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Indian Society (Mains Booster Series) - 2024

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
2K views104 pages

Indian Society (Mains Booster Series) - 2024

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY 3-17
1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY
1.2 FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY
1.2.1 CASTE SYSTEM
1.2.2 RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN INDIA
1.2.3 LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY
1.2.4 UNITY IN DIVERSITY
1.2.5 KINSHIP
1.3 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
1.3.1 FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY
1.3.2 INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
2 POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES 18-22
2.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
2.2 ADVANTAGES AND CHALLENGES OF DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND
2.3 PLANNING IN INDIA ASSOCIATED WITH POPULATION
2.4 POPULATION CONTROL POLICY/BILL: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
3 ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION 23-33
3.1 STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA
3.1.1 SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND WOMEN IN INDIA
3.1.2 LEGAL PROTECTION FOR WOMEN IN INDIA
3.1.3 RIGHT TO SAFE AND LEGAL ABORTION
3.1.4 SURROGACY
3.1.5 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA'S WOMEN EMPOWERMENT PROGRAMS/SCHEMES
3.1.6 SOLUTIONS TO THE CHALLENGES FACED BY WOMEN
3.2 EVOLUTION OF WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION IN INDIA
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
4 POVERTY 34-38
4.1 FACTS AND DEFINITION
4.2 TYPES, ISSUES, CAUSES & CHALLENGES WITH POVERTY
4.2.1 ISSUES WITH POVERTY
4.2.2 CAUSES OF POVERTY
4.2.3 CHALLENGES IN ESTIMATING POVERTY
4.3 FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY
4.3.1 CONSEQUENCES OF THE FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY
4.4 POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMS IN INDIA
4.5 WAYS TO END POVERTY
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
5 HUNGER 39-41
5.1 MEANING OF HUNGER
5.2 HUNGER IN INDIA: DATA FACTS
5.3 GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES TO TACKLE HUNGER ISSUE
5.4 STEPS NEEDED TO FIGHT HUNGER (WAY FORWARD)
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
6 INEQUALITY 42-44
6.1 IMPORTANT STATISTICS
6.2 DIMENSIONS OF INEQUALITY

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6.3 IMPACT OF INEQUALITY IN INDIA
6.4 MEASURES TO REDUCE INEQUALITY
6.4.1 OTHER GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
7 URBANIZATION 45-54
7.1 MEANING AND GENERAL FACTS ABOUT URBANISATION
7.2 CHALLENGES WITH URBANIZATION
7.3 FACTORS LEADING TO URBANIZATION
7.4 IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON RURAL AREAS
7.5 URBAN GOVERNANCE
7.6 SLUMS
7.6.1 CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH SLUMS
7.7 WAY FORWARD: SUSTAINABLE URBANISATION
7.8 SMART CITY PROGRAMME
7.9 RURBANISATION
7.10 URBAN POVERTY & NEED FOR URBAN MGNREGA
7.11 COUNTER URBANISATION: POTENTIAL CAUSES
7.12 COUNTER URBANISATION: POTENTIAL CAUSES
7.13 BEST PRACTICES FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENT/GOVERNANCE
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
8 GLOBALIZATION 55-64
8.1 MEANING OF GLOBALISATION
8.2 FACTORS AFFECTING GLOBALIZATION IN INDIA
8.3 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDIAN CULTURE
8.4 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON FAMILY
8.5 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON ECONOMY
8.6 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON POLITY
8.7 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON ENVIRONMENT
8.8 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON WOMEN
8.9 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON YOUTHS
8.10 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ELDERLY
8.11 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON LABOUR
8.12 GLOCALIZATION
8.13 THE PHENOMENON OF DE-GLOBALIZATION
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
9 SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT: MEANING, NEED AND INITIATIVES 65-85
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 KEY CONCEPTS RELATED WITH SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT
9.3 MEANING OF VULNERABLE SECTION
9.4 CHALLENGES FACED BY SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS
9.5 NEED FOR SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT
9.6 SCHEDULE CASTES
9.7 MANUAL SCAVENGING
9.8 SCHEDULE TRIBE (STs) IN INDIA
9.8.1 CHALLENGES FACED BY NCSCS/NCSTS
9.9 OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES (OBCs) & NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR BACKWARD CLASSES
9.10 BEGGARS
9.11 RELIGIOUS MINORITIES
9.12 SENIOR CITIZENS
9.13 PERSONS WITH DISABILITY (PwD)
9.14 CHILDREN

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9.14.1 KEY CHALLENGES RELATED TO CHILDREN
9.15 LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
10 COMMUNALISM 86-88
10.1 MEANING OF COMMUNALISM
10.2 THREE STAGES OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA
10.3 TYPES OF COMMUNALISM
10.4 FACTORS LEADING TO THE RISE OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
11 REGIONALISM 89-92
11.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF REGIONALISM
11.2 TYPES OF REGIONALISM
11.3 TYPES OF REGIONAL MOVEMENTS
11.4 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR RISE OF REGIONALISM
11.5 IMPACT OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA
11.6 REGIONALISM AND THREAT TO NATIONAL INTEGRATION
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
12 SECULARISM 93-97
12.1 MEANING OF SECULARISM
12.2 COMPARISON OF INDIAN SECULARISM VS WESTERN SECULARISM
12.3 CONSTITUTIONAL AND JUDICIAL PROVISION ON SECULARISM IN INDIA
12.4 CONSTITUTIONAL SECULARISM AND PARTY-POLITICAL SECULARISM
12.5 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SECULARISM
12.6 THE NEED FOR SECULARISM TO PRESERVE DIVERSITY IN INDIA
12.7 POSITIVE ASPECTS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA
12.8 CHALLENGES TO SECULARISM
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

========================================================================================

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AAKRITI SETHI (IAS) TOPPER’S HANDWRITTEN ANSWERS

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1 SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY


Related Keywords
• Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, Ek Bharat, Shreshtha Bharat, Unity in Diversity, Samrasta (diversity) and Swavlamban
(self-reliance), Essential fabrics of India, Creating a thread of (commonness/fraternity/tolerance etc.), From
Cultural Disdain to Cultural Empathy, Unifying thread of the nation (Diversity, tolerance and acceptance etc.).

“India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, mother of history, the grandmother of
legend, & great grandmother of tradition. Our most valuable & most instructive materials in the history of man are
treasured up in India only.” - Mark Twain

India, known for its rich cultural heritage and diversity, embodies the concept of "Unity in Diversity." This unique
characteristic has been a defining feature of Indian society, showcasing a harmonious coexistence of various cultures,
languages, religions, and traditions. The essence of unity amidst diversity has been a unifying force, shaping the social
fabric of the nation.
1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY
•India has diverse cultures, religions, languages, and traditions, making it a unique
Cultural diversity blend of various ethnic groups. It recognizes 22 official languages and has over 19,500
dialects and sub-languages. (Unity in Diversity & DIversity in Unity)

•Indian society has a hierarchical structure with various social classes or castes,
Social
although the caste system officially abolished, still influences social interactions to
stratification
some extent.

Spirituality and
•India has a rich heritage of spiritual and philosophical traditions including vedas,
Philosophical
upanishads, shaping the worldview and values of Indian society.
Traditions

Respect for •Indian culture reveres nature, as seen in festivals like Pongal and Makar Sankranti,
Nature and emphasizing harmony with nature.
Environment •Predominantely agrarian Nature of Society.

Strong family
•Indian society values strong family bonds, joint family system and close-knit
and community
communities, relying on them for emotional support and social connections.
ties

•Traditionally, Indian society has been patriarchal, with men holding dominant roles
Patriarchal
in decision-making, but women are breaking barriers and achieving significant
society
progress.

•India is deeply religious, with Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and
Religiosity Jainism being major religions. Tolerance is the hallmark.
•At the same time, Secularism & Democracy form basic ethos in multicultural society

Festivals and •India is known for its vibrant festivals like Diwali, Holi, Eid, Christmas, and Navratri,
celebrations which bring people together in joyous celebrations.

Traditional
•Respect for elders, hospitality, humility, duty, and honor are integral values passed
values and
down through generations.
customs

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1.2 FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY
Indian society is characterized by a unique blend of diverse features that make it distinct from other societies around
the world.

1.2.1 CASTE SYSTEM


The caste system is a social hierarchy prevalent in India, categorizing individuals into hierarchical groups based on their
birth, occupation, and social status. The term ‘Caste’ comes from the Portuguese word ‘Casta’ which means race,
breed, or group.

(A) FEATURES OF THE CASTE SYSTEM


• Origin: The caste system has ancient origins, with its roots in the Vedic period. Initially, it was based on the
concept of 'Varna’.
• Hierarchical Structure: The caste system is divided into a strict hierarchical order. Brahmins are placed at the
top of the hierarchy, followed by the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas, and the Shudras.
• Endogamy: Endogamy is a key feature of the caste system, where marriage within the same caste is
encouraged and often enforced.
• Vertical and horizontal classification involving different groups.
• Untouchability: Based on the concept of purity and pollution, people outside the varna system influencing
social interactions and occupational roles.
• Social and religious privileges: Higher castes enjoy certain privileges, such as access to temples, and religious
ceremonies, which are often denied to lower castes.
• Hereditary occupations: Each caste traditionally had specific occupations. This practice, linked professional
roles to social status and family lineage.
• Social segregation: Castes live in separate quarters or villages, with limited social interaction between castes,
reinforcing caste identities. For example, caste-based colony.
• Rigidity and immobility: A person's caste is determined by birth and remains unchanged throughout their life.

(B) ROLE OF THE CASTE SYSTEM


The role of caste in Indian politics is multifaceted and influences various aspects of the political landscape. Here are
some key points about the role of caste in different aspects:

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Social Role

•It offers a sense of identity and belonging to individuals, as caste-based communities often provide a strong
support system for their members in times of need.
•The practice of marrying within one’s caste has helped maintain caste boundaries and social order, but also
perpetuated social divisions and inequalities.
•The concepts of purity and pollution have regulated social interactions, impacting dietary practices, marriage,
and daily activities.

Economic Role

•The caste system-based division of labor ensured the functioning of traditional village economies but also
restricted economic mobility.
•Lower castes, especially Dalits, were often relegated to menial and demeaning jobs, leading to their economic
exploitation and poverty.
•Higher castes enjoyed economic privileges and access to resources, reinforcing socio-economic disparities.

Political Role

•Castes have become significant political entities, with caste-based parties and movements advocating for the
rights and interests of specific groups.
•Political leaders often mobilize support along caste lines, impacting electoral outcomes and policy decisions.
•The government has implemented affirmative action policies, reserving seats in education, employment, and
political institutions to address historical injustices and promote social and economic upliftment of
marginalized communities.

Cultural Role
•Each caste traditionally had specific occupations and skills associated with it. This specialization has led to the
preservation of unique crafts, arts, and knowledge within these communities.
•Each caste has its own customs, traditions, rituals, and practices that have enriched the cultural tapestry of
the country.
•Caste panchayats (local councils) have enforced social norms and ensured adherence to caste rules and
customs.

(C) TRANSFORMATION/WEAKNING OF THE CASTE SYSTEM


Social Causes:
• Decline in supremacy of brahmins: Due to
secularization, modernization, and the development Other
Important
of scientific temper. Their exclusive control over
Changes
religious and educational fields has weakened.
• Inter-caste marriages: Marriages between different
castes have become more common, especially in
cities. Economic
Idea of purity Decline in
• Increased social mobility: Lower castes can improve geographical
status
has become
their social status through a process called replaced
impractical isolation
Sanskritization, where they adopt the practices of caste status
higher castes. For example, religious practices,
vegetarianism, etc.

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Political Causes:
• Abolition of Untouchability: Article 17 of the Constitution of India prohibits the practice.
- Other constitutional Articles like 14, 15, 16 and 18 also promotes equality among people of India and
disregard discrimination.
• Legal reforms: Like - Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 and 2015
Amendment, Provision of reservation in educational institutions, for employment opportunities etc.
- Establishing social welfare departments and national commissions (NCSC, NCST & NCBC) for the welfare
of scheduled castes and tribes.
- Govt schemes: Ex: - Dr Ambedkar Scheme for social integration by incentivizing inter-caste marriages.
• Caste-Based Political Mobilization: Organized groups has led to a more diverse representation in politics. For
example: Bahujan samaj party, Republican party of India etc.

Other Factors:
• Socio-economic movements against caste: Self-respect Movement, Temple Entry Movement, Justice
Movement, Dalit Panthers movement etc.
• Urbanization and Migration: The movement of people to cities for work and education has led to a mixing of
castes. In urban areas, caste identity is less pronounced compared to rural areas.
• Impact of Globalization: Exposure to global ideas, values, and cultures through globalization has slowly eroded
the traditional caste system, promoting more egalitarian views.

(D) FACTORS THAT CONSERVE CASTE SYSTEM


• Social factors: Endogamy (intra-caste marriages), patriarchal
mindset, caste-based biases and prejudices etc.
• Economic factors: The distribution of material opportunity or life
chances (caste-based occupations/occupational divisions like
safai karmacharis), are the sources of enduring inequalities and
hence caste system.
• Political mobilization: Even though caste politics is now far more
disaggregated, caste-based mobilization, parties and voting
system still strengthen the caste system in India.
- Caste based affirmative actions: Like caste-based
reservation in jobs and education, etc.
• Caste based community and collective mobilization: Caste
based civil societies, groups, mobilizing and collectively
demanding equality and non- discrimination continues to be a
form of factors offering a sense of kinship, belonging, and
identity.

RECENT INCIDENCES/DATA OF ALLEGED CASTE-BASED DISCRIMINATION


• According to National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) latest data, about 158 daily crimes cases against
scheduled castes (SC) were reported in 2022, increased by about 35% between 2018 and 2022.
- Only six states account for over 76% of all caste-related crimes (UP Rajasthan, MP, Bihar, Odisha and
Maharashtra each).
• Recently, a Dalit student at the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay (IIT Bombay) died by committing suicide
allegedly after suffering caste discrimination on the campus.

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The caste system in India has undergone significant changes due to various factors. These changes have led to a decline
in the rigidness of the system, increased social mobility, and a shift towards more inclusive social norms. Efforts to
address caste-based discrimination and promote social justice continue to be essential for building a more equitable
society in India.

(E) CASTE BASED-RESERVATION IN INDIA


• Reservations aim to rectify historical injustices, ensure equal representation, provide an equal platform for all,
and promote and advance historically disadvantaged classes. The system is a tool against social oppression
and injustice.
• It includes reserved seats in education, employment, and politics, but
faces debates and challenges.
• Ongoing evaluation and focus on socio-economic development and equal
opportunities are crucial for its effectiveness.
• Constitutional Provisions:
- Article 15(4) capacitates the State to create special arrangements for
promoting the interests and welfare of socially and educationally backward classes of society.
- Article 16(4) empowers the state to provide reservations in public employment for SCs, STs, and OBCs to
ensure their representation in government jobs.
- Article 330 and Article 332 of the Indian Constitution provides for reservation of seats for Scheduled
Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in both the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the State
Legislative Assemblies.

