Hydraulics II 2020

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

WHAT IS OPEN CHANNEL?

Open channel:- It may be defined as a passage in which liquid flows with its upper surface
exposed to the atmosphere. e.g.:- curvets, spillways, and similar human made structures
Differences b/n the flow in pipes & open channel flow
Open channel flow
 Is exposed to atmospheric pressure. Pipe Flow
 The cross-sectional area of the flow is  Is closed channel
variable. (that depends on many  The top surface is covered by solid
parameters of the flow) boundary
 The force causing motion is gravity.  It is not exposed to atmospheric
Pressure.

EL Hf

Y1 HGL V 2
EL
2g
HGL
Y1
Y2
Y2

Z2 Z1
Z2

Fig 1(a) Pipe flow

Where HGL - Hydraulic grade line (coincide with water surface)
EGL - Energy grade line
Hf - head loss due to friction
V2/2g - velocity head

Types of channels
 Natural channels: These channels naturally exist without the influence of human beings.
E.g. Rivers, streams, tidal estuaries, aqueducts.

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 Artificial channels: Such channels are formed by man’s activity for various
purposes. E.g. irrigation channel, navigation channel, sewerage channel, culverts, power
canal…… etc.
 Prismatic channel: - channels with constant shape and slope.
 Non-prismatic channels: - channels with varying shape and slope.
 Open channel:-A channel without any cover at the top.
 Closed channel:-The channel having a cover at the top.

ACTIVITY1.1
What is open channel?
What are the different types of channel? Give example in each case.

1.1 Types of flow in open channel

The flow in a channel classified in to the following type, depending on the change in the
depth of flow with respect to space and time.
a) Steady flow & Unsteady flow
b) Uniform flow &Non uniform flow
c) Steady uniform flow &Un steady uniform flow
d) . Unsteady uniform flow
Time as criteria
Steady flow & Unsteady flow
When the flow characteristic (such as depth of flow, flow velocity and the flow rate at any cross
section) do not change with respect to time, the flow in a channel is to be steady.

V p y
0 ,  0 and 0
Mathematically, t t t
The flow is said to be un steady flow when the flow parameter vary with time.

V p y
0 0 0
Mathematically, t , t and t

Space as a criterion
Uniform flow & Non uniform flow

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Flow in a channel is said to be uniform if the depth, slope, cross-section and velocity remain
constant over a given length of the channel.

V y
0 0
Mathematically, s , and s
Flow in channel is said to be non- uniform (varied)when the channel depth varies continuously
from one section to another.

V y
0 0
Mathematically, s , and s
Time and space as a criteria
Steady uniform flow: - The depth of flow does not change during time interval and space under
consideration.
Unsteady uniform flow: - This is a flow in which the depth is varying time but not with space.
Unsteady non uniform flow: - Is the flow in which the depth is varying with space and time.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Explain briefly the following:
1. Steady and Un steady flow
2. Uniform and non uniform flow
3. State the condition under which uniform and non uniform flows are produced.

1.2 Geometric elements of open channel section

Geometric elements are properties of a channel section that can be defined entirely by the geometry
of the section and the depth of flow. The most used geometric properties include:

1. Depth of flow(y): it the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel to the free
surface.
2. Top width (T): it is the width of channel section at free surface.
3. Stage (h): is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum.
4. Wetted perimeter (p): it is the length of the channel boundary which is in contact with
water.
5. Wetted area (A): is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction of flow.
6. Hydraulic radius(hydraulic mean depth)(R) : it is the ratio of wetted area to its wetted
perimeter

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A
R=
P

7. Hydraulic depth(D): the ratio of wetted area to the top width,

A
D=
T
8. Section factor (Z): is the product of the wetted area and the two-third power of the hydraulic
radius
1
A A 3
 2 2
Z=A D =A =   =A R 3
T T 

