boundaries within which the research will be conducted. This
is crucial to avoid confusion and to enable focused investigation.

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Steps in Defining a Research Problem

The following steps should be systematically followed to define a research problem:

(i) Statement of the Problem: Begin with a broad statement reflecting practical or scientific interest. Conduct
preliminary surveys to gather insights.
(ii) Understanding the Nature of the Problem: Discuss the problem’s origin with stakeholders or experts.
Consider environmental factors influencing the problem.
(iii) Surveying Available Literature: Review existing literature to understand relevant theories, previous stud-
ies, and data availability. This helps narrow the focus of the research.
(iv) Developing Ideas Through Discussions: Engage in discussions with colleagues and experienced individuals.
Such conversations can spark new ideas and refine the research focus.

(v) Rephrasing the Research Problem: Once the problem is well understood and discussed, rephrase it into
a specific and operationally viable proposition. This helps in formulating hypotheses for investigation.

Additional Considerations
In addition to the steps above, researchers should ensure their problem definition is clear and comprehensive to
facilitate effective research execution.
1. Definition of Technical Terms: Technical terms and phrases used in the problem statement should be
clearly defined to avoid ambiguity.

2. Basic Assumptions: Any basic assumptions or postulates related to the research problem should be explicitly
stated.
3. Value of the Investigation: A straightforward statement of the value of the investigation, including criteria
for problem selection, should be provided.

4. Suitability of Time-Period and Data Sources: The researcher must consider the appropriateness of the
time period and the sources of data available for the study.
5. Scope of the Investigation: The scope of the investigation, or the limits within which the problem will be
studied, must be explicitly mentioned.

Example
To better understand the technique of defining a research problem, consider the following example:
The broad initial research question is:
“Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India?”
At this stage, the question presents several ambiguities, such as:
• What type of productivity is being referred to?

• Which specific industries are involved?

• What time period is being considered for this productivity comparison?
Due to these ambiguities, the original statement is too general to allow for effective analysis.
Through rethinking and discussion, the question can be narrowed down to:

“What factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Japan’s manufacturing industries
during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing industries?”

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This refined version of the problem addresses the ambiguities present in the original question and offers a clearer
focus for the research.
Further rephrasing may lead to an even more operationally defined question:
“To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan exceed that of India in respect of
15 selected manufacturing industries? What factors were responsible for the productivity differentials
between the two countries by industries?”
In this formulation, key terms such as ’labour productivity’ and ’productivity differentials’ must be clearly defined.
The researcher also needs to ensure that necessary data is available. If data for one or more of the selected industries
is unavailable for the specified time period, those industries will need to be substituted with others. Additionally,
the suitability of the chosen time period must be verified.
In conclusion, all relevant factors must be carefully considered by the researcher before finalizing the definition
of the research problem.

Problems
1. How can machine learning algorithms be optimized for real-time video processing
in autonomous vehicles?
• (i) Statement of the Problem: This statement reflects practical interest as it addresses the optimization
of machine learning in a high-stakes field—autonomous vehicles. Preliminary surveys can gather insights on
current algorithm limitations.

• (ii) Understanding the Nature of the Problem: Engaging with stakeholders, such as automotive engineers
and machine learning experts, can help identify specific challenges faced in real-time video processing.
• (iii) Surveying Available Literature: Reviewing existing literature on machine learning techniques used
in autonomous driving can reveal gaps in performance and highlight potential optimization strategies.

• (iv) Developing Ideas Through Discussions: Discussions with colleagues can lead to ideas on hardware
integration or alternative data processing methods that enhance algorithm efficiency.
• (v) Rephrasing the Research Problem: The problem can be rephrased for clarity: ”What specific opti-
mizations in machine learning algorithms can improve real-time video analysis for autonomous vehicles, and
how do these optimizations affect performance metrics such as latency and accuracy?”

2. What are the effects of network congestion on the performance of blockchain-based

systems?
• (i) Statement of the Problem: This statement addresses a scientific interest in blockchain technology and
its performance under specific conditions. Preliminary surveys can identify common network issues.
• (ii) Understanding the Nature of the Problem: Discussions with blockchain developers can shed light
on how network congestion impacts transaction processing and consensus mechanisms.
• (iii) Surveying Available Literature: A review of previous studies on blockchain performance under dif-
ferent network conditions can provide a theoretical foundation for this research.
• (iv) Developing Ideas Through Discussions: Engaging with experts can inspire innovative approaches
for testing the effects of congestion on various blockchain protocols.