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(F) FIGHTING CASTE-BASED DISCRIMINATION

CURRENT CONNECT
Caste Census: A caste census is the process of collecting and analyzing demographic, economic, and social data of all
persons in a country, including information on their caste affiliations. There have been renewed calls for a caste census
in recent years, particularly from the opposition parties.

Significance of Caste Census:


• Addressing social inequality: A caste census can help identify disadvantaged groups and bring them to the
forefront of policy-making, addressing social inequality and uplifting marginalized communities.
• Monitoring affirmative action policies: A caste census can help monitor the effectiveness of affirmative action
policies, such as reservations for OBCs and other groups, enabling policymakers to make informed decisions.
• Ensuring equitable distribution of resources: Accurate data on OBCs and other groups is necessary to ensure
equitable distribution of resources. A caste census can provide insights into the socio-economic conditions and
needs of different caste groups, guiding policymakers in formulating inclusive policies.
• Constitutional mandate: Article 340 mandates the appointment of a commission to investigate the conditions
of socially and educationally backward classes and makes recommendations for their overall growth.
• Comprehensive picture of Indian society: A caste census can provide a comprehensive picture of the diversity of
Indian society, shedding light on social dynamics and the interplay between different caste groups.

Challenges and Criticisms


• Reinforcing the Caste System: Opponents argue that a caste census reinforces the caste system and can lead to
further social divisions.
• Practical Difficulties: Conducting a caste census can be challenging due to the complexity of caste categories and
the need to ensure confidentiality of personal information.
• Error-Ridden Data: The 2011 Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) had significant errors, with 1.5 crore errors
yet to be rectified.

Recent Developments
• Bihar Caste Survey: The Bihar government recently released the results of its caste survey, which found that OBCs
and Extremely Backward Classes (EBCs) constitute more than 60% of the population.
- On the same lines, other states like AP & Telangana have demanded conducting caste-based survey.
• SECC 2011: The SECC 2011 was conducted by the Registrar General of India and included data on 45 million
categories of caste, sub-caste, synonyms, and other caste-related information. However, the data had significant
errors, and the process of rectifying these errors is ongoing.

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Caste based reservation in education and issue of meritocracy


• The Supreme Court while upholding reservation for OBCs, held that “scores in entrance tests do not reflect the
social, economic and cultural advantage that accrues to certain classes and contributes to their success in such
examinations”.
• “High scores in an exam are not a proxy for merit. Merit should be socially contextualized (historical
disadvantage or injustice, lack of economic means like coaching institutes etc.) as an instrument that advances
social goods like equality.

(G) CONCLUSION
The caste system in India, a complex and multifaceted social hierarchy, continues to perpetuate significant social and
economic inequalities. Despite efforts to address its negative impacts, the system remains a formidable barrier to
achieving greater social and economic equality in India, underscoring the need for sustained and comprehensive
reforms to promote a more inclusive and equitable society.

1.2.2 RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN INDIA

“India is a country in which every great religion finds a home.” Annie Besant

Religious diversity in India is a unique aspect of the country's


cultural and social fabric. India is home to a diverse range of
religious beliefs, with Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism,
Buddhism, and Jainism being the most widely practiced religions.
It is often referred to as the "Land of Spirituality and Philosophy"
due to its rich religious heritage
• Hinduism is the largest religion and consists of many sub-
groups i.e., Vaishnavas, Shaivites, Shaktas, and Smartas.
• Islam is the second largest religion and includes sub-
groups like Shias, Sunnis, Ahmadis, etc.
• Many tribal groups follow animistic and naturistic
religions.
• Every religion has diverse beliefs, customs, and
festivals associated with it.
• Such diversity has contributed to a unique blend of
beliefs and practices that are distinct from other parts
of the world.

(A) CHALLENGES WITH RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY


The challenges with religious diversity in India are
multifaceted and complex. Despite the benefits of religious
diversity, several challenges arise from the coexistence of
different religious beliefs and practices.

(B) WAY AHEAD TO MAINTAIN RELIGIOUS HARMONY


• Legal Framework: Strengthening laws against religious discrimination and hate speech (e.g., IPC Sections
153A, 295A).

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• Education: Including education about different religions in school curricula to promote understanding and
respect.
• Interfaith Dialogues: Encouraging regular dialogues between people of different religions to discuss common
values.
• Media Representation: Encouraging the media to portray religious diversity positively and accurately.
• Cultural Exchange Programs: Promoting programs that celebrate diverse religious traditions.
• Leadership Role: Empowering religious leaders to promote peace and unity among their followers.
• Conflict Resolution Mechanisms: Establishing effective mechanisms for peaceful resolution of religious
conflicts.
• Constitutional Safeguards: Guaranteeing freedom of religion (Article 25-28) and protecting the rights of
religious minorities (Article 29, 30).
• Equal Opportunities: Ensuring equal rights and opportunities for all religious communities.

1.2.3 LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY


India is known for its rich variety of languages, spoken by over 1.3 billion people. With more than 22 official languages,
India's linguistic diversity is fascinating. This diversity has been shaped by centuries of history, including migrations,
trade, conquests, and colonial rule. These languages are not just a way of communication; they are deeply woven into
India's identity, influencing its culture, politics, and society.
• According to census data, more than 19,500 languages and dialects are spoken as the mother tongue in India.
• There are 22 scheduled languages mentioned in the constitution of India and according to the census 2011,
96.71% of the population of the country uses one of these 22 scheduled languages as their mother tongue.
• As per census data, 121 languages have more than 10000 speakers each.

(A) ISSUES WITH LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

(B) WAY FORWARD


• Three Language Formula: This plan, proposed by the Kothari Commission, promotes learning one regional
language along with Hindi and English. This approach helps bridge linguistic gaps while preserving regional
languages and cultures.
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• Use of technology: Technology can provide online resources in regional languages and offer translation
services. For example, the e-Bhasin app, and OTT platforms support and promote regional content.
• Preserving endangered languages: There is a need to preserve and protect endangered languages like the
great Andamanese, Asur, and Balti.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Effective use of the Language Bureau of the Ministry of Education to implement
and monitor the language policy.
• Importance to Mother Tongue: UNESCO has recommended the use of the mother tongue in the early years
of schooling to improve cognitive skills. This is also reflected in the NEP 2020.
• Awareness campaigns: to promote the feeling of unity and integrity, to curb linguistic discrimination, etc.

1.2.4 UNITY IN DIVERSITY


India is known for its rich cultural heritage and diversity, with a myriad of languages, religions, traditions, and
ethnicities coexisting harmoniously. The concept of 'Unity in Diversity' reflects the idea that despite the differences,
there is a sense of unity that binds the people of India together.

“If God had so wished, he would have made all Indians speak with one language ... the unity of India has been and
shall always be a unity in diversity.” Rabindranath Tagore

(A) FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR ‘UNITY IN DIVERSITY’

•Single Constitution: India follows one Constitution for all states and union territories,
ensuring common laws and rights for all citizens.
Constitutional •Federalism: India has a federal system where power is divided between the center and
Provisions states, allowing regional autonomy within a unified framework.
•Secularism: India is a secular country with no official state religion, guaranteeing
freedom to practice any religion equally.
•Religious Co-existence: India is known for religious tolerance, allowing different faiths to
peacefully coexist.
Societal •Shared Historical Narratives: Common historical experiences and cultural assimilation have
Factors fostered a sense of unity among diverse people.
•Fairs and Festivals: Festivals celebrate diversity and promote togetherness.

•Economic Integration: The Constitution allows free trade and the GST has facilitated
economic integration, creating a unified market.
Economic •Inter-State Mobility: People can move freely across India, promoting unity.
Factors •Economic Interdependence: Economic ties among states and regions create a shared
stake in prosperity, fostering solidarity.

•Inter-State Councils: Resolve disputes and promote cooperation among states.


Institutional •National Integration Council: Works towards harmony and unity.
Mechanisms •Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat: Promotes interaction and mutual understanding between
people of different states.

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(B) THREAT TO INDIA’S DIVERSITY

(C) WAY FORWARD


• Balanced regional growth: Identify and target underdeveloped areas in the country. E.g. Aspirational Districts
Program.
• Equal Representation: Ensure all communities, including minorities and marginalized groups, are represented
in governance structures and decision-making processes.
• Promote nationalism and patriotism: The feeling of nationalism and patriotism should be instilled to tackle
regionalism. For Example, the Delhi government announced introducing the 'Deshbhakti' curriculum in schools
to induce patriotism among kids.
• Federal Cooperation: Foster cooperation and dialogue between the central and state governments to resolve
conflicts and manage diversity.
• Promote religious tolerance: Inter-religious harmony and tolerance should be promoted in order to curb
communalism.
• Improved Connectivity: The connectivity and transportation to remote areas need to be improved so that
anti-social elements cannot exploit geographical isolation against national interest.
• Socio-economic Equality: There is a need to tackle growing inequalities using various social welfare and
educational measures.
• Media and Arts: Utilize media, cinema, and the arts to highlight stories and perspectives from different
communities, promoting a sense of shared identity.

1.2.5 KINSHIP
“Kinship system refers to a set of persons recognised as relatives either by virtue of a blood relationship or by virtue
of a marriage relationship.”
• Kinship is a social and cultural construct that shapes our identities within the social fabric and establishes a
network of obligations, roles, and responsibilities.

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• It encompasses the bonds that tie us together through blood, marriage, or adoption and defines and organizes
relationships within a family unit.

(A) TYPES OF KINSHIP

TYPES OF KINSHIP

Consanguineal: It involves Affinal: It is based on the bond of Social: It is based on factors


blood relatives like parents, marriage and involves relations with other than blood or marriage
children, and siblings etc. spouse and their family. e.g., religion, community, etc.

(B) FUNCTIONS OF KINSHIP

1.3 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS


A social institution is a group or organization that has specific roles, norms, and expectations, which function to meet
the social needs of society. For example, Family, Religion, Government, etc. are social institutions.

1.3.1 FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY


Family is a basic social unit consisting of parents and their children, considered as a group. It is the immediate
environment for a child where he learns basic behavioral patterns, language, prejudice, and customs.

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(A) CLASSIFICATION OF FAMILY

(B) CHANGES IN INDIAN FAMILY SYSTEM


• Shift from Joint to Nuclear Families: The nuclear families are replacing the age-old joint families. Although the
existence of the nuclear family is circumstantial.
• Transition from Patriarchy: The families in India are no longer truly patriarchal and there is enough scope for
individual autonomy especially in urban areas.
• Empowerment of Women: The women are no longer confined to homes. They are getting higher education
and participating in the job market.
• Changing Marriage Patterns: The age of marriage has gone up and instances of child marriage are declining,
rising trend of live-in etc.
• Emergence of Neo-Local Residence: As a result of industrialization and urbanization more and more young
married couples set up their residence in the place of their work. Neo-local residence is, therefore, coming
into existence more and more.
• Influence of Western values: Values relating to modern science, rationalism, individualism, equality, free life,
democracy, freedom of women, etc. have exerted a tremendous change on the joint family system in India.
• Rise of Consumerism and Materialism: There is a growing emphasis on material possessions and consumerist
culture, influencing family dynamics and priorities, often leading to a shift in traditional value systems.
• Impact of Technology and Globalization: Technological advancements and globalization have brought about
significant changes in communication, lifestyle, and outlook

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(C) FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CHANGES IN THE FAMILY SYSTEM

1.3.2 INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE


“Marriage is not a mere convention, but an implicit condition of human society.” Dr Radhakrishnan
Marriage is a social institution that unites two individuals, in a legally recognized and socially accepted relationship. It
is accomplished by different rituals and ceremonies

(A) TYPES OF MARRIAGE


• Monogamy: In most societies, monogamy is the only form of marriage where a man marries one woman. They
raise children together and perform all marital rites.
• Polygamy: Polygamy involves one person marrying multiple spouses simultaneously. It has two main forms:
- Polygyny: One man is married to several women.
- Polyandry: One woman is married to several men.
• Levirate: In Levirate marriage, a widow marries her late husband's younger brother.

(B) CHANGES IN THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE


• Age at Marriage: The age at marriage has increased significantly over the years, with more women marrying
later in life.
• Education: Education has played a significant role in delaying marriages, as women are now more likely to
pursue higher education and career goals before getting married.
• Economic Independence: Economic independence has also contributed to the delay in marriages, as women
are now more likely to support themselves financially before getting married.
• Inter-Caste Marriage: Inter-caste marriages have become more common, with more people marrying outside
their caste or religion.

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MK YADAV SIR’s: MAINS BOOSTER SERIES 2024 - 25
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• Changing Purpose of Marriage: The purpose of marriage has shifted from primarily being a religious or social
obligation to being a more personal and emotional choice.
• Changing Process of Mate Selection: The process of mate selection has also changed, with more people
choosing their partners and less reliance on arranged marriages.
• Changing Economic Aspects of Marriage: The economic aspects of marriage have also changed, with more
emphasis on mutual support and less on dowry and other traditional practices

(C) CHALLENGES TO INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGES

Child Dowry
marriage system

Increased Marital
Divorce Rates abuse

Discrimina
tion Forced
Challenges
Against marriages
Women

(D) RECOGNITION OF SAME-SEX MARRIAGE

• Supreme Court (SC) verdict in Supriyo Chakraborty V Union of India


Global status of same sex marriage
(2023): SC rejected petitions to legalize same-sex marriage under the • Only 35 countries worldwide
Special Marriage Act, 1954➔ No fundamental right to marry under have legalised same-sex
the Constitution➔ Queer couples do not have the right to adopt➔ marriages so far, the latest
Couples do not enjoy a right to a civil union. being Andorra (in February
• The court stopped short of allowing equal marriage but recognized the 2023) and Nepal (in June 2023).
• The Netherlands was the first
rights of gay couples to engage in same-sex relationships (Legalized in
country to legalise same-sex
Navtej Singh Johar case-2018).
marriages in 2001.
• The ruling has sparked hope for further rights for LGBTQ+ individuals, • United States: 2015.
including the right to adopt and raise children.

