Ø<ß2 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses

Ø=ÜÚ 3.1 Concept of an Ecosystem

• Ecosystem
: A geographical and climatic-based region, recognizable by its landscape (forest, grassland,
desert, wetland, coastal area). It is categorized by:

• Abiotic Component
: Non-living elements such as geographical features (hills, plains), climatic factors (sunlight,
rainfall), and soil characteristics.

• Biotic Component
: Living entities including a community of plants and animals adapted to the conditions
provided by the abiotic factors.

• Major Ecosystems
:

• Terrestrial (land-based) Ecosystems

• Aquatic Ecosystems (water-based)

• Biosphere
: The thin layer where life exists, divided into biogeographical realms.

• Biogeographical Realms
:

• Eurasia
: Palaearctic realm

• South & Southeast Asia

: Oriental realm

• North America
: Nearctic realm

• South America
: Neotropical realm

• Africa
: Ethiopian realm

• Australia
: Australian realm

• National/State Level
:
 • Biogeographic regions such as the Himalayas, Gangetic Plains, Deccan Plateau, Coastal
Belts, etc.

• Local Level
: Specific ecosystems identifiable, e.g., forests, mangrove swamps, river catchments.

• Ecosystem Definition
: The combined living (plants and animals) and non-living (soil, air, water) components of the
environment.

• Robust vs. Fragile Ecosystems

:

• Robust
: Less affected by human disturbances.

• Fragile
: Easily degraded by human activities (e.g., mountain, island ecosystems, evergreen
forests, coral reefs).

Ø=ÜÖ 3.1.1 Understanding Ecosystems

• Natural Ecosystems
: Examples include forests, grasslands, deserts, ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea.

• Man-modified Ecosystems
: Include agricultural and urban/industrial land use.

• Key Features to Observe

:

• Appearance
: Describing features of the ecosystems based on field observations.

• Structure
: Differentiating between forests, water bodies, areas with vegetation.

• Plant and Animal Composition

: Listing common, uncommon, rare species and abundance.

• Functioning
: Understanding biogeochemical cycles, interaction between abiotic and biotic components,
food chains, and energy flow.

Ø=Ü€ 3.1.2 Ecosystem Degradation

• Human Disruption
: Leads to species extinction, especially affecting keystone species.
 • Causes
: Deforestation, land-use changes, pollution.

• Resource Exploitation
: Unsustainable usage due to overpopulation and consumerism, leading to ecosystem
degradation.

Ø<ß 3.1.3 Resource Utilization

• Traditional Societies
: Utilized resources sustainably.

• Modern Times
: Increased inequality and unsustainable resource extraction.

• Need for Equitable Distribution

: To reduce pressure on natural ecosystems.

Ø<ßÞþ 3.2 Structure and Functions of an Ecosystem

Structural Aspects:

1. Inorganic Components
: Elements like Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Carbon Dioxide (CO ‚), and Water (H ‚O).

2. Organic Compounds
: Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids.

3. Climatic Regimes
: Temperature, Moisture, Light, Topography.

4. Producers
: Plants.

5. Macro Consumers
: Large animals (Phagotrophs).

6. Micro Consumers
: Fungi, absorbers (Saprotrophs).

Functional Aspects:

1. Energy Cycles
.

2. Food Chains
.

3. Diversity-Interlinkages
between organisms.
 4. Nutrient Cycles
(Biogeochemical cycles).

5. Evolution
.

Ø<ß1 3.3 Producers, Consumers and Decomposers

• Producers
: Plants that manufacture food using solar energy.

• Primary Consumers (Herbivores)

: Animals feeding on producers (e.g., deer, insects).

• Carnivores (Secondary Consumers)

: Predators feeding on herbivores.

• Decomposers/Detrivores
: Organisms (worms, bacteria, fungi) breaking down dead material, recycling nutrients.

Ø=Ý 3.4 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem

Biogeochemical Cycles:

1. Water Cycle
: Rainwater percolates, is absorbed by plants, transpired, forms clouds, and precipitates again.

2. Carbon Cycle
: Plants absorb CO ‚, used in photosynthesis, release oxygen; herbivores and carnivores return
carbon to soil.

3. Oxygen Cycle
: Interconnected with carbon cycle; plants release oxygen, animals use it for respiration.

4. Nitrogen Cycle
: Soil bacteria fix nitrogen, plants absorb it, transferred to herbivores and further to carnivores.

5. Energy Cycle
: Sunlight energy converted by plants, transferred through food chains, decomposers recycle
nutrients.

Energy Pyramid:

• A hierarchical structure showing energy distribution from producers (plants) to herbivores

(primary consumers) to carnivores (secondary consumers).