• (v) Rephrasing the Research Problem: A refined version of the statement could be: ”To what extent does
network congestion degrade transaction throughput and latency in blockchain systems, and what mitigating
strategies can be implemented?”

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3. How can quantum computing improve the efficiency of large-scale optimization

problems in logistics?
• (i) Statement of the Problem: This statement identifies a clear practical interest in applying quantum
computing to logistics, a critical industry. Preliminary surveys can help define optimization challenges faced
by logistics companies.
• (ii) Understanding the Nature of the Problem: Engaging with logistics managers and quantum comput-
ing experts can provide insights into specific optimization problems that quantum techniques could address.
• (iii) Surveying Available Literature: Reviewing literature on quantum algorithms for optimization and
their potential applications in logistics will inform the research direction and available methodologies.
• (iv) Developing Ideas Through Discussions: Collaborating with colleagues can lead to ideas for experi-
ments or case studies to test quantum algorithms against classical methods.
• (v) Rephrasing the Research Problem: A more precise problem statement could be: ”What specific
quantum algorithms can be developed to enhance the efficiency of solving large-scale optimization problems in
logistics, and how do these algorithms compare to classical approaches?”

Bad Research Problem Statements

1. Why are computers slow?
• (i) Statement of the Problem: This statement is too broad and lacks focus. It does not clearly reflect a
specific practical or scientific interest.
• (ii) Understanding the Nature of the Problem: The problem’s origin is unclear, as it does not engage
stakeholders or experts to identify the factors contributing to slowness.

• (iii) Surveying Available Literature: A review of literature is missing, making it difficult to understand
existing theories or data that could inform the research.
• (iv) Developing Ideas Through Discussions: The statement lacks input from discussions with experts
that could clarify the specific causes of slowness.
• (v) Rephrasing the Research Problem: A better statement would be: ”What are the primary factors
causing performance degradation in multi-core processors during computationally intensive tasks?”

2. How can we make software better?

• (i) Statement of the Problem: This statement is vague and lacks a defined focus on what aspects of software
quality are being addressed.
• (ii) Understanding the Nature of the Problem: The origins of the problem are not discussed, nor are
the relevant stakeholders identified.
• (iii) Surveying Available Literature: There is no indication of reviewing existing literature on software
improvement methodologies or frameworks.

• (iv) Developing Ideas Through Discussions: The lack of discussions with software developers or users
prevents the refinement of the research focus.
• (v) Rephrasing the Research Problem: A refined statement could be: ”What design patterns can be
employed to improve the maintainability and scalability of large-scale enterprise applications?”

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3. Is artificial intelligence good?

• (i) Statement of the Problem: This statement is overly simplistic and subjective, lacking a clear focus on
what aspect of AI is being examined.

• (ii) Understanding the Nature of the Problem: The problem’s origin is not discussed, and there are no
stakeholders engaged to explore the implications of AI.
• (iii) Surveying Available Literature: A literature review is absent, preventing an understanding of the
ethical, social, or practical implications of AI deployment.

• (iv) Developing Ideas Through Discussions: Without discussions with experts, the statement does not
reflect a well-rounded understanding of the complexities of AI.
• (v) Rephrasing the Research Problem: A more focused statement would be: ”What are the ethical impli-
cations of deploying AI in healthcare decision-making, and how do these implications affect patient outcomes?”

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Module - 1
Chapter - 3

3 Research Design
3.1 Meaning of Research Design
The task of defining a research problem is followed by the preparation of the research design, which encompasses
decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, and by what means concerning an inquiry. A research design is the
arrangement of conditions for data collection and analysis, aiming to combine relevance to the research purpose with
procedural economy. It serves as a conceptual structure or blueprint for the entire research process, from hypothesis
formulation to final data analysis.
Key design decisions include:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analyzed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
Research design can be split into:
• Sampling Design: Method of selecting items for observation.
• Observational Design: Conditions under which observations are made.
• Statistical Design: Number of items to be observed and data analysis methods.
• Operational Design: Techniques for executing sampling, statistical, and observational designs.
Important features of a research design include:
• A plan specifying the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem.
• A strategy for gathering and analyzing data.
• Consideration of time and cost budgets, as studies often occur under these constraints.
In summary, a research design must contain:
• A clear statement of the research problem.
• Procedures and techniques for gathering information.
• The population to be studied.
• Methods for processing and analyzing data.
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3.2 Need for Research Design