CURRENT CONNECT
• Delhi high court rejected a challenge to the constitutionality of Section 5(v) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
(HMA), which prohibits marriage between two Hindus if they are “sapindas” of each other, “unless the custom
or usage governing each of them permits of a marriage between the two”.
• Supreme Court has held that customary rituals and ceremonies prescribed under the Hindu Marriage Act must
be assiduously, strictly and religiously followed, failing which a marriage would be declared invalid even after it
has been registered.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)


1. Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static? (2023, 15 marks)
2. Do you think marriage as a sacrament is loosing its value in Modern India? (2023, 10 Marks)
3. Child cuddling is now being replaced by mobile phones. Discuss its impact on the socialization of children. (2023,
10 Marks)
4. Explore and evaluate the impact of ‘Work from Home’ on family relationships. (2022, 10 Marks)

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5. Analyse the salience of ‘sect’ in Indian society vis-a-vis caste, region and religion. (2022, 15 Marks)
6. How does Indian society maintain continuity in traditional social values? Enumerate the changes taking place in
it. (2021, 15 Marks)
7. Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multi-cultural Indian Society? Elaborate your answer with
illustrations (2020, 10 Marks)
8. Customs and traditions suppress reason leading to obscurantism. Do you agree? (2020, 15 Marks)
9. What makes Indian society unique in sustaining its culture? Discuss. (2019, 10 Marks)
10. Do we have cultural pockets of small India all over the nation? Elaborate with examples. (2019, 10 Marks)
11. The caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, caste system cannot be eradicated
in India. Comment. (2018, 10 marks)
12. In the context of the diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units rather than the States?
Give reasons with examples for your view point. (2017, 10 Marks)
13. The spirit of tolerance and love is not only an interesting feature of Indian society from very early times, but it
is also playing an important part at the present. Elaborate. (2017, 15 Marks)
14. Debate the issue of whether and how contemporary movements for assertion of Dalit identity work towards
the annihilation of caste. (2015, 12.5 marks)
15. Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance in building a national
identity. (2015, 12.5 Marks)
16. The life cycle of a joint family depends on economic factors rather than social values. Discuss. (2014, 10 marks)

========================================================================================

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2 POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES


Related Keywords
• Demographic Dividend, Demographic disaster, Longevity Dividend; Up-skilling; 5Cs for Financial Literacy
(Content + Capacity + Community + Communication + Collaboration), Silver generation of India, Youth: Warriors
to shape India’s destiny/Greatest force in democracy, Viksit Yuva, Vikshit Bharat.

KEY FACTS
India’s Population • 18% of World’s population with 2.5% of area (1.4 Billion population).
• India surpassed China as the world’s most populous country.
• Population growth rate - 1.2% per year (Same as World growth rate).
State of World Population • 65%: Between the ages of 15- 64 years (working population).
Report (Population • 25%: Between 0-14 years;
COmposition) • 18%: Between 10 and 19 years,
• 26%: Between 10 and 24 years, and
• 7%: Above 65 years.

Crude Birth Rate (CBR) • 20 Live Births per 1000 population (from 41 in 1951).
• CBR declining, but still higher than Mortality/Crude Death rate
Total Fertility Rate • Overall TFR: 2 [Below
(NFHS 5 – 2019-21) Total Fertility Rate: the average
Replacement Levels] (from 6 in
number of children that would be
1951).
born to a woman if she experiences
• States yet to achieve a
the current age-specific fertility rate
replacement-level of fertility of
throughout her reproductive years
2.1: Bihar, Meghalaya, Uttar
(15-49 years).
Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Manipur.
Mortality/Crude Death rate • 6 per 1000 population (from 25 in 1951).
Total Work-age population • Total Work-age population – 65% of total population

2.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

Physical Factor
Climate • Low population density in extreme weather areas
Landform • Preference for flat plains and gentle slopes
• Inhibition of population concentration due to frequent storms, earthquakes, floods, and
Natural Disasters
wildfires
Socio-economic -cultural Factors
Industrialization • Industrial belts attracting large populations, like the Kobe-Osaka region of Japan
Urbanization • Cities offering better economic possibilities, educational and medical resources
Social
• Promotion of migration and settlement in new regions through community networks
Organization

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Demographic Factors
• Migration influenced by push factors (negative circumstances) at the place of origin and
Migration
better opportunities in distant lands
Political Factors
• Negative impact on population growth due to conflicts between political parties or persons
Political turmoil
of different religious beliefs
• Negative impact on population growth due to prejudice or discrimination
Prejudice
• E.g., Delhi Riots 2020, Manipur Riots 2023, etc.

KEY DEFINIITIONS
• Demographic Dividend refers to economic growth potential resulting from shifts in a population’s age structure,
mainly when the share of workage population (15 to 64) is larger than the share of non working-age population.
- India has 65% population between 15-64 years. India’s Demographic Dividend will peak around 2025 and
last till 2041.
• Population stabilization is a stage when the size of the population remains unchanged. It is also called the stage
of zero population growth.
- Country level population stabilization occurs when births plus in-migration equals deaths plus out-
migration. India has set itself the goal of achieving the population stabilization by 2045.

2.2 ADVANTAGES AND CHALLENGES OF DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND

Advantages Challenges

Increased Labour Force: India's working-age population Low literacy and poor skill development
(15-64 years) is expected to increase to 65% by 2030

Low Human Development: India ranks 134


Capital Formation: Increasing saving rate indicating the out of 193 countries in the Human
potential for higher capital formation and investment. Development Index.

Job Creation: India needs to create around


Female Human Capital: Improved female education and 8-10 million jobs annually to absorb the
health can lead to a potential increase in WLFPR. increasing working-age population.

Economic Growth: The demographic dividend could add


2% to India's annual GDP growth rate over the next two Informal Economy: The informal sector in
decades.(UNFPA) India employs >85% of the workforce.

Infrastructure: With a growing working-age population,


there is an opportunity to invest in infrastructure Poor labor force participation rate: It was
development. 58% in 2022-23(PLFS).

Skilled Workforce: With the potential to drive growth in Missing Women From Workforce: WLFPR
sectors like IT, healthcare, and manufacturing. remains at just 37% in 2022-2023.(PLFS)

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2.3 PLANNING IN INDIA ASSOCIATED WITH POPULATION


• First Five-Year Plan: In 1952, India launched its population control program.
• Third Five-Year Plan: In 1965, sterilization for both men and women was introduced. An independent Family
Planning Department was established.
• Fourth Five-Year Plan: Emphasized the promotion of birth control measures.
• Fifth Five-Year Plan: On April 16, 1976, the National Population Policy was announced, raising the minimum
marriage age from 18 to 21 for boys and from 14 to 18 for girls.
• Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Plans: These plans focused on long-term strategies for controlling the population
to achieve demographic advantages.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATION FOR POPULATION CONTROL


• Individual Autonomy: Respect each person's right to make their own decisions about family planning without
interference.
• Informed Consent: Provide accurate information and ensure individuals can make informed choices about family
planning.
• Voluntary Participation: Encourage people to participate in population control measures voluntarily, without
coercion.
• Non-Discrimination: Ensure that population control measures do not discriminate based on gender, caste, religion,
or socio-economic status.
• Reproductive Health Services: Offer comprehensive reproductive healthcare and family planning services to
everyone.
• Sustainable Development: Integrate population control efforts with goals for environmental sustainability and the
well-being of future generations.

2.4 POPULATION CONTROL POLICY/BILL: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

• Population Control Bill Introduced in Lok Sabha: In December 2022, two Members of Parliament introduced in
the Lok Sabha a private members’ Bill aimed at population control in India.
• Uttar Pradesh Population Control Bill: The Uttar Pradesh government has released a draft population control
bill that aims to bring down the gross fertility rate and stabilize the population. The Bill has provision to debar
people who have more than two children from government schemes and perks.

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NEED FOR POPULATION CONTROL POLICY (Can also use these points for Consequence of Overpopulation)
• Stabilise Population momentum - Despite having achieved a substantial reduction in its average fertility rate,
India’s population is still growing rapidly has overtaken China’s.
- Poor performance of Northern states in reducing TFR - UP and Bihar (highest fertility rates) form 25% of
India’s population and are projected to grow by over 12% and 20% in the next 15 years.
• Infrastructure strain & Poor socio-economic indicators – Despite major successes in fields of industrialisation,
science & technology, it has become difficult to meet the basic needs of the citizens - Health, food & nutrition,
education, housing, water supply, sewerage, transportation & communication.
• Challenges of Unemployment, Poverty & inequality - With the rise in population, number of people exceeds
the number of jobs available ➔unemployment + rising income inequalities & poverty.
- Underutilization of Manpower: h many skilled individuals remaining underemployed or unemployed
• Decreased Efficiency and Rising Costs: The increased demand due to overpopulation has led to higher
production costs, especially in agriculture, contributing to inflation and reduced output.
• Social tensions & conflicts - Population growth causes a strain on the limited natural resources which might
create tensions within & between social groups & states.
• Environmental & ecological consequences: A bourgeoning population has resulted in intense pressure on
land, rising pollution, unsustainable exploitation of resources, collapsing fisheries, shrinking forests, rising
temperatures, loss of biodiversity etc.
• Excessive use of female sterilisation – Population control policy could serve to correct this anomaly. E.g. Even
Kerala, with all its progress, still relies on female sterilisation (>85 %) as the predominant modern method of
contraception.
• Social awareness messages not sufficient - They need to go hand in hand with clear & effective population
control policies.

POPULATION CONTROL POLICY: AN UNNECCESSARY COERCION


• No evidence of a "population explosion” – According to NFHS, 31 out of 36 states/UTs have already achieved
the replacement level fertility rates of 2.1.
• Worsening sex ratio – Population control policies, penalising more than 2 child births, may increase sex-
selective practices and unsafe abortions, especially given the strong son preference in India.
- For eg. China is a perfect example of the proven inefficiency of coercive one child policies.
• Impact on rights of citizens – Population control policies may tend to coerce citizens or infringe their dignity
and personal liberty as protected under Article 21 of the Constitution.
• Exclusions of the vulnerable – Policy that limits the government benefits (health, education, etc) to only two
children will impact the nutritional & developmental status of the most vulnerable, esp. women.
• Unintended social consequences – Two child norm may cause men to divorce wives to run for local body
elections, or families to give up children for adoption. For eg. impact of laws in Gujrat, Rajasthan, AP, Haryana
etc. that have set out such disqualifications criteria in local body elections.
• Evolving ambits of paternal state - Evident that Government has no trust in ability of its citizens to take well-
reasoned steps for their own welfare.
• Against international convention - Programme of Action of International Conference on Population and
Development (UN 1994), to which India is a signatory, strongly avers that coercions have little role to play in
population stabilisation and to be replaced by principle of informed free choice.

WAY FORWARD
• Seeing Population as a Resource rather than Burden: Instead of population control policies at the state level,
India needs a universal policy to utilize population in a better way.
• Adopt Direct and indirect measures: Need for optimal combination of Family planning approach and
Developmental approach.

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MK YADAV SIR’s: MAINS BOOSTER SERIES 2024 - 25
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• Family Planning - Increasing awareness for the use of
Key Government Initiatives
contraceptives and family planning methods, sex
• Mission Parivar Vikas: to reduce TFR in high
education, encouraging male sterilisation and spacing population states.
births, free distribution of contraceptives etc. • Compensation Scheme for Sterilization
• Strengthen health infra & focus on socio-economic Acceptors
issues: The success of India’s southern states in • Clinical Outreach Teams (COT) Scheme:
containing population growth indicates that economic provides family planning services through
growth, as well as attention to education, health, and mobile teams
empowerment of women, work far better to • Scheme for ASHAs to Ensure Spacing in Births:
disincentivize larger families than punitive measures. counsel newly married couples.
• Women centric approach: like incentivising female
education, late marriages and childbirths and promote International Initiatives
women’s labour force participation etc. • SDG 3: Ensures universal access to sexual and
• Social security to Elderly: Ensure adequate social security reproductive healthcare services.
• (SDG) 10.7: Seeks to facilitate orderly, safe,
& insurance benefits for the ageing population to
regular, and responsible migration and
effectively reduce desire for more children.
mobility of people.
• Institutions and structures for implementation –
• UNFPA: Aims to end unmet need for family
Coordination among different levels of government,
planning, preventable maternal deaths, and
between different ministries (eg. Health, Education, gender-based violence and harmful practices
Women, Rural Development) for holistic approach. by 2030.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, India's population landscape presents both significant opportunities and formidable challenges. A
young and dynamic population can drive innovation, economic growth, and global competitiveness. To fully leverage
this potential, it is essential to invest in quality education, vocational training, and healthcare, ensuring that the
workforce is skilled, healthy, and capable of contributing to the economy.

CURRENT CONNECT
• Recently, the working paper "Share of Religious Minorities: A Cross-Country Analysis (1950-2015)”, put out by
the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM) claimed that while the share in population of
Muslims increased by 43% in this time period, the share in population of Hindus decreased by 8%.
- In 1950, Hindus’ share in population was 85%, coming down to 78% in 2015. Similarly, Muslims’ share in
population had risen from 10% to 14%.
• These reports are being misinterpreted by media and politicians and being criticized on following grounds:
- Population data (number of children) a family chooses to have been influenced more by socio-economic
factors: Such as education and economic conditions than by religion. Communities with better access to
education, health care, and economic opportunities tend to have lower fertility rates.
- It often highlights the shortcomings in levels of human development.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)


1. Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in
detail. (2021,15 marks)
2. Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty OR poverty is the main cause of
population increase in India. (2015, 10 marks)
3. Discuss the changes in the trends of labour migration within and outside India in the last four decades. (2015,
12.5 marks)

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3 ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION


Related Keywords: From women development to women led development, Nari Shakti, 3Ss to women: Suvidha,
Suraksha, Samman, from Prisoners of aspirations to Agents of change, From labharthis (beneficiaries) to Equals,
Sashakt Nari, Sashakt Bharat.

“Empowerment of women leads to the development of a good family, good society and, ultimately, a good nation.
When the woman is happy, the home is happy. When the home is happy, the society is happy, and when the society
is happy, the state is happy, and when the state is happy, there will be peace in the country, and it will develop at
a greater pace.” APJ Abdul Kalam

KEY FACTS
Globally: World has closed 68% of gender gap. But, it will take >130 years to close the
gender gap (far beyond SDG 2030 target).
Gender Parity • Iceland tops the rankings and is the only economy to have closed > 90% of gap.
Global Gender Gap Report th
(2024) India: India ranked 129 of 146 countries (slipped down from 127 rank in 2023).
• Ranks poorly among its neighbours: Behind Bangladesh (99), China (106), Nepal
(117). Sri Lanka (122), & Bhutan (124).
Economic Gender Gap
Global India
(Global Gender Gap Female Labour Force 65% 35% (Men 75%)
Report (2024) Participation Rate (Men 80%)
Wage Gap (ILO) Women earn 80% Women earn 70% of what men
of what men earn earn for same job
for same job
Advancement Gap Women in Senior Women in Senior Position: >15%
Position: >30% Women in Technical/
Professional Position: 30%
• India has the 2nd largest artificial intelligence (AI) workforce, but one of the largest
AI gender gaps, with only 20% of roles filled by women.
Political Gender Gap
Global India
(Global Gender Gap Women in Parliament 25% 17%
Report (2024) Women in Ministerial Position 20% <7%
Women in Local Governance 35% 45%
• Women Peace and Security Index (2023): India is among the top 10 worst countries
for political violence targeting women
Educational Attainment • Only 65% of women in India are literate compared with 80% of men.
• The number of girls in India is more than the number of boys at all levels of school
Education (Primary to Tertiary) [Ministry of Education]
• STEM’s leaky pipeline - Women constitute >40% of the total STEM enrollments
Women in STEM
disciplines (Science, - But make up <15% of scientists, engineers and technologists employed in
Technology, Engineering R&D institutions ➔ Global average – 30%
and Mathematics) • Bright Spots
- Draft National Science, Technology & Innovation Policy: Mandates at least
30% of the total strength, in all decision-making bodies, to be women.