Ø<ß? 3.5 Ecological Succession

• Process of Change
: Ecosystems change over time through stages (pioneer, seral, climax).
 • Seasonal and Long-term Changes
: Fluctuations depending on environmental conditions, e.g., forest clearing leading to grassland,
shrubland, woodland, and forest.

Ø<ß 3.6 Food Chains, Food Webs, and Ecological Pyramids

• Food Chain
: Transfer of energy from plants to animals.

• Food Web
: Interconnected food chains forming a complex network.

• Ecological Pyramid
: Trophic levels depicting energy flow from producers to various levels of consumers.

Ø<ß; 3.7 Introduction, Types, Characteristic Features, Structure, and Funct

Types of Ecosystems:

• Terrestrial Ecosystems
:

• Forest

• Grassland

• Semi-arid areas

• Deserts

• Mountains

• Islands

• Aquatic Ecosystems
:

• Pond

• Lake

• Wetland

• River

• Delta

• Marine

Key Issues to Understand:

 1. Nature of the Ecosystem
: Structure and function.

2. Usage
: Who uses it and for what purpose.

3. Degradation
: How ecosystems are degraded.

4. Conservation
: Protecting and conserving the ecosystem.

Ecosystem Goods and Services:

Direct Values:

• Consumptive Use Value

: Non-market value.

• Productive Use Value

: Commercial value.

Indirect Values:

• Non-consumptive Use Value

: Scientific, recreational.

• Option Value
: Future economic benefits.

• Existence Value
: Ethical and emotional significance.

Terrestrial Ecosystems:

• Found in natural states (forests, grasslands), or modified (agriculture, urban areas).

• Natural Utilization
: Carefully used for sustainable resource extraction, forestry roles in climate control, water
regulation.

• Resource Exploitation
: Lead to degradation if exploited unrestrainedly.

Forest Ecosystem:

• Components
:
 • Abiotic
: Non-living elements (climate, soil).

• Biotic
: Living community (plants, animals).

• Types of Forests
:

• Coniferous Forests
: Cones, needle-like leaves (e.g., Himalayan region).

• Broadleaved Forests
: Various subtypes (evergreen, deciduous, thorn, and mangrove).

Forest Utilization:

• Products
: Food, medicine, fuelwood, timber, fibers.

• Forest Services
: Climate control, water flow regulation, soil erosion prevention.

Threats to Forest Ecosystems:

• Overexploitation
: Beyond regenerative capacity.

• Habitat Changes
: Affect sensitive species, reduced biodiversity.

Forest Types in India:

• Himalayan Coniferous
: Pine, Deodar; Wild goats, sheep.

• Evergreen Forests (North-East, Western Ghats, Andamans)

: Rich in species; Tiger, Rhino.

• Deciduous
: Teak, Sal; Varied fauna.

• Thorn/Scrub (Semiarid)
: Babul, Ber; Blackbuck, Chinkara.

• Mangrove
: Avicennia; Adapted species.

Forest Products:
 • Direct
: Fruits, medicinal plants, small timber, bamboo.

• Indirect
: Industrial raw materials, paper, chemicals.

Forest Services:

• Water Flow Control

: Surface runoff reduction, groundwater storage.

• Erosion Prevention
: Protecting soil.

• Temperature Regulation
: Cooler, moist environments.

• Carbon Sequestration
: Absorbing CO ‚, releasing oxygen.

Example Tables:

Forest Type Plant Examples Common Animal Examples Rare Animal Examples

Himalayan Coniferous Pine, Deodar Wild goats, sheep Snow leopard, Hangul

Evergreen (North-East) Jamun, Ficus Tiger, Leopard Pigmy Hog, Rhino

Deciduous Teak, Sal Chital, Blackbuck, Birds Bustard, Florican

Thorn/Scrub Babul, Neem Blackbuck, Chinkara Wolf, Monitor Lizard

Mangrove Avicenia Crocodile, Shorebirds Water Monitor Lizard

Forest Utilization:

• Individual Usage
: Fuelwood, food, fodder.

• Aggregate Usage
:

• Urban/Town: Construction material, medicines.

• Rural: Agricultural support (ash for fertilization).

• Threats
:

• Over-harvesting
: Exceeding replenishment rate.
 • Habitat Disturbance
: Impacts sensitive fauna.

Note
: Detailed content is essential for academic understanding and examination preparation, enabling
comprehensive knowledge on ecosystems, their structure, function, and significance.