9. Conveyance (K) :
2 1
1 3 2
Q=VA………………………….V= R S
n
2 1
1 3 2
Q=A R S
n
2 1
1 2
=A R 3 S
n
1
=K S 2 S= bed slope
2
1
K= A R 3 n= Mannings constant
n
= CA R c= Chezy’s constant

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X
Hf (Z)

Sw

Y0

S0 Wsinө
0
W
L

Fig. 1.2

Where S0- bed slope of channel

Sw- Water surface slope
S- Slope of EGL
W – Weight of water
0 – Shear force
L- Length of channel
Uniform flow is the result of exact balance between the gravity and friction force

Wsin =  o .P.L…………………………….(1)

A L sin =  o .P.L

But sin  = hf/L = S, solving for  o ,

A
 o = .S  R.S ………………………………… (2)
P
Where - unit weight of the water
The shear stress is assumed proportional to the square of the mean velocity,
or o= kV2…………………………………..……..(3)
Therefore, kv2=RS

V2= RS ,
k

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
Let  C 2 -constant (b/c &k- are constant)
k

V  C RS . ……………………………………………….... (4)
This is the Chezy –formula
C= chezy coefficient (chezy’s resistance factor)
V= Average velocity of flow

Manning Formula
1 2 3 12
V= R S 0 ………………………………………………(5)
n

 The best as well as most widely used formula for uniformly for uniform flow.
n- is the roughness coefficient.

A relation between the Chezy’s C and Manning’s n may be obtained by comparing eqn (4) & (5)
1

R6
C …………………………………………..(6)
n

 The value of n ranges from 0.009 (for smooth straight surfaces) to 0.22 (for very
dense flood plain forests).
What is hydraulic efficiency channel (most economical channel) means?
 A channel section is said to be efficient (economical) if it gives the maximum discharge
for the given shape, area and roughness.

1.3 Most economical channel section

Most economical rectangular channel section
Let B and Y be the base width and depth of flow respectively

A=BY………………………….(i)
P=B+2Y……………………….(ii)
From eqn. (i), B=A/Y
Substituting in (ii) P=A/Y+2Y………….(iii)
For maximum Q, P- is minimum.

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dp d
0 ( A / Y  2Y )  0
dY dY

A 20
Y
 A  2Y 2  B * Y
So, B=2Y (or Y=B/2)
Thus the rectangular channel is most efficient and economical when the depth of water is one half
of the width of the channel and the discharge flow will be maximum.
EXAMPLE -1
1 .A rectangular channel is to be dug in the rocky portion of a soil. Find its most economical
cross-section if its to convey 12 m3/s of water with an average velocity of 3 m/s. Take chezy
constant C=50
Given
Q=12 m3/s
V=3 m/s
C=50
Solution
The geometric relations for optimum discharge through a rectangular channel are

Then
When B,Y and R are base width, depth of flow and hydraulic radius respectively
Now
From this equation solve for depth of flow

Therefore base width of flow

Hydraulic radius,
Also chezy formula

Hence

Most economical trapezoidal channel section

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But for most economic section

EXAMPLE-2
An irrigation channel of trapezoidal section has side slope, m=2 and carries a discharge of 15m3/s
on a longitudinal slope of 1 in 5000. The channel is to be lined for which the value of friction
coefficient in Manning’s formula is n=0.012. Find the dimension of the most economic section of
the channel.
GIVEN
Side slope m=2
Discharge Q=15m3/s
Longitudinal slope S=1:5000
Manning´s coefficient n=0.012
SOLUTION

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ACTIVITY1.3
What do you mean by most economical section of an open channel? How is it determined?
What are the conditions for the rectangular channel of best section?
Show that the hydraulic mean depth of a trapezoidal

1.4 Specific energy

What is specific energy?