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MK YADAV SIR’s: MAINS BOOSTER SERIES 2024 - 25
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- 11 out of 18 divisions (60%) in the Department of Science & Technology (DST)
are now headed by women.
Health and survival gap • Overall Sex Ratio: 1020 Women, for every 1000 Men (NFHS-5)
- Sex ratio in rural areas is better as compared to urban areas
• Sex ratios at birth - Abnormally low in India (929/1000)
- Sex-selective abortions, forced marriage & discrimination in access to health.
• Under 5 Mortality Rate: India is among the few countries in the world where the
mortality under-5 years of girls, exceeded that of boys (UN Report, 2018).
• >90% women are involved in Unpaid domestic services for household members,
Women’s unpaid care (Vs. 27% of men).
work [NSO] • Women spend 3 times the amount of time spent by men daily in unpaid work.
• Contribution of unpaid women to Indian economy: 7.5% of GDP (SBI report)
• Violence: 30% women have experienced physical or sexual violence (NFHS 5)
Crime against women
• India’s rape-related crime rate: rose 70% over the last two decades.
(NRCB)
• Low rape conviction rate - <25%
• India has largest number of child brides in world: 1/3rd of global total (UNICEF).
Child marriage in India
• About 25% of girls (in age group 20-24 years) are married before age of 18 Years.
• Three billion women and girls live in countries where rape within marriage is not
Rape within marriage
explicitly criminalized (UN Women)
Inheritance Rights
• In one out of five countries, girls do not have the same inheritance rights as boys.
(UN Women)
Economic Opportunity • If women participated in the Indian economy at the level men do, annual GDP could
[McKinsey Global Institute] be increased by upto 60% above its projected GDP by 2025.
• Current Contribution of Women to GDP - 18% (half the global average).
Social benefits of
• Women spend 90% of their income on their families, and economically empowered
Economically Empowering
women boost demand, have healthier and better-educated children, and raise
women
human development levels.
[UN India Business Forum]
• Supreme Court: only 11 women judges since its inception, no women Chief Justices.
Women Representation in • High Courts: Just 13% of all judges in the high courts are women.
Judiciary • Subordinate Courts: Only 35% of subordinate court judges are women.
• Women lawyers: only 15% of total advocates are women.

• <15% of Total Government employees are women.


Women in Bureaucracy
• Women in Police: Only 10% of Police force (BPRD)
Women in Police (BPRD) • Only 10% of Police force
FINANCIAL AUTONOMY OF WOMEN IN INDIA

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3.1 STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA

3.1.1 SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND WOMEN IN INDIA


• Institution of Family: Patrilineal descent and patrilocality are predominant, resulting in property inheritance
through male offspring and the transfer of women's residence after marriage ➔ Son meta preference &
daughter’s neglect in terms of resources and opportunities (unwanted & missing girls).
• Socialisation within the family: Socialisation perpetuates gendered roles and relationships and encourages
girls to have low self-esteem. Ex: Media, school books, and societal norms reinforce gender stereotypes.
• Caste Structure: Women's subordination was key in developing the caste hierarchy, with higher castes
imposing stricter constraints on women. Control over female sexuality was essential to maintaining caste
purity and economic power.
• Class structure: In urban areas, upper-caste women from the middle class have emerged from seclusion to
pursue education and employment.
• Access to Education: Gender disparities persist in terms of enrolment rates, retention, and educational
attainment levels, particularly in rural and marginalized communities. However, the trend has improved in
recent times: More girls are now enrolled in higher education than boys.
• Economic empowerment: limited access to economic opportunities, including formal employment, equal pay,
entrepreneurship, property rights and financial inclusion.
• Reproductive Health and Rights: Limited access to healthcare services, high maternal mortality rates, and
inadequate family planning measures affect women's overall well-being and decision-making autonomy.
- High instance of Female Feticide and Infanticide.
● Gender-based Violence:
Including domestic
violence, sexual
harassment, dowry-related
violence, and female
infanticide. Rape and
Sexual Harassment hinder
women's freedom, safety &
mobility.
- The Delhi gang rape
case in December 2016
triggered widespread
protests, led to the
establishment of the Justice Verma panel, and facilitated fast-track judgments.

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3.1.2 LEGAL PROTECTION FOR WOMEN IN INDIA

3.1.3 RIGHT TO SAFE AND LEGAL ABORTION


News: The Supreme Court has held that all women, irrespective of their marital status, are entitled to safe and legal
abortion till 24 weeks of pregnancy under the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act.

ABOUT ABORTION
• Definition: Abortion is a health care intervention that terminates pregnancy by using medication or a surgical
procedure, usually before the embryo or foetus is capable of independent life.

MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (AMENDMENT) ACT, 2021: KEY FEATURES


• It amends Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, 1971.
• Raises the upper limit for abortion from 20 to 24 weeks for certain categories of women (See Image)

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• Termination due to failure of contraceptive device: Pregnancy may be terminated up to 20 weeks by a
married or unmarried woman (Earlier applicable to only married women).
• Medical Boards: All state &UTs will constitute a Medical Board, which will decide if the pregnancy may be
terminated after 24 weeks due to substantial foetal abnormalities (No such Provision earlier).
• Confidentiality clause: The name of the woman whose pregnancy has been terminated cannot be revealed
except to a person authorized by law.

AMENDMENT ACT 2021: KEY POSITIVES


• Highly progressive law: Allows legal abortions on a broad range of therapeutic, humanitarian & social grounds
➔ Protecting Reproductive rights & bodily autonomy of women.
• Encourage safe & legal abortion: And contribute to meeting SDG goals by ending preventable maternal
mortality and providing comprehensive abortion care to all.
- Unsafe abortions are the 3rd leading cause of maternal mortality in India (UNFPA) ➔ 8 women die each
day from causes related to unsafe abortions.
• Maintaining the dignity of rape victims: aims to ease the pain of rape victims and facilitates the termination
of the unwanted pregnancy upto a period of 24 weeks.
• Protection of Right to privacy: It protects the privacy of a person who seeks an abortion.
• Preserves Life Chances of a Child: The legal status of abortion can also affect children’s educational outcomes
and their earnings in the labour market later in life.
- For example, the legalization of abortion can be linked to greater parental investments in children.
• Robust regulatory mechanism: To take decisions on pregnancies that need to be terminated after 24 weeks.
AMENDMENT ACT 2021: ASSOCIATED CHALLENGES
• May lead to illicit abortions under unsafe conditions: as the law does not permit abortion at will and applies
only in certain cases, such as the case of a survivor of rape or incest, or is a minor, etc.
• Skewed focus: The act is not focused on women and their reproductive rights. It only focuses on red lines that
medical practitioners cannot cross while performing abortions.
• Restrict healthcare providers’ duties: Criminalisation and restrictive laws on abortion prevent healthcare
providers from doing their job.
• Lack of specialists & medical infrastructure: There is a 70% shortage of obstetrician-gynecologists in rural
India. Only 50% of abortions are performed by registered medical doctor.
• No time frame for the Medical Boards: to examine the pregnancy and give their opinion.
• Non-inclusive in nature: It's unclear if transgender people will be protected by the Act.

WAY FORWARD
• Allow for early access to vulnerable women: for safer & swifter termination of such pregnancies.
• Quality abortion care: Multiple actions are needed at the legal, health system, and community levels so that
everyone who needs abortion care has access to it.
• Increment in qualified doctors and overcoming health infrastructure gap, esp. at rural level.
• Ease of living for women: so that they can lead healthy, economically empowered, & violence free lives.
• Expansion of provisions: to encompass Transgenders.
• Transforming Societal mindset – Awareness programmes centred around reforming attitudes towards
pregnancies, contraceptives, status of women etc.

3.1.4 SURROGACY

DEFINING SURROGACY
• The 2021 Act defines Surrogacy as a practice where a woman gives birth to a child for an intending couple,
and agrees to hand over the child to the couple after the birth.

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• Surrogacy can be categorised as
- Altruistic surrogacy: involves an arrangement where the couple does not pay the surrogate mother any
compensation other than the medical & insurance expenses for pregnancy.
- Commercial surrogacy: includes compensation (in cash/kind) to surrogate mother that exceeds the
reasonable medical expenses associated with pregnancy.
• Status of Surrogacy in India
Status of Surrogacy in other countries
- Initially began in an altruistic mode, but soon developed into a full
• Regulated ban - Australia, Canada
fledged commercial industry with its legalization in 2002. India
banned commercial surrogacy, but
become the ‘Surrogacy Capital of the World’. altruistic surrogacy allowed.
- However, the legality was based on ICMR guidelines, without any • Complete Ban - France, Italy,
legislative backing. This led to unregulated ‘commercialisation’ of Germany, Spain, Thailand – all
surrogacy, creating legal & ethical challenges. types banned.
- Hence, a ban on surrogacy for foreign nationals was announced in • Regulated Commercial surrogacy
2015, and commercial surrogacy was completely prohibited with allowed - Russia
the passage of Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021.
SURROGACY (REGULATION) ACT, 2021: Key Features
• Regulation of surrogacy: Act prohibits commercial surrogacy.
• Eligibility criteria: heterosexually married Indian couples with proven infertility
• Mandatory certificate: They must first obtain a certificate of recommendation from a District Medical Board.
• Eligibility for surrogate mother: should be a close relative of the intending couple; a married woman having a
child of her own (25-35 years old); Not have been a surrogate mother earlier & has a certificate of medical and
psychological fitness.
• Mandatory counseling sessions for both intended couples and surrogate mothers.
• Establishment of a dedicated National & State level Surrogacy Board for oversight and regulation.
• Compulsory Registration of surrogacy clinics.
• Abortion of surrogate child – It requires the written consent of the surrogate mother and the authorisation
of the appropriate authority ➔ to be compliant with Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH THE ACT
• Definition of ‘infertility’ is restricted to failure to conceive: There may be medical conditions where an
intending mother may be able to conceive a child, but can’t bear a child.
• Discriminatory in nature: as the legislation contravenes the 'right to reproductive choices' under Article 21
by excluding LGBTQIA, unmarried couples, and single parents.
• Restricted rights of Intending couples: They have no say in the consent to abort a surrogate child.
• Excessive delegation of legislative powers: The act allows the NSB to prescribe ‘any other condition or disease’
for which surrogacy may be allowed. It is unclear what is implied by ‘any other condition’.
• Absence of Appeal mechanism: No review/appeal procedure in case surrogacy application is rejected.
• Banning commercial surrogacy: It ignores the proposition that the money provided to the surrogate is for her
to improve her standard of living and acts as her livelihood ➔ Takes away reproductive agency
- May drive surrogacy industry underground, which may make surrogates even more vulnerable.
WAY FORWARD
• Implementation challenges must be preempted & resolved expeditiously. Law needs to be dynamic enough
to adapt to changing technologies & societal expectations.
- For eg. ‘Triple test criteria’ (Genetic, Physical & Economic Test) proposed by Kerala High court may serve
to ease implementation.
• Redefining close relative: allow any willing woman with acquaintance to act as a surrogate mother, to provide
enhanced options for surrogacy.
• Establishing Re-appeal Mechanism: Intending couple or the surrogate mother should have option to file an
appeal within a stipulated time.
• Encourage & Uncomplicate Adoption procedure to make it a simpler alternative to Surrogacy.

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3.1.5 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA'S WOMEN EMPOWERMENT PROGRAMS/SCHEMES

• Gender Budgeting: adopted in 2005 to ensure a gender perspective in policy formulation & budgets.
• Nirbhaya Fund: In 2013 with a corpus of Rs. 1,000 crores to promote women's safety and empowerment.
• Maternity Benefit Act 1961: amended in 2017, provides paid maternity leave and crèche facility. Maternity
leave increased from 12 to 26 weeks, with the option for work from home based on mutual agreement.
• Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao: Campaign promoting awareness and enhancing welfare services for girls in India.
• Working women hostel: Aims to provide safe accommodation with daycare facilities for working women in
urban, semi-urban, and rural areas.
• Swadhar Greh: Provides support and necessities (shelter, food, clothing, and social, economic, and health
security) to marginalised women facing difficult circumstances (survivors of violence & natural disasters.
• Support to Training cum Employment for Women (STEP): Launched in 1986, it offers training and
employment opportunities for women below the poverty line in sectors like agriculture and animal husbandry.
• Swayamsidha: An integrated program promoting women's empowerment through awareness, economic
independence, and convergence of services like literacy and health.
• Rashtriya Mahila Kosh: A national mechanism providing micro-credit to poor and asset-less women in the
informal sector to meet their financial needs.
• Access to Credit: NABARD-SHG Bank Linkage program, Rashtriya Mahila Kosh, Stand-up India, Mudra yojana.
• Institutional Measures: Union Ministry of Women and Child Development, National Commission for Women.

CURRENT CONNECT
Namo Drone Didi Scheme: Under the initiative, rural women are trained to become drone pilots for agricultural
purposes. The initiative aims to enhance economic empowerment and financial autonomy among women,
especially in rural areas.
• The initiative aims to equip 15,000 women-led Self-Help Groups (SHGs) with agricultural drones to assist in
tasks such as crop monitoring, spraying fertilisers and sowing seeds. This will also provide additional income
opportunities for many women.

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3.1.6 SOLUTIONS TO THE CHALLENGES FACED BY WOMEN

Conclusion: Women's issues in India continue to pose significant challenges despite efforts towards empowerment
and gender equality. The prevalence of violence, discrimination, and limited economic opportunities hinder women's
progress. However, through comprehensive legal reforms, awareness campaigns, and targeted programs, positive
steps have been taken. Continued collective action is necessary to address deep-rooted social norms, ensure safety
and equal opportunities, and create an inclusive society where women can thrive and achieve their full potential.

3.2 EVOLUTION OF WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION IN INDIA

FIRST PHASE (1850-1915)


• Focused on reforming societal issues mainly center around Women.

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• Notable Reformers: Raja Ram Mohan Roy Campaigned against ‘sati’, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar; Fought for
widow remarriage, Jyoti Rao Phule; Advocated for women's upliftment.
• Key Issues Addressed: Polygamy, Purdah (veil system), Widow remarriage, Women’s education.

SECOND PHASE (1915-1947)


• This phase saw the birth of three major Organizations formed by women between 1917 and 1927 after World
War I. Nationalism became the main cause.
- Women’s India Association (WIA): The first purely feminist organisation in India.
- National Council of Women in India (NCWI): Became the national branch of the International Council of
Women. Focused on advising the government on welfare issues rather than grassroots activism.
- All India Women’s Conference (AIWC): Focused on the upliftment of women and national service.

THIRD PHASE (1947 – 1975)


• Emergence of New Women’s Movement advocating for the Uniform Civil Code within the gender politics
framework.
• Key Contributions
- National Federation of Indian Women (NFIW) established in 1954 by leaders including Aruna Asaf Ali.
- CPI(M) set up Shramik Mahila Sangathana in 1971 to mobilise lower-middle and working-class women.
- Anti-price rise movement (1973): United women from CPI(M), Socialist, Congress, and non-party middle-
class housewives.