Research design is essential as it streamlines various research operations, maximizing information yield while mini-
mizing effort, time, and cost. Just as a well-prepared blueprint is crucial for constructing an attractive and economical
house, a research design is necessary for planning data collection and analysis methods, aligned with research objec-
tives and resource availability.
Careful preparation of the research design is vital, as errors can undermine the entire project. A well-structured design
directly impacts the reliability of research results, forming the foundation of the study. However, the significance of
a sound research design is often overlooked, leading to studies that fail to achieve their intended purpose or yield
misleading conclusions.
Without a thoughtful design, research efforts can become futile. Therefore, it is imperative to create an efficient and
appropriate design before commencing research operations. A well-defined design enables researchers to organize their
ideas, identify flaws, and invite critical evaluation from others, facilitating comprehensive reviews of the proposed
study.

3.3 Features of Good Design

A good research design is often described as flexible, appropriate, efficient, and economical. It minimizes bias
while maximizing the reliability of the collected data, and the design yielding the smallest experimental error is
often deemed the best. An effective design maximizes information and allows consideration of various aspects of a
problem. Thus, the appropriateness of a design is closely tied to the research problem’s objectives and nature; a
design suitable for one study may not be adequate for another.
Factors influencing the appropriateness of a research design include:
• Means of obtaining information
• Availability and skills of the researcher and staff
• Objectives of the problem under study
• Nature of the problem
• Availability of time and budget for the research
For exploratory studies emphasizing idea discovery, flexibility in design is crucial. In contrast, descriptive studies
prioritize accuracy, requiring designs that minimize bias and maximize reliability. Hypothesis-testing studies neces-
sitate designs that enable causal inferences while also reducing bias. However, classifying a study into a specific
category can be challenging, as many studies contain elements of multiple types. Ultimately, the primary function
of a study determines its classification as exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing, guiding the choice of an ap-
propriate research design. Factors such as time, budget, researcher skills, and information-gathering methods must
be considered when developing detailed aspects of the research design, including experimental, survey, and sample
designs.

3.4 Important concepts Relating to Research Design

Before discussing various research designs, it’s important to clarify key concepts related to designs for better under-
standing.
1. Dependent and Independent Variables: A variable can take different quantitative values; examples include
weight, height, and income. Variables can be:
• Continuous Variables: Can take any value (e.g., age).
• Discrete Variables: Only integer values (e.g., number of children).
Example: Height is dependent on age (independent variable), while both age and sex can influence height.
2. Extraneous Variables: Independent variables unrelated to the study’s purpose that may affect the dependent
variable. Example: In studying the relationship between children’s self-concept (independent variable) and
social studies achievement (dependent variable), intelligence could be an extraneous variable.
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3. Control: A good research design minimizes the effects of extraneous variables, ensuring that changes in the
dependent variable are attributed to the independent variable.
4. Confounded Relationship: Occurs when the dependent variable is influenced by extraneous variables, mak-
ing the relationship unclear.

5. Research Hypothesis: A predictive statement relating an independent variable to a dependent variable that
can be tested scientifically. Example: ”Increased study hours (independent variable) improve exam scores
(dependent variable).”
6. Hypothesis-Testing Research: Can be experimental (manipulation of independent variables) or non-experimental
(no manipulation). Example:
• Non-Experimental : A researcher measures the correlation between intelligence and reading ability without
manipulation.
• Experimental : A researcher divides students into two groups to test the effectiveness of two training
programs.

7. Experimental and Control Groups:

• Control Group: Exposed to normal conditions (e.g., Group A in a standard study program).
• Experimental Group: Exposed to new conditions (e.g., Group B in a special study program).
8. Treatments: Different conditions applied to groups. Example: In testing fertilizers, the different fertilizers
represent treatments.
9. Experiment: Examining the validity of a statistical hypothesis related to a research problem.
• Types:
– Absolute Experiment: Testing one variable (e.g., effect of a single fertilizer).
– Comparative Experiment: Comparing multiple variables (e.g., different fertilizers).
10. Experimental Units: Defined plots or blocks for applying different treatments, requiring careful selection.