 Specific energy is the energy per unit weight of flowing liquid above the channel bottom.
For any cross section, shape, the specific energy ( E) at a particular section is defined as the
energy head to the channel bed as datum. Thus,
V2
E  Y  ……………………………………………..(1)
2g
( - is kinetic energy correction factor 1)

EGL

ET1

ET2
Z1
Datum
Z2

Fig 1.3 Specific Energy at a particular section

For a rectangular channel, the value of flow per unit width is Q/B=q, and average velocity

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qB q
V Q  
A BY Y
Therefore eqn (1) becomes:
2
q y 

E  y   y  q …………………………………… (2)
2

2g 2 gy 2

q2
( E  y )Y 
2
(For the case of constant q)………………………… (3)
2g

A plot of E Vs Y is a hyperbola like with asymptotes (E-Y) =0 i.e. E=Y and y=0. Such a curve is
known as specific energy diagram.

Y2

Sub critical
section

Yc
Super critical
Y1
Ec E0
E
Specific Energy diagram

For a particular q, we see there are two possible values of Y for a given value of E. These are
known as Alternative depths (for e.g. Y1 & Y2 on fig. above)

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 The two alternative depths represent two totally different flow regimes slow & deep on
the upper limp of the curve (sub critical flow) & fast and shallow on the lower limb of the
curve.(super critical flow)
What is critical depth?
 Depth of flow at which specific energy is minimum is called critical depth.
The velocity of flow at critical depth is known as critical velocity.
For example, a relation for critical depth in a wide rectangular channel can be found by
differentiation E of eqn.2 with respect to Y to find the value of Y for which E is a minimum.

dE q2
 1  3 …………………………………………….. (4)
dY gy

And when E is a minimum Y=Yc and dE  0 , so that

dy

q2
0  1  q 2  gyc ………………………………. (5)
3
3
gYc

Substituting q= vy = VC*Yc, gives

Vc  gyc
2

q
 Vc  gyc  ……………………………………….. (6)
yc
It may be expressed as:

1
Vc 2  q2  3
yc     ……………………………………….. (7)
g  g 

2
V y
From eqn (7) c  c , hence,
2g 2
2
Vc
E c  E min  y c   y c  1 y c  3 y c ……………… (8)
2g 2 2

And yc  2 Emin ……………………………………………………………..(9)

3

From eqn. (7): q max 

3
gyc ……………………………………….………….(10)

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For non rectangular cross section the specific energy eqn.

Q2
E  y …………………………………………………….. (11)
2gA2
[V=Q/A]
To find the critical depth,

dE Q 2 dA
 1 3 ………………………………………………….. (12)
dy gA dy
From fig 1.3 (b) dA = dy*T (at Yc, T= Tc)
Therefore the above equation becomes:

2
Qmax Tc
3
 1 …………………………………………………………….. (13)
gAc
The critical depth must satisfy this equation
3
gAc
From eqn. (13) Q  2
and substitute in eqn. (11) then
Tc

Ac
Ec  y c  …………………………………………………………..(14)
2Tc

Q 2T
eqn.(13) can be solved by trial & error for irregular section by plotting f ( y )  and
gA3
critical depth occurs for the value of y which makes f(y)=1
What are sub critical, critical, and super critical flow?
 Sub critical flow:-when the depth of flow in a channel is greater than the critical
depth(Yc) in this case Fr <1
 Critical flow is one in which specific energy is minimum. A few corresponding to critical
depth also known as critical flow.
 Super critical flow:-when the depth of flow in a channel is less than critical depth (Yc) in
this case Fr>1.
If specific energy curve for Q- constant is redraw alongside a second curve of depth against
discharge for constant E, will show the variation of discharge with depth.