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1975 – PRESENT
• Steady increase in the number of women’s welfare organisations (Over 100)
• Focused on providing services to enable women to gain legal advantages.
• Important organisations
- SEWA (Self-Employed
Women’s Association):
Founded by Ela Bhatt, it
aimed to provide full
employment and self-
reliance to women.
- National Commission
for Women (1992):
Hears complaints and
redresses grievances.
- Rashtriya Mahila Kosh
(1993): Provides
financial assistance to
Self-Help Groups (SHG)
for starting industries or
occupations.
- Balika Samriddhi Yojana (1997): Supports poor mothers and their girl children.
- Swa-Shakti Project (1998): Assists women in starting productive work with financial help from the
government.

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EXAMPLES/BEST PRACTICES/CASE STUDIES
• Social Movement by women (Manipur): Women known as Meira Paibis or “women torch bearers” are loosely
organized, usually led by groups of senior women to fight alcoholism and drug abuse has now expanded to
countering human rights violations and the development of society at large.
• Women movement in Marathwada region (Mumbai): India’s Ekal Mahila Sangathan (Single Women’s
Organisation), an NGO organized a kabaddi competition to bring out women (widows, single women, women
who are divorced and those abandoned) from their homes.
• Example of women’s equality (Tamil Nadu): For the first time, the Tamil Nadu government has trained three
women as temple priests at an institution for the training of priests. This heralds a “new era of inclusivity and
equality” as even at a time when women were becoming pilots and astronauts, they were not allowed to become
priests in many temples, because it was deemed impure, even in temples for female deities.
• Example of courage, fight for women’s rights: Iranian activist Narges Mohammadi won the Nobel Peace Prize
in recognition of her tireless campaigning for women’s rights and democracy, and against the death penalty.

CURRENT CONNECT
• In a significant ruling, the Supreme Court of India reaffirmed the rights of married women over their streedhan.
- Streedhan refers to any asset received by a woman at any point during her lifetime. Usually, these include gifts
received by her at the time of her birth, marriage, widowhood. The SC held that a husband has no control over
his wife’s ‘streedhan’ (a woman’s property) and recognized a woman’s absolute right over her property.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)


1. Explain why suicide among young women is increasing in Indian society. (2023, 10 Marks)
2. Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India. (2021, 10 Marks)
3. What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space? (2019, 10 Marks)
4. “Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss (2019, 10 Marks)
5. ‘Women’s movement in India has not addresses the issues of women of lower social strata.’ Substantiate your
view (2018, 15 Marks)
6. The women’s questions arose in modern India as a part of the 19th-century social reform movement. What are
the major issues and debates concerning women in that period? (2017, 15 Marks)
7. How do you explain the statistics that show that the sex ratio in Tribes in India is more favorable to women than
the sex ratio among Scheduled Castes? (2015, 12.5 Marks)
8. Why do some of the most prosperous regions of India have an adverse sex ratio for women? Give your
arguments. (2014, 10 Marks)
9. Discuss the various economic and socio-cultural forces that are driving increasing feminization of agriculture in
India (2014, 12.5 Marks)
10. How does patriarchy impact the position of a middle-class working woman in India? (2014, 12.5 Marks)
11. Male membership needs to be encouraged in order to make women’s organization free from gender bias.
Comment. (2013, 10 Marks)

========================================================================================

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4 POVERTY
Related Keywords
• From the Cherry-picking approach to the Collective Development approach, Collective harm to society, Breaking
the shackles of poverty cycle, Symbiosis of two visions: Poverty elimination and shared prosperity, Poverty
induced inequality, Breaking the vicious cycle or “chakravyuh” of poverty.

“Poverty is the greatest violence. Pacifism that can see the cruelties only of occasional military warfare and is blind
to the continuous cruelties of our social system is worthless.” Mahatma Gandhi

4.1 FACTS AND DEFINITION


• Poverty: A state or condition when people
International Definition:
lack the means to satisfy their basic needs
• According to the World Bank, Poverty is “pronounced
due to inadequate financial resources and
deprivation in well-being”. The poor are those who do not
essentials for a minimum standard of
have enough income or consumption to put them above
living.
some adequate minimum threshold.
• Development: Improvement in a
• As per the updated poverty line by the World Bank,
country's economic and social conditions
people earning below $2.15 per day are extremely poor.
to create wealth and improve people’s
lives.
• According to UNDP, multi-dimensional poverty looks at how people experience poverty in multiple,
overlapping ways which compasses three dimensions of poverty i.e., health, education and standard of living.
Kay Facts:
• Multidimensional Poverty Index Report by UNDP 2023: Globally, about 18% of people live in
multidimensional poverty (1.1 billion people).
• Multi-Dimensional Poor in India – 16.5% of Population ➔ Largest number of poor in the world.
- Achievements: Incidence of multidimensional poverty fell from 55% to 16% in just 15 years (2005-06 to
2019-21) – 415 million out of poverty. ie. SDG Target of 1.2 by 2030 is possible to be achieved by India.

4.2 TYPES, ISSUES, CAUSES & CHALLENGES WITH POVERTY


There are two types of Poverty, namely:
• Absolute Poverty: Measured by taking
into context the household income, if
it is below a necessary level to
maintain basic living standards such as
food, shelter, housing, etc.
• Relative Poverty: The percentage of
the population with income less
than some fixed proportion of
median income defining income
inequality.

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4.2.1 ISSUES WITH POVERTY
• No Growth: Poor families experience extra stress without focusing on growth.
• Health Issues: The poor are prone to a variety of health issues, such as early adult death, mental illness, and
infant mortality.
• Child Labor: Children belonging to poor families are often associated with work from an early age.
• Persistence of Poverty: Illiteracy perpetuates the cycle of poverty for coming generations.
• Criminalization: Poor people tend to move towards crime, and they also account for the bulk of victims.
• Dimensions of poverty include: Hunger and malnutrition, Social discrimination, Social exclusion, Lack of
participation in decision-making.

4.2.2 CAUSES OF POVERTY


• Population Rise: The poverty graph (NITI Aayog) of a
region is also influenced by its population density.
When it comes to poverty, areas with a high density of
people are designated red because of resource
shortages and overcrowding.
• Socio-Political:
- Social evils: Like untouchability gender
discrimination, racism, or other forms of poverty
are directly correlated.
- Inequality of opportunities: Inequality causes the
weaker groups in society to suffer an unfair loss of
opportunity, which increases their vulnerability.
- Casteism: People from lower castes may experience
discrimination in the job market despite having
comparable qualifications, which could result in
lower-paying positions or unemployment.
- Lack of Education: Without education, poverty is
a vicious cycle that doesn’t allow people to improve
their situations.
✓ UNESCO Global Education Monitoring Report: Over 170 million people could be free of extreme
poverty if they only had basic reading skills.

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• Lack of good/universal healthcare - Healthcare is often too expensive or inaccessible to those who need it.
If people do seek treatment, the cost often ruins their finances and pushes people into poverty. It’s a vicious
cycle.
• Geographical Factor: When the forecasted rainfall does not occur, drought or floods occurs and agricultural
production is disrupted, it can lead to inflation-related poverty.
• Informal Sector: Over 90% of the population is employed in the informal sector, which hampers job and
income security.
- Issues in governance - Problems in the implementation of programmes and policies, corruption, etc.
- Rise in the Gig economy: Food delivery apps, cab etc. which often lacks job security

4.2.3 CHALLENGES IN ESTIMATING POVERTY


• Components of PLB: Figuring out the components of the poverty line basket (PLB) is difficult because the
prices of the items that make up the basket change from state to state and from one time to the next.
• Variations across states:
- Some states, such as Odisha and West Bengal, supported the Tendulkar Poverty Line, while others, such
as Delhi, Jharkhand, Mizoram, etc., supported the Rangarajan report.
- The current official measures of poverty are based on the Tendulkar poverty line, which is fixed at a daily
expenditure of ₹27.2 in rural areas and ₹33.3 in urban areas. Many criticize this line as too low.
• Demographic and Economic Dynamics: Furthermore, when the macroeconomy and demographic change, so
do consumption patterns, nutritional needs, and component pricing.
• The problem of determining the threshold: If the poverty line is set too high, many needy people may be
excluded, while setting it too low is harmful to the government's fiscal health.

4.3 FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY


The feminisation of poverty refers to a trend of increasing inequality in living standards between men and women due
to the widening gender gap in poverty.

4.3.1 CONSEQUENCES OF THE FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY


• Limited access to resources: Women in poverty often have limited access to essential resources such as
education, healthcare, clean water, and sanitation.
- This can result in adverse health outcomes, reduced economic opportunities, and perpetuate the cycle
of poverty.
• Income disparities and economic vulnerability: Women tend to have lower incomes and face wage gaps and
unequal pay compared to men. This economic vulnerability can lead to increased financial insecurity and
limited ability to meet their own needs and those of their families.
• Limited educational opportunities: Poverty can hinder women's access to quality education, which can restrict
their potential for personal and economic advancement. Limited educational opportunities can further
perpetuate gender inequalities and reinforce the cycle of poverty across generations.
• Health risks and social exclusion: Women in poverty often face higher health risks due to inadequate
healthcare access, poor nutrition, and exposure to unsafe living conditions. They may also experience social
exclusion and marginalisation, which can have negative psychological and emotional effects.
• Increased caregiving responsibilities: Women in poverty often shoulder disproportionate caregiving
responsibilities for children, elderly family members, and the sick. These responsibilities can limit their ability
to engage in income-generating activities, further exacerbating their economic vulnerability.

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• Gender-based violence: Poverty and gender inequality are closely intertwined, and women in poverty are
more vulnerable to various forms of gender-based violence, including domestic violence, sexual exploitation,
and trafficking.
Addressing the feminization of poverty requires comprehensive strategies that promote gender equality, women's
empowerment, and inclusive economic development.

4.4 POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMS IN INDIA


• Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP): Aiding the rural poor through subsidy and bank credit for
productive employment opportunities.
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana:
Affordable housing will be provided
to poor families.
• National Old Age Pension Scheme
(NOAPS): Providing pensions to
senior citizens.
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act:
Providing 100 days of assured
employment to every rural
household.
• Annapurna Scheme: Providing food
grains to senior citizens who cannot
take care of themselves.
• Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana:
Helping the poor by providing skill
training.
• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana: Focusing on skill development for fresh entrants to the labour market.
• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana: Promoting financial inclusion by opening bank accounts for the unbanked
poor.
• PM KISAN (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi): Providing greater access to credit to the farmers.
• Technology and digital initiatives for poverty alleviation:
- Mobile banking and digital payments: Enhancing financial inclusion.
- Aadhaar identification system: Streamlining welfare benefits.
- Jan Dhan Yojana: Promoting access to banking services.

Major committees dealing with poverty in India:


• National Committee on Rural Poverty (NCEPR): Eradicating rural poverty.
• National Committee on Urbanization (NCU): Addressing urban poverty.
• Committee on Financial Inclusion (Nachiket Mor Committee): Enhancing financial inclusion.
• High-Level Committee on Food Corporation of India (Shanta Kumar Committee): Enhancing food distribution
efficiency.

4.5 WAYS TO END POVERTY


Ending poverty in all its forms is the first of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development.

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Conclusion:
According to the UN, India lifted around 415 million people out of multidimensional poverty in a 15-year span
between 2005-06 and 2019-21. To eradicate all forms of poverty, India needs social and administrative innovations
and decentralized planning, making it a people’s movement.
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
1. Why did human development fail to keep pace with economic development in India? (2023, 15 marks)
2. COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India. Comment. (2020, 15 marks)
3. The incidence and intensity of poverty are more important in determining poverty based on income alone”. In
this context analyze the latest United Nations Multidimensional Poverty Index Report. (2020, 15 marks)
4. ‘Despite the implementation of various programmes for the eradication of poverty by the government in India,
poverty is still existing’. Explain by giving reasons. (2018, 10 Marks)
5. “An essential condition to eradicate poverty is to liberate the poor from the process of deprivation.”
Substantiate this statement with suitable examples. (2016, 12.5 Marks)
6. Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty or poverty is the main cause of population
increase in India. (2015, 12.5 Marks)

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5 HUNGER
Related Keywords
• Teething problems, Hidden hunger, Double/dual & triple burden of malnutrition (DBM), vicious cycle of poverty
and malnutrition.

“You might not feel it in the belly, but it strikes at the core of health and vitality” UNICEF

5.1 MEANING OF HUNGER


Hunger is defined by the United Nations as the period when people experience severe food insecurity—meaning that
they go for entire days without eating due to lack of money, access to food, or other resources. Poverty and hunger
are the two sides of the same coin. SDG 2 is about creating a world free of hunger by 2030.

5.2 HUNGER IN INDIA: DATA FACTS

Food and Nutrition


• 23% of women and 20% of men are undernourished
• Anaemia - >50% of pregnant women are anaemic.
Hunger & Malnutrition in • >65% children under age of 5 years are anaemic.
India (NFHS- 5) • Proportion of stunted children under 5 - 35% (global Average: 23%)
• Proportion of Underweight children - 30% (global Average: 13%)
• Proportion of wasted children - 20%
Obesity in India • India is ranked as the third most obese nation in the world after the US and China
(NFHS - 5) • 24% of women and 23% of men are overweight or obese.

5.3 GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES TO TACKLE HUNGER ISSUE


Hunger Alleviation Programs in India Features

Eat Right India Movement Outreach activity by FSSAI to promote healthy eating habits.

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Aims to reduce stunting, undernutrition, and anaemia among children and
POSHAN Abhiyan
women.
Improves nutritional levels among school children, promoting enrolment,
Mid-day Meal (MDM) scheme
retention, and attendance.
Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana
Maternity benefit program for pregnant women.
Yojana
Addition of key vitamins and minerals to staple foods to enhance nutritional
Food Fortification
content.
National Food Security Act, 2013 Entitles a percentage of the population to receive subsidised food grains.
Immunisation program targeting children under 2 years and pregnant
Mission Indra Dhanush
women against 12 diseases.
Integrated Child Development Offers services to children (0-6 years), pregnant women, and lactating
Services (ICDS) Scheme mothers.

5.4 STEPS NEEDED TO FIGHT HUNGER (WAY FORWARD)

Conclusion:
Even though concerted efforts are underway to fulfil SDG 2, which calls for zero hunger, a focused approach to
combating malnutrition is needed to reach the Global Nutrition targets by 2025 (WHO) and build thriving and
productive human capital.

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UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
1. There is a growing divergence in the relationship between poverty and hunger in India. The shrinking of social
expenditure by the government is forcing the poor to spend more on non-food essential items squeezing their
food – budget. - Elucidate. (2019)
2. How far do you agree with the view that the focus on lack or availability of food as the main cause of hunger
takes the attention away from ineffective human development policies in India? (2018)
3. Hunger and Poverty are the biggest challenges for good governance in India still today. Evaluate how far
successive governments have progressed in dealing with these humongous problems. Suggest measures for
improvement. (2017)

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6 INEQUALITY
Related Keywords
• Teething problems, Inequality of opportunity, Fight inequality to safeguard ideals of democracy, From "might
is right" to equality, Justice and fairness; Expanding the economic and education pie

The United Nations defines inequality as “the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and power that shape
well-being among individuals”.

