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WEATHERING
Definition
 This is the breaking and disintegration of crustal rocks at or near the earth’s surface without movement (in
situ)
 Denudation refers to all the processes of destruction, wastage and removal of parts of the earth’s surface.
They include weathering, mass wasting, erosion and transportation.

Agents of Weathering
a) Heat: - leads to differences in temperature exerting stress upon the rocks. It also influences chemical
reactions within the rocks.
b) Water: - dissolves carbon (iv) oxide from the atmosphere to form a carbonic acid that dissolves rock
minerals.
c) Plants and animals: - burrowing animals, plants’ roots penetrate through cracks and joints

Factors influencing weathering

(i) Climate
 Equatorial regions that experience hot and humid climatic conditions are prone to chemical weathering
 Physical weathering is more prevalent in areas with large diurnal temperature ranges, low rainfall and
high evaporation rates

(ii) Nature of the rock

 Dark colored rocks break up more rapidly compared to shiny or light colored rocks because of their
higher rates of absorbing heat.
 Fine grained rocks are greatly affected by chemical weathering compared to coarse grained rocks.
 Well jointed rocks easily break up up[on exposure to agents of weathering

(iii) Living organisms

 Hooved animals e.g. cattle trample on the surface rocks causing them to break and disintegrate.
 Human activities such as digging, mining, quarrying, rock blasting and construction lead to break up
of rocks thus weathering.
 Plants such as mosses and lichens keep rock surfaces moist facilitating chemical decay.
 Activities of burrowing animals such as rodents and termites provide passage through which air and
moisture can reach below the surface.
 Plants’ roots may cause rocks to crack as they penetrate, breaking the rocks in the process.
 Bacteria may facilitate the decay of other organisms to produce organic acids that react with certain
minerals in a rock and causing them to decay.

(iv) Topography/Relief
 On steep slopes, weathered materials are quickly removed by wind, water and ice; thereby exposing
the rock surface to further or continued weathering.
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 Gentle slopes allow accumulation of rock materials in one place covering the rock below and reducing
the rate of weathering

Types and processes of weathering

(a) Mechanical or physical weathering
(b) Chemical weathering
(c) Biological weathering

(a) Mechanical or physical weathering

 This is the process of rock breaking down without any chemical changes.
 The rock is reduced to smaller pieces but still retain the same structure and composition
 It is common in arid and semi-arid lands that lack vegetation as well as high altitude areas that
experience marked variations in temperature

Processes of Physical Weathering

(i) Block disintegration
 This is the process through which blocks of large rocks break away from the original rock mass along
bedding planes and joints.
 It is common in arid and semi-arid lands with large diurnal temperature ranges
 During the day, the temperatures are high causing the rocks to expand along the bedding planes and
joints.
 At night, the temperatures fall leading to contraction of the rocks along the bedding planes and joints.
 This repeated expansion and contraction causes the rock mass to break into smaller blocks thus block
disintegration

(ii) Granular disintegration

 This is the breakup of rocks into smaller pieces or grains due to alternate heating and cooling of rocks
during the day and night respectively causing expansion and contraction.
 This differential expansion and cooling causes strain and stress within the rocks causing individual rock
grains to break off from the main rock mass as granular disintegration
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(iii) Exfoliation
 This is a process through which rocks ‘peel’ resulting in the formation of curved rock shells
 In arid areas, the rock surfaces heat up rapidly and expand when subjected to high day temperatures.
 During the night, the temperatures fall sharply causing the outer layers to cool and contract while the
inner parts still warm
 This differential expansion and contraction creates stress between the inner and outer rock layers
causing the surface layers to crack, split and peel off like an onion; a process referred to as exfoliation

(iv) Frost action (freeze and thaw action)

 Water may enter the cracks or joints and pore spaces in a rock in high altitude or mountain areas.
 Low temperature makes the water in the cracks to freeze into ice crystals which grow in the cracks
 As the crystals grow, they exert more pressure and widening the cracks and allowing more water to get
in and freeze.
 This freeze and thaw action is repeated several times with the crack widening each time.
 Eventually the pressure is too much, and the outer part of the rock breaks away and falls to the foot of
the main rock.