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yc

q qmax
For a given constant discharge fig
i) The specific energy curve has a minimum value Ec at point C with a corresponding
depth Yc known as critical depth.
ii) For any other value of E there are two possible depth of flow known as alternative
depth one of which is termed sub critical (y>Yc) and the other supercritical (Y<Yc).
a) For a given constant specific energy ( fig.1.5(b))
i) the depth discharge curve shows that discharge is a maximum at the critical
depth
ii) For all other discharges there are two possible depth of flow ( sub- & super
critical) for any particular value of E,
From eqn. (13) above if we substitute
Q= AV (continuity equation), we get

Q 2T
1
gA3

A 2V 2T V 2T
1 1
gA3 gA
but A/T = D ( Hydraulic depth), then [ D=Y for rectangular section)

V2
 1  V  gy ……………………………(*)
gy
V
 1  Froude number at critical state.
gy

V
F ……………………………………….(**)
gy

Thus, i) F= 1critical flow

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ii) F< 1 sub critical flow Type equation here.

iii) F>1 Super critical
ACTIVITY1.4
What is specific energy and specific energy curve?
What do you understand by critical depth of an open channel when the flow in it is not uniform?

Examples
1. For constant specific energy of , calculate the maximum discharge that may occur in
a rectangular channel 5m width.
Given

Solution
For constant specific energy discharge is maximum

2. Most efficient rectangular channel, which is laid on a bottom slope of 0.0064, is to carry
20m3/s of water. Determine the width of the channel when the flow is in critical condition. Take
n=0.015.
Given

Solution

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1.5 Hydraulic jump

What is hydraulic jump?
 A flow phenomenon which occurs when supercritical flow has its velocity reduced to sub
critical. There is sudden rise in water level at the point where hydraulic jump occurs
e.g (Rapidly varied flow).

Y2
V2
V1
Y1
Lj

Hydraulic jump on horizontal bed following over a spillway

Where; V1-velocity before jump
V2 –velocity after jump
Y1 –water depth before jump
Y2 –water depth after jump
Lj –length of jump
Purposes of hydraulic jump:-
i) To increase the water level on the d/s of the hydraulic structures
ii) To reduce the net up lift force by increasing the downward force due to the increased
depth of water,
iii) To increase the discharge from a sluice gate by increasing the effective head causing
flow,

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iv) For aeration of drinking water

v) For removing air pockets in a pipe line
vi) Reduce downstream erosion
vii) Very useful & effective for mixing fluids

 Analysis of hydraulic jump

Assumptions
a. The length of the hydraulic jump is small, consequently, the loss of head due to friction is
negligible,
b. The channel is horizontal as it has a very small longitudinal slope. The weight
component in the direction of flow is negligible.
c. The portion of channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs is taken as a control volume &
it is assumed the just before & after the control volume, the flow is uniform & pressure
distribution is hydrostatic.
Let us consider a small reach of a channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs.
The momentum of water passing through section (1) per unit time is given as:

p1 rQV1
  QV1 ……………………………………….(i)
t g
Momentum at section (2) per unit time is:

p2 rQV2
  QV2 ………………………………………….(ii)
t g
Rate of change of momentum b/n section 1 & 2
P
 Q (V2  V1 ) ……………………………………….(iii)
t
The net force in the direction of flow = F1-F2 ………………..(iv)

F1  A1Y1 , F2 A2 Y2

 Y 1 & Y 2 are the center of pressure at section (1) & (2)

Therefore F1-F2 =M =Q (V2-V1)

Q
A1Y 1  A2 Y 2  (V2  V1 ) ……………………………………(v)
g

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From continuity eqn. Q= A*V, V= Q/A, so

 
Q  QQ
A1Y 1  A2 Y 2    
g  A2 A1 
 
Q2  1
A1Y 1  A2 Y2    1 .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( iv)
g  A2 A1 

Rearranging this eqn.:

 Q2   Q2 
  A1 Y 1    A2 Y 2 
 gA1   gA2  = Constant. …………… (vii)
M1 M2

M1and M2 are the specific forces at section (1) & (2) indicates that these forces are equal
before & after the jump.