6.1 IMPORTANT STATISTICS


• Wealth Inequality: Top 10% holds more than 75% of the national wealth (Oxfam)
• Income Inequality (State of Inequality in India Report, 2022): Top 1% earns 3 times the bottom 10%.
• Failure of trickle-down approach (during 2017-18 to 2019-2020): Incomes of the top 1% earners grew 15%
while that of the bottom 10% declined 1%.
• Poverty & Inequality divergence Trends: While poverty has fallen, inequality has significantly increased,
especially since 2000.

6.2 DIMENSIONS OF INEQUALITY


Differences in income, wealth, and resources, leads to unequal access to basic
Economic Inequality
needs like food, education, and healthcare.

Unequal treatment based on gender, race, ethnicity, caste, religion, or disability,


Social Inequality
results in differences in status, power, and privileges.

Unequal influence over political processes and decision-making, often correlating


Political Inequality with socioeconomic status and other forms of inequality.

Unequal access to education, jobs, housing, and healthcare, along with systemic
Racial and Ethnic Inequality
discrimination based on race or ethnicity
Differences in educational quality, resources, and opportunities, leading to ongoing
Educational Inequality social and economic disparities.
Disparities in access to digital technologies and internet connectivity, leading to
Digital Inequality
unequal opportunities in the digital age.
Disproportionate exposure to environmental hazards and limited access to clean
Environmental Inequality
air, water, and green spaces, often affecting marginalized communities.
Issues such as unequal pay, limited access to education and healthcare for women,
Gender Inequality gender-based violence, and fewer women in leadership roles.
The impact of a person’s social and economic background on their life
Intergenerational Inequality opportunities, showing how inequality can be passed down through generations.
Differences in development and living conditions between areas, resulting in
Spatial Inequality unequal access to services and opportunities based on location.

6.3 IMPACT OF INEQUALITY IN INDIA

Poverty and The Global Multidimensional Poverty Index 2023 reported that around 16.5% of India's
Marginalization population is multi-dimensionally poor.
Political Influence Wealth concentration leads to disproportionate political influence for the rich, affecting
policy-making and perpetuating inequality.
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6.4 MEASURES TO REDUCE INEQUALITY

6.4.1 OTHER GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES


• Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): Launched to ensure subsidies reach the intended beneficiaries directly, reducing
leakages and corruption.
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): Provides 100 days of guaranteed
employment to rural households, alleviating poverty and reducing economic disparities.

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• Reservation Policies: The Indian Constitution mandates reservation of seats in educational institutions and
government jobs for SCs, STs, and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) to promote social inclusion.
• Scheduled Castes Sub-Plan (SCSP): Allocates a specific budget for developing SCs to bridge the gap in socio-
economic indicators.
• Forest Rights Act (FRA) 2006: Recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling tribal communities over land and other
resources, aiming to rectify historical injustices.
• Right to Education (RTE) Act 2009: Mandates free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years,
aiming to bridge educational disparities.
• National Nutrition Mission (Poshan Abhiyaan): Aims to reduce malnutrition among children and mothers,
addressing intergenerational health inequalities.

Conclusion:
Inequality is a critical global issue with far-reaching consequences for individuals, communities, and nations. It
manifests in various forms, including economic, social, gender, racial, and educational disparities. Addressing these
inequalities requires a concerted effort to promote inclusive growth, social justice, and equitable resource distribution,
which are essential for bridging gaps and fostering sustainable development.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)


1. COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India. Comment. (2020, 10 marks)

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7 URBANIZATION
Related Keywords
• KEYWORDS FOR USE IN BODY OF THE ANSWER: Urbanisation as an Engine of Economic Growth, Urban centers
as ‘Accelerators for social and economic progress’, ‘Messy & Hidden’ Urbanisation, ‘Uncatered’ or ‘ignored’
urbanization, Ghettoization of ‘Urban Poor’, Slumisation of Indian Urbanisation, Ruralisation of Urban Life,
Unplanned urbanisation as a ‘Silent Crises’, Rural-Urban continuum; Rurbanisation.
• KEYWORDS FOR USE IN WAY FORWARD: From ‘Concrete Jungles’ to ‘Sponge Cities’
- From project-based to area-based/region based development approach
- From ‘Spatially & Socially Divided’ to ‘Connected & Inclusive’ Urban spaces
- From ‘Urban Sprawl’ to ‘Densification of Cities’/ ‘Compact Cities’

7.1 MEANING AND GENERAL FACTS ABOUT URBANISATION


• DEMOGRAPHICALLY, urbanisation refers to a process whereby populations move from rural to urban areas,
enabling cities and towns to grow.
• SOCIOLOGICALLY, urbanisation does not merely mean an increase in the population of cities, but also change
in migrants’ and residents’ attitude, belief, values, and behavioural patterns. It is associated with the ideology
of Urbanism.
- Urbanism is a distinctive way of life that is characterised by heterogeneity, complex division of labour &
interdependence, impersonality, anonymity, transient/non-permanent relations, individualism, high
mobility & technology etc.
- This way of life may even stretch beyond the administrative boundaries of cities.

GENERAL FACTS
World
• 55% of World’s Population in urban areas (Projected to increase to 68% by 2050).
Urban Population India
[NITI Aayog + MoHUA] • 35% of India’s Total Population in urban areas (Projected to increase to 50% by
2050)
• India has 2nd largest urban population in world (11% of global urban population)
Uneven Pattern of
Urbanisation • Over 75% urban population in just 10 states.
Economic Potential of
• With just 3% of total land, Urban areas contribute 60% to India’s GDP
Urban Areas
• 17% of Urban population lives in slums (1 in 6 urban Indian lives in slums).
Slums in India • Sanitation and Hygiene
[Census 2011] - 35% slums in India do not have access to treated tap water.
- >60% slum households lack proper drainage connection.
Urban Poverty in India • Multidimensional Poor – Nearly 5% Urban Population (NITI Aayog, MPI, 2023)

URBAN SYSTEM OF INDIA


An Urban area is defined based on an administrative boundary, a certain threshold of population size & density and
nature of work of residents (non agricultural).
• Statutory Towns: Settlements that are notified under law by the concerned State/UT government and with
local bodies such as municipal corporations, municipalities, municipal committees, etc., irrespective of their
demographic characteristics.

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• Census Towns: Settlements that are classified as urban in the census after they have met the following criteria:
Population Size: a minimum population of 5,000; Nature of Work: at least 75% of the male ‘main workers’
engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. Population Density: of at least 400 persons per sq. km.
- These are governed as villages and do not necessarily have urban local bodies.
• Outgrowths: Viable units, such as a village, clearly identifiable in terms of their boundaries & locations
- Outgrowths possess urban features in terms of infrastructure and amenities, such as pucca roads,
electricity, etc., and are physically contiguous with the core town of the urban agglomeration.
• Urban agglomeration = City/Towns along with their outgrowths. They are defined under Census of India.
• Suburbanisation: When cities/towns tend to get overcrowded or over-urbanised, it may result in urbanisation
of fringe areas around the city/town as an outlet. They are often more developed than hinterlands, with a
higher density of housing, amenities, and infrastructure.
- Other Factors Driving suburbanisation: High cost of living in core city/town area; work from home culture;
intensive communication & transport network between city & surrounding areas; inclusion of surrounding
areas of town within its municipal limits etc. For eg. Delhi & NCR region.
• Hinterlands: Areas that are located beyond the outskirts of a city or town, typically in rural or sparsely
populated areas. They are often characterized by large tracts of land, agriculture, and natural landscapes.
• Rurban cluster: It is a cluster of geographically contiguous villages with a population of 25000 to 50000 in plain
and coastal areas; & 5000 to 15000 in desert, hilly or tribal areas under Shyama Prasad Mukherji Rurban Mission.
- Objective: to create well planned SMART VILLAGES ie. an area which possesses the economic
characteristics and lifestyles of an urban area while retaining its essential rural features.
- Aibawk cluster in Aizwal, Mizoram became the first cluster to be completed under the Mission.

7.2 CHALLENGES WITH URBANIZATION

Economic Challenges Social Challenges Environmental Challenges

•Income Inequality: Significant •Social Inequality: Widening •Air Pollution:. 9 out of 10 most
disparities between rich and gaps & segregation (Gated polluted cities in India (IQAir,
poor. Comminities). 2024).
•Informal Economy: High •Health Risks: Increased •Waste Management:
reliance on insecure, low- Inadequate systems causing
paying jobs. pollution, lifestyle diseases, contamination.
psychological/mental issues
•Urban Poverty: Prevalent •Water Scarcity: Strained
poverty despite economic •Crime: Higher rates due to resources leading to shortages.
opportunities. density and deprivation.
•Climate Impact: Significant
•Slums: Substandard living •Depersonalisation & sense of contributor to GHGs.
conditions (>17% urban pop.) alienation

Governance Challenges Housing Challenges Infrastructure Challenges

•Fragmented Governance: •Shortages: Demand far •Inadequate basic amenities:


Inefficiencies from multiple exceeds supply. 50% open drainage in slums,
bodies. no fully sewwered city
•Affordability: Limited options
•Financial Weakness: Limited for low-income groups. •Maintenance: Lack of funds for
funds for infrastructure. upkeep.
•Poor Planning: Outdated •Outdated Laws: Rent control •Transport Issues: Inefficient
frameworks hindering growth. and building regulations. systems increasing congestion,
•Slum Conditions: Poor accidents etc
•Corruption: Undermines policy
and project effectiveness. planning leads to informal •Energy Supply: Unreliable,
settlements (Ghettos). affecting quality of life.

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Service Delivery Challenges Financing Challenges

•Accountability: Unclear responsibilities causing •Revenue Generation: Insufficient funds for


inefficiencies. development.
•Financial Issues: Dependence on subsidies, weak cost •Capital Access: Limited ability to raise market
recovery. funds.
•Regulation: Absence of independent authorities.
•Private Investment: Difficulties in attracting
•Service Quality: Bias towards infrastructure over private capital.
sustainable services.
•Innovative Financing: Need for new
mechanisms like PPPs

7.3 FACTORS LEADING TO URBANIZATION

7.4 IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON RURAL AREAS

POSITIVE IMPACTS NEGATIVE IMPACTS


Infrastructure Improvement: Enhanced roads, Rural-to-Urban Migration: Decline in rural population,
electricity, and internet access in rural areas. leading to workforce shortages in agriculture and other
local industries.
Remittances: Migrants send money back home, Changes in Agriculture: Increased mechanization can
boosting the rural economy. disadvantage small farmers.
Economic Diversification: New job opportunities in Urban Sprawl: Encroachment on rural lands results in the
tourism & services reduces dependency on agriculture loss of farmland and natural habitats
Social Changes: Potential for increased social mobility Environmental Impact: Increased pollution, waste, &
and equity as urban values influence rural areas. deforestation due to urban expansion harm rural
environments.

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Improved Connectivity: Enhanced transport links Education and Health Disparities: Persistent quality and
between rural and urban areas facilitate the flow of accessibility issues in education and healthcare facilities in
goods, services, and information. remote rural areas.
Skill Development: Exposure to urban environments Social Disruption: Tension from disrupted traditional
can lead to skill development and better job prospects social structures, such as caste and kinship lines.
for rural inhabitants.
Entrepreneurship: Urbanization encourages rural Cultural Erosion: Urban influence can lead to the erosion
entrepreneurship by providing better access to of traditional rural culture and practices.
markets and resources.

7.5 URBAN GOVERNANCE


Need for Urban Governance:
• ‘Cities as engines of growth’: With 30% urban population, Indian cities contribute 60% to GDP ➔ central to
achieving National targets of $5 Trillion economy, rapid formal job growth & attracting investments.
• ‘Urban’ Transition - Nearly 50% of India's population is expected to reside in urban areas by 2050. Without
robust urban governance human settlements could become a silent crisis in motion.
• Cities as core of big-ticket infra-initiatives: Smart cities, Gati Shakti, multi modal logistics park etc.
• Achieving India’s Global Commitments: Cities play a decisive role in achieving India’s commitments to global
agendas, such as SDG, UN-Habitat’s New Urban Agenda, 2016 and Paris Agreement etc.
• Rising Health Concerns: E.g. a majority of the uncontrolled COVID-19 spread had occurred in urban areas and
metropolitan cities, despite a better health infrastructure.
• Rising pollution in cities - 9 out of 10 cities in the list of most polluted cities are from India.
• 15th Finance Commission recommendation for enhanced focus on Urban Local Bodies.

While the 74th Constitutional amendment Act places Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) at the heart of participatory urban
governance, several challenges remain.
• Undermining principle of Subsidiarity: No state has devolved all functions mentioned in the Twelfth Schedule.
Restrictive regulatory control of State governments over ULBs & exclusion in urban planning.
• Stressed municipal finances: Due to limited capacity of ULBs to raise own revenues, poor taxation powers,
delayed & insufficient revenue devolution ➔ dependence on state/central govt + poor service delivery.
• Powers of elected municipal officials: Charging Commissioners with executive power dilutes the role of the
Mayors and violates the spirit of self-governance.
• Poor accountability: Functional overlap with parastatals that leads to ambiguity, wastage of resources, and
shifting of accountability. For e.g. in case of Delhi – MCD, NDMC, PWD, Jal board etc.
- Rampant corruption – Impacting ease of living for the citizens and accelerating vices like rent seeking, illegal
construction, land grabbing, vote bank politics etc.
• Sub optimal infrastructure & basic amenities due to lack of investment in physical, social & digital infra.
• Poor urban planning capacity – Lack of awareness about modern urban & land use planning and paucity of
skilled urban planners ➔ leading to uncontrolled, unplanned growth of metro cities. For e.g.
- 3/4th of urban centres (Statutory & census towns) lack master plans to guide their spatial growth.
- Census towns governed as villages with no ULBs or master plans, despite rapid rise of population.
• Lack of Inclusive approach to urban governance – exclusion of vulnerable sections ie. SC/ST/OBC, women,
children, migrants, elderly, physically challenged, etc.
• Underutilisation of Urban Land: Paradoxically land parcels of high urban densities co-exist with those which
are sub-optimally utilized due to fragmented and poorly recorded ownership of urban land.

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WAY FORWARD
• Re-engineering of urban governance: bring in more institutional clarity & clear responsibility matrix, and
multi-disciplinary expertise to ensure accountability & efficiency of ULBs.
• Timely & adequate Devolution of all three Fs: Funds, functions, & functionaries under 12th schedule.
• Strengthening financial capacity of ULBs – Assigning greater powers of taxation, and experimenting with
innovative finance mechanism eg. Municipal bonds, REIT, INVIT, property tax etc
• Executive appointments: Commissioner should be recruited through a transparent search-cum-selection
process led by the Mayor. Empower Mayors with longer tenure.
• Local capacity building: Short-term training programme for city level elected officials and dedicated cadres
for city administration like IAS, lateral entry of private sector executives etc.
• Sound pool of Skilled Planning professionals: such as planners, urban designers, architects, engineers, data-
science experts, geospatial technology experts
• Boost to urban infra – effective implementation of Urban public transportation systems, Smart cities, AMRUT,
Housing for all, Rurbanisation mission etc.
• Revision of Town Planning Acts: to be reviewed and upgraded to the latest advancements in technology,
urban and regional planning approaches and policies. Land titling & record modernization.
• Regional planning in addition to city planning so that population is logically dispersed over an extended area
and flourish as centre of economic growth. Enhancing the role of private sector through PPP.