3.5 Different Research Design

Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as: (1) research design in case of
exploratory research studies; (2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and (3)
research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies. We take up each category separately.

3.5.1 Research Design in Exploratory Research Studies

Exploratory research studies, also known as formulative research studies, aim to formulate a problem for further
investigation and develop working hypotheses. These studies emphasize discovering ideas and insights, necessitating
a flexible research design that can adapt as the research problem is refined. Three primary methods are commonly
used in exploratory research design:

1. Survey of Literature: This method involves reviewing existing studies to formulate precise research problems
or develop hypotheses. Researchers evaluate previous hypotheses and their relevance, which can lead to new
insights. Example: A researcher studying social media influence may review prior studies to derive hypotheses
about user behavior.
2. Experience Survey: This involves interviewing individuals with practical experience related to the research
problem. The aim is to gain insights into relationships between variables and gather new ideas. Example: A
researcher on healthcare innovations may interview doctors and patients to understand their perspectives on
telemedicine’s effectiveness.

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3. Analysis of Insight-Stimulating Examples: This method entails an intensive study of specific instances
relevant to the phenomenon of interest, particularly useful when there is limited prior research. This may include
examining records or conducting unstructured interviews. Example: A researcher exploring consumer behavior
might analyze case studies of successful marketing campaigns to extract insights and develop hypotheses.
These methods collectively enhance the researcher’s ability to define problems more concisely and formulate relevant
hypotheses.

3.5.2 Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies

Descriptive research studies aim to describe characteristics of individuals or groups, while diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency of occurrences or associations between variables. Both types share common requirements
and can be grouped together in terms of research design. The research design in descriptive and diagnostic studies
must be rigid and focus on several key aspects:

1. Formulating Objectives: Clearly define what the study aims to achieve.

2. Designing Data Collection Methods: Select appropriate techniques for gathering data (e.g., observation,
questionnaires).
3. Selecting the Sample: Determine the amount of material needed and design the sample to yield accurate
information efficiently.
4. Collecting Data: Ensure data is collected from reliable sources within a specified time frame.
5. Processing and Analyzing Data: Include steps like coding responses, tabulating data, and performing
statistical computations.
6. Reporting Findings: Communicate results effectively, ensuring a well-structured layout for the report.

In these studies, structured instruments are often employed to minimize bias and maximize reliability. Pre-testing of
data collection instruments is advisable to ensure clarity and effectiveness. Probability sampling is commonly used to
obtain representative samples. Data collection should be closely supervised to maintain accuracy and reliability. The
analysis involves coding data, tabulating results, and performing statistical tests to draw valid conclusions. Finally,
the research findings should be presented in a clear and efficient manner.
The design for descriptive and diagnostic studies can be viewed as a survey design, encompassing all steps involved
in studying a phenomenon while minimizing bias and maximizing the reliability of the evidence collected.

Figure 3: Difference between research designs: Exploratory of Formulative and Descriptive/Diagnostic

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3.5.3 Research Design in Hypothesis-Testing Research Studies

Hypothesis-testing research studies, commonly known as experimental studies, focus on testing causal relationships
between variables. These studies require procedures to reduce bias, increase reliability, and enable causal inferences,
typically achieved through experimental designs. The concept of experimental design is closely associated with Pro-
fessor R.A. Fisher, who pioneered these methods while working at the Rothamsted Experimental Station in England.
He discovered that dividing agricultural fields into blocks and conducting experiments within those blocks yielded
more reliable data and inferences. This foundational work laid the groundwork for the use of experimental designs
in various scientific disciplines.

Despite their agricultural origins, experimental designs are widely applicable across many fields, often retaining
terminology from agriculture, such as treatment, yield, plot, and block.

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References
[1] John. Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. Wiley, 1952.
[2] Ralph Redman and Harvey Mory. Research Methodology: An Introduction. Wiley, 1961.
[3] D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson. Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences. Wiley, 1930.
[4] Clifford Woody. “Research in Education”. In: Journal of Educational Psychology (1927).

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