Y1= initial depth

Y2 = sequent depth

Hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel

A1=By1 the section has uniform width (B)

A2= By2

Y1 Y
Y 1 ,Y 2  2
2 2

Now from eqn. (Vii) above:

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Q2 y 
 By2 *  2 
Q y
 By1  1  
gBy1  2  gBy2  2
Q2 By 2 Q2 By 2
 1   2 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..(viii)
gBy1 2 Bgy2 2

Flow per unit width of q= Q/B Q= qB, then eqn. (viii) becomes

q 2 B 2 By12 q 2 B 2 By22
  
Bgy1 2 Bgy2 2

q2  1 1  y22  y12
   ………………………………… (.ix)
g  y1 y2  2

2q 2
 y1 y2
y  y12
2
2 
g  y2  y1 
2q 2
 y1 y 2 ( y1  y 2 )......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( x)
g
2q 2
y 2 y12  y1 y 22   0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( xi)
g

This is quadratic eqn. & the solution is given as

 y2
2
 y  2q
2
y1    2  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .( xii)(a )
2  2 gy2
 y1 2
2q 2
  1  
y
y2  .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( b)
2  2 gy2

y2 8q 2
y1  (1  1  3 )......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( c)
2 gy2

y1 8q 2
y2  (1  1  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( xii)(d )
2 gy13
The ratio of conjugate depths;

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y1 8q 2
 1 (1  1  3 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( xii)(e)
y2 2 gy2

y2 8q 2
 1 (1  1  3 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ( f )
y1 2 gy1
q
V1 V2 y2 q
F1  , F2  
gy1 gy2 gy2 gy23

y1 1
Therefore  (1  1  8F22 )......... .......... .....( g )
y2 2
y2 1
 (1  1  8F12 .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( h)
y1 2

Energy dissipation in a Hydraulic Jump

The head loss hl.f caused by the jump is the drop in energy from section (1) to (2) or:
hlf= E = E1 - E2

 V12   V22 

  y1  
   y2  2 g .......... .......... .......... .........(1)a

 2 g   
 q2   q2 
  y1     y2  .......... .......... .......... ......( b)
 2 gy12   2 gy22 

2q 2
From eqn. (x) substituting:  y1 y2 ( y1  y2 ) in to this eqn. & by rearranging:
g

hlf  E 
 y2  y1 3 .......... .......... .......... .......... ......( 2)
4 y1 y2
Therefore power lost =  Q hlf (kw)…………………(3)
ACTIVITY1.5
What is mean by hydraulic jump in open channel and how it occurs?

Types of Hydraulic jump

Hydraulic jumps are classified according to the upstream Froude number and depth ratio.

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F1 Y2/y1 Classification
<1 1 Jump impossible
1-1.7 1-2 Undular jump (standing wave)

1.7-2.5 2-3.1 Weak jump

2.5-4.5 3.1-5.9 Oscillating jump
4.5-9.0 5.9-12 Steady jump (45-70% energy loss)
>9.0 >12 Strong or chopping jump (=85% energy loss)

Examples

A 3∙6m wide rectangular channel conveys of water with a velocity of .

a. Is there a condition for hydraulic jump occur? If so calculate the height, length and
strength of the jump.
b. What is loss of energy?
Given

Solution

a.

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b. Loss of energy for rectangular channel

Exercises

1. A rectangular channel which is laid on a bottom slope of 0.0064 is to carry 20m3/s of water.
Determine the width of the channel when the flow is in critical condition. Take C=66
2.An irrigation canal of trapezoidal section having side slope 2 in 3 is to carry a flow of 10m3/s on
a longitudinal slope of 1 in 5000. The canal is lined for which the value of frictional coefficient in
Manning’s formula is n=0.012. Find the dimension of the most economical section
3. Determine the side slope of the most hydraulically efficient triangular section. . Show that the
head loss in a hydraulic jump formed in a rectangular channel may be expressed as
ΔE= (V1 –V2)3/ [2g (V1 +V2)]

4. A rectangular channel there occurs a jump corresponding to Froude number (F=2.5).

Determine the critical depth and head loss in terms of the initial depth y1.
5. A trapezoidal channel having bottom width 10m and side slope 2:1(H:V) carries a discharge of
100m3/s. Find the depth conjugate to the initial depth of 1m before the jump. Also determine
the loss of energy in the jump.

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