7.6 SLUMS
It is a residential area where dwellings are unfit for human habitation
by reason of dilapidation, overcrowding, lack of ventilation,
sanitation etc. which are detrimental to safety, health & morale.
- Slums have their own micro culture – sometimes referred to as
‘culture of poverty’. They also perform the function of
socialisation of new migrants to city’s way of life.

7.6.1 CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH SLUMS


Living Conditions: Overcrowding, substandard housing, and lack of basic amenities like clean water and
sanitation.
Health Issues: Poor sanitation leads to diseases; limited healthcare access exacerbates the problem.

Economic Challenges: High unemployment, informal economy, and poverty.

Infrastructural Deficits: Poor transport, unreliable electricity, and water supply issues.

Social Issues: Higher crime rates, social exclusion, and gender inequality.

Governance and Policy Issues: Lack of formal recognition, insufficient interventions, and corruption.

Environmental Degradation: Pollution, hazardous locations, and lack of green spaces.

7.7 WAY FORWARD: SUSTAINABLE URBANISATION

WAY FORWARD: INDIA NEEDS ‘CITIES’ FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT


• C – Community Engagement & capacity development: Foster active community participation in urban planning,
decision-making, & governance to ensure inclusivity, transparency, & accountability.
- Capacity building of local leadership, functionaries, experts & citizens.

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• I - Infrastructure: Developing robust physical (transport oriented development, power etc.), Social (housing,
health & sanitation facilities, clean water, education, recreational facilities etc.) & Digital Infrastructure.
• T – Technology: to drive efficient citizen centric urban governance and service delivery ➔ automating municipal
offices, single window system, e-delivery of services, smart cities & villages. etc.
• I - Innovation: Encouraging innovation in urban planning, design, and implementation to address specific
challenges faced by Indian cities ➔ Data driven Regional planning for balanced dispersal of urban centers.
• E - Economy: reimagining Cities as ‘engines of growth’ with focus on attracting investment and generating
employment eg. Industrial corridors, IT parks, trade centers, skill development centers, financial centers etc.
• S - Sustainability: Promoting long-term sustainability through the efficient use of resources, renewable energy
adoption, circular economy, promoting green spaces and green building practices.

7.8 SMART CITY PROGRAMME


KEY BENEFITS/ACHIEVEMENT
• Sustained Progress in Project completion: more than 85% of funds have been utilised and 70% of projects
completed under Smart Cities Mission.
• Community at the Core: The mission places ‘communities at the heart’ of all planning & implementation with
a key focus on improving the quality of life. Technology is seen only as a means, not as a goal.
• Data-driven governance: For eg. establishment of Integrated Command & Control Centres (ICCC) to monitor
the environment/traffic/water logging/law & order situation, which facilitates decision-making.
• Focuses on Transit-oriented development (TOD): Ensuring travel distances are minimized and access to
livelihoods, education, and other social needs, especially for the marginal segments is improved.
• Strengthens Cooperative & Competitive federalism: Cities are selected through competition and the states
are accorded flexibility to implement project as per their localised requirements.
• Robust monitoring mechanism: At centre: Apex committee approves proposals reviews activities,
recommends mid-course corrections, and releases funds.
- In states, a high-powered steering committee provides guidance & platform for exchange of ideas.
- In the cities, in addition to the SPV, smart city advisory forums have been established to advise and enable
collaboration among stakeholders.
• Government initiatives under the mission: For eg. National Urban Digital Mission (NUDM), National Urban
Learning Platform (NULP) for capacity building, Municipal Performance Index, Urban Learning Internship
Programme (TULIP), ClimateSMART Cities Assessment Framework, CITIIS Challenge for Innovative projects etc.

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OUTSTANDING CHALLENGES
• Lag in project implementation: Time & Cost overruns on several projects due to poor functioning of SPVs and
inadequate managerial, technical, and financial capabilities of cities.
- For e.g. Only 22 of 100 cities have been able to finish all projects commissioned under the mission.
• Financing: The Centre, as well as most state and local governments, are finding it difficult to mobilise funds,
transfer them to SPVs, and use them efficiently. Most ULBs are not financially self-sustainable.
• Deficiencies observed in data handling: Inadequate understanding of data, and how to analyse it to provide
effective solutions by city data officers.
• Laxed Cyber security: Smart cities rely on sensors and network-connected devices and systems that generate
large volumes of data, which are vulnerable to hacking by cyber criminals.
• Missing master plans or city development plan: 60-70% cities don’t have master plans or a city development
plan, which is the key to smart city planning and implementation.
• Other challenges: land acquisition & environment clearance challenges, inadequate Centre-State Co-
ordination, lack of citizen participation etc.

WAY FORWARD
• Reasonable project timelines: Indian cities are at a low level of development and any transformation will take
a long time. Thus, SCM should be a long-term programme, not restricted to 5-6 years as currently envisioned.
• Mobilisation of funds: More revenue needs to be generated through efficient taxation, and alternate sources
of financing found such as municipal lending. For e.g. Ameris Bank offers financial support to many US cities,
towns, and counties.
- Process of fund transfer from the Centre to state govts/urban bodies to SPVs should be made easier.
• Training programmes should be organised to build managerial and financial capacities of the staff employed
by the SPVs and urban local bodies.
• Strengthening Cyber security of Smart cities by ensuring data security and encryption.
• Dovetailing with Rurbanisation mission: Urban development without corresponding rural development will
exacerbate distress migration and increase stress on city infrastructure, taking away its Smart character ➔
need for ‘Smart villages for Smart Cities’.
7.9 RURBANISATION
"Rurbanisation" combines a process of providing all the civic and infrastructure facilities available in big towns and
cities to rural areas while at the same time preserving the ‘soul of the villages’.
The objective is to provide better infrastructure facilities, improved connectivity (road, electricity and digital), gainful
livelihood options, and quality lifestyles to rural areas which in turn will entail following benefits:
• Reduced Rural – Urban divide, arrest migration and ease pressure on civic infrastructure in overcrowded
urban areas. For eg. Expansion of educational, industrial and other facilities in the hinterland would reduce
pressure on the facilities available in the city.
• Better facilities encourage private investments in rural areas, setting up of industries (esp, food processing)
leading to economic diversification➔ Expands GDP.
• Rising rural incomes, along with expansion of banking services, will incentivise savings and result in increased
availability of investible resources ➔ Increased consumption demand due to rising incomes will boost
domestic market.
• Alleviate psychological impacts associated with migration, breaking away from families, and moving into
new social/community set up.
• Harnessing rural-urban interconnectedness for efficient resource use: For eg. Waste water from the cities,
after treatment, can be distributed to farmers for irrigation ➔ water conservation.
• Innovative solutions: Solid waste collected from cities & villages can be used to produce fertiliser and organic
crops produced from this could be sold in international market for better returns.
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7.10 URBAN POVERTY & NEED FOR URBAN MGNREGA
• Higher unemployment rates: Urban unemployment (5.5%) is more
than twice of rural unemployment (PLFS 2022-23). MGNREGA was started in early 2006
• Income support: Urban workers have been adversely hit by Covid-19. and guarantees to provide 100 days
An employment guarantee would provide income support to urban of wage employment for unskilled
poor, thus, preventing reverse migration. manual work to each rural
• Creation of assets: It will lead to the creation of assets, physical as household every financial year.
well as human capital formation.
• Create green jobs: such as construction and repair of common water bodies; rejuvenating urban grasslands
and wetlands; solid waste management; planting vegetation and trees in common lands etc.
• Increase competitiveness: Convergence with other government schemes such as the Skill India mission can
solve the problem of skilled workforce and can increase competitiveness of Indian industry.
• Multiplier benefits: This can also help in implementation of schemes such as Smart City Mission, Affordable
housing scheme, AMRUT scheme etc.
• Capacity building of ULBs: Urban MGNREGA could help build capacity in urban local bodies as well as improve
the quality of urban public goods.
CHALLENGES OF URBAN MGNREGA
• Limited Scope for unskilled manual work in urban areas. An employment guarantee scheme in urban areas
will require a greater skill sophistication than in rural areas.
• Trigger migration from rural to urban areas creating problems like urban congestion.
• Low Financially feasibility as the Capital content of urban infrastructure tends to be high. For eg. for employing
the same number of workers in construction activities as in rural setting, the total expenditure would need to
be much higher.
• Nature of MGNREGA works – MGNREGA is a wage intensive scheme and prohibits the use of contractors and
machinery. This can affect the quality of assets created.
• Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) lack necessary funds and functionaries to carry out MGNREGA works.
• Problem with identifying workers, even if such a scheme is demand-driven and involves self-identification.
There is no ready counterpart of MGNREGA job cards.
• Setback For Informal Sector: Private players who already provide work in urban settings may experience loss
of workforce.
• Urban employment guarantee cannot be a mere extension of MGNREGA, rural unemployment is mostly
seasonal. But there is no such seasonality in urban unemployment.
KEY INITIATIVES UNDERTAKEN FOR URBAN EMPLOYMENT
BY GOI BY STATES
• Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana • Rajasthan: Indira Gandhi Shahri Rozgar Guarantee Yojana on the
• Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana (National lines of the (MGNREGA), but for the urban areas.
Urban Livelihoods Mission) • Kerala: Ayyankali Urban Employment Guarantee Scheme)
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and • Odisha: Unnati or Urban Wage Employment Initiative)
Urban Transformation • Himachal Pradesh: Mukhya Mantri Shahri Ajeevika Guarantee Yojna
• Jal Jeevan Mission Urban • Jharkhand Mukhyamantri Shramik Yojana
WAY FORWARD
• Urban-rural integration: Urban poverty cannot be tackled without alleviating rural poverty.
• Identification & registration of informal and daily workers: E-Shram is a big step towards this to register
informal workers. It can be further extended to register daily workers and workers seeking daily jobs.
• Improving allocation to local governments and improving governance and service delivery of already existing
schemes of Urban areas. i.e. AMRUT, PRASAD, Smart City mission etc
• Integrated urban schemes: Programmes like the Smart Cities Mission and Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and
Urban Transformation (AMRUT) can be integrated with UEG scheme for the urban development.

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7.11 COUNTER URBANISATION: POTENTIAL CAUSES

7.12 COUNTER URBANISATION: POTENTIAL CAUSES

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7.13 BEST PRACTICES FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENT/GOVERNANCE
NATIONAL/LOCAL INITIATIVES
• Innovative Models of Waste Management & Sustainable Urbanisation
- Panchgani, Maharashtra: Being an ‘eco-sensitive zone’, waste management practices like waste-to-
energy are prohibited in the town, so it has invested in material processing and recovery systems, using
pollution tax levied on tourists to create and operate these systems.
✓ Managed to achieve 100% source segregation due to robust IEC campaign.
- Paradeep, Odisha: Active involvement of women, third-gender groups and ragpickers associations, the
city has created a waste management model that is inclusive & economically sustainable.
- Bengaluru, Karnataka: Plastic for Road Construction - Plastic Bitumen Road by Bruhat Bengaluru
Mahanagara Palika + Private Partner reusing non-recyclable plastics.
• Urban forestry examples - Indore - By clearing out and converting huge garbage landfills.
- Delhi – Miyawaki (turning backyards into mini-forests).
- Kerala - Mandatory to plant two mango/ jackfruit trees to get house registered.
• Managing Urban Floods: Successful Urban Flooding Management by Davangere (Karnataka) and Agartala
(Tripura): Key measures undertaken by Local Administration
- Mapping of Existent Drainage Systems & Removal of Illegal Encroachments over drainage networks.
- Construction of storm water drains to curb water logging and ensure drainage of water after heavy rainfall
INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES:
• Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI): For Urban Flood resilient Cities
- UK: Sustainable drainage pond in the Newcastle Great Park development site.
- China: Ningbo eco-corridor, that creates a “Green Lung” for the city, providing recreation, education, and
cultural facilities for the entire city.
- USA: Bioswale in a residential area in Portland. Bioswales are vegetated, shallow, landscaped depressions
designed to capture, treat, and infiltrate stormwater runoff as it moves downstream.
• Barcelona, Spain: Developed ‘superblocks’ which restrict vehicle traffic and prioritize green spaces and
pedestrian-friendly streets.
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
1. Does urbanisation lead to more segregation and/or marginalization of the poor in Indian metropolises? (2023,
15 marks)
2. How is the growth of Tier 2 cities related to the rise of a new middle class with an emphasis on the culture of
consumption? (2022, 10 marks)
3. What are the main socio-economic implications arising out of the development of IT industries in major cities
of India? (2021, 15 marks)
4. Account for the huge flooding of million cities in India including the smart ones like Hyderabad and Pune.
Suggest lasting remedial measures. (2020, 15 marks)
5. How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development of India? (2020,
15 marks)
6. “The growth of cities as I.T. hubs has opened up new avenues of employment, but has also created new
problems”. Substantiate this statement with examples. (2017, 15 marks)
7. With a brief background of the quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and strategy of the ‘Smart
City Programme’. (2016, 12.5 marks)
8. Major cities of India are becoming more vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. (2016, 10 marks)
9. Smart cities in India cannot be sustained without smart villages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of rural-
urban integration. (2015, 12.5 marks)
10. Discussion of the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of urbanization in India.
(2013, 10 marks)

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8 GLOBALIZATION
Related Keywords
Glocalisation; McDonalisation, Borderless World; Global Village; Global Citizens, Promoting 3Ps + S (peace,
partnership, prosperity and stability), Human-centric globalization, Cultural Imperialism; Cultural Hegemony; From
‘De-globalisation’ to ‘Deep Globalisation’; From ‘Fractured World’ to ‘Shared Future’; One Earth, One Family, One
Future; From ‘Zero Sum Game’ to ‘Win-Win Partnership’

8.1 MEANING OF GLOBALISATION


“India is not seeking to reverse the benefits of globalization, but is asking that it be made more transparent” -
Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman

Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of people, businesses, and countries
worldwide. It involves the exchange of goods, services, ideas, and cultures on a global scale, leading to greater
integration of economies and societies

8.2 FACTORS AFFECTING GLOBALIZATION IN INDIA

GRASPING KEY DEFINITIONS


• Cultural Globalization: This refers to the transmission and diffusion of ideas, meanings, and values around the
world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations.
• Economic Globalization: This involves the increasing integration and interdependence of national economies
around the world.
• Political Globalization: This refers to the growing influence and cohesion of transnational governmental actors
and the increasing role of international organizations such as the United Nations.