(v) Pressure release (unloading)

 Deeply seated igneous and metamorphic rocks are under pressure from the overlying rocks.
 With time, denudation may remove the overlying rock layers and expose the underlying rocks at or near
the earth’s surface
 The upper parts of the exposed rocks expand slightly due to the reduced pressure.
 This leads to big shells rock breaking away from the parent rock

(vi) Crystal growth

 During the long dry season, water in the rocks is drawn to the surface through capillary action.
 High temperatures make the water to evaporate depositing tiny salt particles in the rock cracks and
pores.
 The salt crystals accumulate and grow inside, exerting pressure and widening the cracks further.
 Eventually the rock pieces fall off leading to weathering

(vii) Slaking
 This is common in areas with alternate dry and wet seasons

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 During the wet season, the particles of clay within the rock absorb moisture, making them swell.
 When the dry season sets in the particles lose much of this water, causing them to shrink.
 This alternate wetting and drying of the mineral is repeated over a long time causing individual mineral
particles to become loosely attached and break off

(b) Chemical Weathering

 This involves changes in the chemical composition of minerals making up the rocks.
 During chemical weathering:
i. New minerals may be formed
ii. Some minerals may undergo chemical change
iii. Some minerals may dissolve in water
 It is facilitated by moisture (or water), gases and high temperatures

Processes of Chemical Weathering

(i) Hydrolysis
 Water reacts with mineral substances in a rock. (a reactant rather than a solvent)
 Water enters a permanent chemical union with many rocks forming minerals by breaking down into
hydrogen ions which then combine with the minerals and swells when it absorbs water.

(ii) Solution
 Rock minerals directly dissolve in water without change in chemical composition.
 The minerals change from solid to solution state
 Most common in rocks that are soluble in water e.g. rock salt and gypsum

(iii) Carbonation
 This involves direct reaction of rain water with rocks.
 It is common in areas with limestone rock, chalk and dolomite
 As the rain water falls, it dissolves small quantities of carbon (iv) oxide from the atmosphere, forming
a mild or weak carbonic acid
 When this acid falls on limestone rock, it reacts with the calcite minerals in it to form calcium
bicarbonate which is soluble in water, decaying the rock in the process

(iv) Hydration
 This is the process in which certain minerals (hygroscopic) in a rock take up water causing them to
expand or swell
 As they swell, the rock mass expands creating internal stress within the rock that leads to
disintegration of the rock

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(v) Oxidation
 In this process, minerals in rocks combine with oxygen to form new minerals.
 It is aided by moisture and affects mainly rocks containing iron, which are oxidized to form a new
mineral.
 It’s during oxidization that rock disintegration takes place

(c) Biological weathering

 This is the breakdown/disintegration of rocks due to action of living organisms such as plants, animals
and humans
 These organisms break down the rocks through physical and chemical processes

i. Action of Plants
 Plants’ roots can force joints in rocks to crack and widen
 Algae, lichens and mosses keep rock surfaces moist by retaining water in them. This water may react
with minerals in the rocks to cause chemical decay
 Decaying vegetation release organic acids that facilitate decay and disintegration of rocks.
 The widening of cracks in the rocks due to root penetration provides space for air and moisture to
penetrate deeper into the rocks; facilitating other chemical weathering processes of hydrolysis and
solution.

ii. Action of Animals

 Burrowing animals such as rabbits, moles, termites and earthworms lead to mechanical weathering
by breaking up the rocks through digging.
 Hooved animals like cattle exert pressure on the rocks as they walk directly on them; leading to
breaking and disintegration.
 Animals also excrete chemical substances/acids that when in contact with the rocks may lead to
chemical weathering
 Decaying animal remains give off organic fluids that may react with the rocks and lead to chemical
weathering.

iii. Human Activities

 Rocks are broken up when they are blasted with explosives in quarries.
 Rocks are also scooped and carried away during open cast mining.
 Air pollution leads to the formation of acid rain which causes chemical weathering when it falls on
rocks.
 Bush fires caused by human heat rocks and cause exfoliation.
 Rocks are affected by chemicals released into the environment by industrial activities.

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Significance/Effects of weathering
i. It is the initial stage of soil formation and soils have a myriad of agricultural uses
ii. It produces other natural resources e.g. bauxite – (aluminium ore) and clay used in brick making
iii. It weakens the surface rocks making them easier for mining/quarrying.
iv. Some weathered rocks e.g. the granitic tors are of tourists’ attraction thus sources of foreign revenue.

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