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• McDonaldization: A term used by sociologists to describe a societal shift toward efficiency, predictability,
calculability, and control in societies.
• Global Culture: This refers to the notion of a single global culture emerging, mainly Western, facilitated by the
rise of mass media and the internet.
• Homogenization: The process by which cultures are becoming more alike through globalization.
- For eg. Movies & Music (Hollywood movies, K-Pop), international brands (Addidas, Gucci), Adoption of
English language (International Authors), Family structure (Nuclear families, Live in set up), celebrations
(Valentine’s day, New Year, Christmas), Food (fast food – Burger, Pizza), Education (Curriculum), Activism
(Hashtag activism - #MeToo) etc.
• Hybridization: This concept refers to the blending of elements from local & global cultures as a result of
globalization. For eg. Dubbing of Hollywood movies in Local Languages,
• Glocalisation: It combines "globalization" and "localization." It refers to the concept of developing or tailoring
products, services, and strategies in accordance with both global and local requirements. For eg. McDonald's -
Adapts its menu to local tastes (McAloo Tikki in India, Teriyaki Burger in Japan)
• Revivalism of Culture: For eg. Groups protesting against Valentine Day, revival of Yoga & Ayurveda, Vocal for
local campaigns (local handicrafts, products), focus on local traditional millet consumption etc.
• Cultural Imperialism: It refers to the domination of other cultures by a powerful nation, particularly in terms
of cultural values and norms.
• De-territorialization: This is the severance of social, political, or cultural practices from their native places and
populations. It refers to a weakening of ties between culture and place due to outmigration of a community
(voluntary or forced) to alien land.

8.3 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDIAN CULTURE

Positive Negative
Cultural Exchange: Globalization has facilitated Cultural Homogenization- Erosion of local traditional
increased cultural exchange between India and other practices due to dissemination of western norms &
countries, leading to the assimilation of foreign ideas, consumerism observed in spread of fast food chains,
practices, and values into Indian culture. popularisation of western attires & Hollywood movies,
often referred to as ‘McDonaldization of Society’.
- For eg, ubiquity of Starbucks outlets, popularity of
American pop music, celebrations of Valentine’s
day, Fathers’ day (overshadow traditional festivals)

Cultural Hybridisation- Leading to glocalisation where Loss of traditional crafts - Influx of cheap mass-
local traditions & global influences intermingle giving rise produced goods from abroad has affected the demand
to ‘unique blended culture’. for traditional Indian handicrafts ➔ Displacement of
- For eg. Fusion of flavors & culinary practices; music Local Artisans.
& Bhangra pop, street art & graffiti in urban areas - For eg, Craft Revival Trust reports that several
traditional crafts, such as handloom weaving and
pottery, are facing significant decline due to
globalization's impact on consumer preferences.

Cultural revitalisation to restore & celebrate the unique Commercialization of Culture: Traditional practices and
languages, rituals & traditions in response to hegemonic products are marketed for profit, losing their
forces of globalized consumerism and dominant cultural authenticity.
paradigms. It manifests in grassroots movements, artistic
expressions, and ethno-cultural revitalization.
Cultural revival on global scale – Globalization has Impact on regional languages - Indigenous languages,
sparked interest in traditional Indian practices like yoga, dialects, and traditional practices are at risk of
meditation, and Ayurveda on a global scale.

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- Indian festivals like Diwali, Holi have become more disappearing due to the dominance of English and other
vibrant due to the fusion of global & local practices. global languages.
- Popularity of Indian Film Festivals like Mumbai Film
Festivals and Indian traditional handicrafts.
Cultural diplomacy - Globalization has enabled India to Consumerism & Materialism: The rise of global brands
project its cultural heritage and values on the and consumer culture has influenced Indian society,
international stage, enhancing its soft power and global leading to an increased emphasis on material
influence. For eg, International Day of Yoga. possessions and changing values related to wealth and
status.
Media & entertainment- It has allowed Indian artists and
creators to reach a global audience and has also
introduced international content to Indian audiences.
- For eg, success of Natu-Natu song, widespread
recognition of Indian actors like Priyanka Chopra and
Deepika Padukone in Hollywood.

Growth of international tourism- bringing in foreign


exchange revenue and promoting cultural exchange ➔
led to investments in hospitality infrastructure and the
creation of local jobs.

8.4 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON FAMILY

Positive Negative
Nuclear Family: With the movement of younger Decline in caring functions: The caring and nurturing
generation for education and employment, nuclear functions of family are declining due to employment of
families have replaced joint families ➔ giving women women, rising physical distance etc. ➔ Caring role of
more autonomy and independence. families become less important.
New forms of family: With westernisation and Work-life Balance: Increased work demands and long
modernisation, new forms of family are evolving e.g. hours can strain family relationships ➔ Reduced
dual career family, single parent family, live in connections with family.
relationship etc.
Transnational connections- Pursuit of international Declining role in finding life partners: Online dating sites
employment opportunities has led to rise of have reduced family’s role in finding life partners.
transnational migration patterns & with digital
communication, family members can stay connected
across borders and time zones ➔ strengthens family
bonds across distances.
Tolerance: Exposure to diverse cultures promotes Migration Stress: Family separation due to migration for
tolerance and understanding within families. better opportunities can cause emotional stress.
Lifestyle Improvements: Access to global markets allows Consumerism: Materialistic values and excessive
families to enjoy diverse products and services, consumerism can overshadow familial bonds ➔ focus
improving quality of life. on individualism rather than family/community bonds.
Delayed marriages & child bearing: The emergence of Generational Gap: Rapid cultural and technological
reproductive technologies (IVF etc.) has given a choice to changes may create conflicts between generations.
delay child bearing age for women ➔ more women
agency.

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Economic Inequality: Not all families benefit equally
from globalization, leading to increased socio-economic
disparities.

8.5 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON ECONOMY

Positive Negative
Economic growth- due to participation in Global Value Economic disparities- "Glocalization" of industries
Chains (GVCs), increased FDI, growth of services sector result in highly-skilled workers in developed countries
(BPOs) facilitating outsourcing contributing to rise in living benefiting from global job opportunities, while low-
standard of people etc. skilled workers in developing countries might face job
insecurity and low wages in global supply chains.
Technological advancements- MNCs bring in innovative Rising dependency- seen in case of APIs during the
technologies and management techniques, which have pandemic, global shortage of semiconductors,
spurred productivity and competitiveness in various increasing vulnerability of GVCs leading to increased
industries, leading to better prices & products for threat from geo-political situations.
consumers etc.
Infrastructure development- such as ports, roads, and Increasing vulnerability- Reliance on foreign capital
airports to facilitate international trade enhancing inflows, including FDI/FII, can make the Indian
connectivity within the country. economy vulnerable to external shocks and sudden
capital outflows, leading to economic instability.
Export growth- in services, software, textiles & De-industrialisation- Domestic industries in India,
pharmaceutical products seen by rising demand for Indian especially SMEs, have faced stiff competition from
generic medicines. cheaper imports leading to their closure, causing job
losses and economic distress.
Trade imbalances- Imbalance between imports and
exports leads to trade deficits, depleting country’s
foreign reserves and impacting stability of currency.
- For eg, India’s trade deficit with China.

8.6 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON POLITY


Positive Negative
Democratic values- growing emphasis on rule of law, and Loss of sovereignty- Globalization can limit the
enhanced citizen participation in democracy. autonomy of nations in making decisions that affect
their economies and societies.
Membership in international organizations and trade
agreements can require countries to conform to
certain rules and regulations that may not align with
their national interests. For eg, conditionalities
imposed on India during 1991 crisis.
Enhanced transparency & accountability- due to Exacerbate political instability- It may lead to identity
improved access to ICT, leading to more efficient and politics, quick spread of misinformation fueling
responsive governance practices. instability in the country. For eg, use of social media by
terror groups to spread fear.
Changing role of Bureaucracy: from traditional role of Political tensions between countries in bid to protect
‘maintaining stability’ to becoming a ‘change agent’ esp. the interests of domestic industries, witnessed in rising
with rising expertise needed in areas of international laws, disputes in WTO, increased protectionism measures.
trade, environment, security etc.

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8.7 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON ENVIRONMENT

Positive Negative
Global Platform for coordinating climate change Rise in carbon footprint- Amplified trade and
prevention efforts: UNFCCC, Montreal Protocol, etc, transport of goods across borders have led to a surge
in carbon emissions (Road, Rail, Shipping & Aviation)
CSR Programs of MNCs in other countries to address Rising pollution: Oil spills, industrial waste,
environmental concerns, For eg, Microsoft’s project to microplastics in oceans, ozone depleting emissions etc.
lessen dependence on hydrocarbons & become carbon
neutral by 2030.
Technology exchange- Transfer of environmentally Resource Depletion & Overconsumption:
friendly technologies across borders, aiding in the Globalization has facilitated the rapid movement of
adoption of cleaner energy sources and efficient resource goods, resulting in increased extraction of natural
management. resources. For eg, global demand for palm oil has led
to extensive deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Conservation Finance- For eg, Green Climate Fund Invasive Species: Global trade can inadvertently lead
provides financial assistance to developing countries for to displacement of native species & introduction of
climate mitigation and adaptation efforts. non-native species to new environments, disrupting
ecosystems. For eg, introduction of the zebra mussel
through ballast water from ships causing imbalances in
Great Lakes region in America.
Transboundary Conservation Efforts- For eg, IUCN ‘Pollution haven effect’- Disparities in environmental
facilitates the sharing of best practices and resources for regulations and enforcement across countries can lead
protecting biodiversity across borders. to industries migrating to countries with weaker
regulations, exacerbating environmental degradation.

8.8 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON WOMEN

Positive Negative
Increased Social Empowerment: Exposure to global Gendered division of labour- While globalisation has led
media, internet and ideas has made many women more to women empowerment, it has perpetuated ‘Pink
aware of their rights ➔ prompted discussions about Collarisation’ where women are increasingly been seen
gender equality ➔ equal pay for equal work, MeToo concentrated in some sectors, like nurses → poorly
movement etc paid with no job security → feminisation of poverty.
Greater Economic/Employment Opportunities: in Increased Domestic Work: More domestic work for
services sector and non-traditional areas like IT, women, especially where men work in global industries.
technology, space, healthcare, Politics etc.
Rising number of Women entrepreneurs with higher Dual work burden - Despite greater career
risk appetite & access to global best practices, capital &
opportunities, the responsibility of looking after family
markets. remains a prerogative of women leading to stress and
unpaid care burden.
Improved Access to Education & healthcare: resulting in Feminisation of Informalisation due to increased
more educated women in the workforce. contractualization of work ➔ >85% of women work in
informal sector ➔ poor social security.
Participation in Politics: More women are participating Gender inequality at workplaces: esp. in male
in politics, particularly in local government. dominated industries like manufacturing, construction
Global Examples: Jacinda Adren (Newzealand), Angela and agriculture.
Merkel (Genrmany) Wage Disparity: Women often earn less than their male
counterparts for the same work.

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Access to Technology: More women, especially in rural Marginalization of Rural Women: While urban women
areas, have access to technology, more comfortable jobs may benefit from globalization, rural women are often
(work from home & freelancing options). left behind, further exacerbating rural-urban
inequalities.
Exposure to New Ideas & Lifestyles: leading to more Cultural backlash: For eg, increased interaction of
progressive attitudes towards women's rights and roles women in corporate world becomes a cause of divorce
in society ➔ shifts in cultural norms and attitudes & family conflicts.
- Redefining the traditional gender norms where - Rising crimes against women is also a testimony to
women are perceived as ‘equal shareholders’ in male chauvinism where modernity of women is
family’s decisions, male participation in child perceived as a threat to male superiority in the
rearing & domestic chores. society. For eg. Exploitation of women at workplace

Social Reforms: Reduced exploitative practices like Rising vulnerabilities- New evil of “objectification and
Triple talaq, Child marriage, female infanticide due to commodification” of women has evolved due to
pressure from global community. globalization which leads to human trafficking,
prostitution, and other forms of exploitation.
Structural Changes in Family: Delayed marriages & child Pressure to Conform: dissemination of narrow, western-
bearing. The emergence of reproductive technologies centric beauty standard that emphasizes certain physical
(IVF etc.) has given a choice to delay child bearing age for attributes, such as fair skin, slim bodies, and specific
women ➔ more women agency. facial features creates unrealistic expectations and
pressure on women ➔ mental stress
8.9 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON YOUTHS

Positive Negative
Better career opportunities- due to opening of various Job insecurity - due to competitive markets, demand for
sectors including finance, technology & outsourcing specialised skills, rise in outsourcing, increased
allowing youth to pursue rewarding careers both exploitation of gig workers etc.
domestically & internationally.
Multiple Avenues of Exploring Oneself - Bloggers, Stand Rising consumerism- with youth placing more emphasis
Up comedians, successful Startup entrepreneurs (Ritesh on material possessions & status. Inability to meet such
Agarwal – OYO rooms) etc. unrealistic expectations leads to mental health issues.
Skills enhancement- due to exposure to global markets Cultural disconnect- With spread of global popular
& trends, making them more adaptable in a competitive culture, youth may struggle to maintain their own
job landscape ➔ access to global online courses. cultural identity leading to loss of their own identity.
Youths in rural hinterland are now better exposed to Perils of Social media: FOMO (Fear of Missing Out)
new technologies, progressive idea etc ➔ diffusion of Effect; Pathological internet use (PIU) and depression;
knowledge. False identity and fake profile (Stalking and crimes) etc
Civic engagement- Globalisation allows youth to engage Lack of physical activity: sedentary lifestyle leading to
in international forums & advocate for their interests, health disorders at a young age (Lifestyle diseases -
eg, Fridays for Future movement. diabetes etc.)

8.10 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ELDERLY

Positive Negative
Better health: due to advancements in medical Fragmented families: Increased migration for better job
research, exchange of knowledge & expertise, readily opportunities, leaving many elderly individuals without
available new treatments ➔ declining cost of health proper familial support, leading to feelings of loneliness,
care access & increased life expectancy. neglect and security issues.

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Access to Voluntary Organizations and international Healthcare challenges - Rise in sedentary lifestyles,
funding – For eg, Apna Ghar unhealthy dietary habits, and increased stress levels lead
to rise in NCDs, increased healthcare costs ➔ reduced
standard of living.
Enhanced meaning of life by providing opportunity to Impact of ‘Technological lag’: Poor use of technology by
participate in domestic & global workforce through elderly ➔ Loneliness and lack of communication among
remote work, allowing them to contribute to society the elderly and youth.
beyond retirement age.
- For eg. Rise of Silver Economy - Increase in
employment opportunities for skilled and
experienced persons e.g. consultants etc
Increased social connectivity - Video calling platforms, Technology-driven primary & secondary sector creates
social media, and messaging apps have made it easier for challenges for handicraft-based or other traditional
senior citizens to maintain relationships and combat businesses where many aged workers are associated.
feelings of isolation.
- Power of Social Media - Baba ka Dhabha
Cultural exchange has led to increased intellectual Rapid privatization leading to a reduction in old age
stimulation, personal growth, and a sense of belonging security through pension cuts.
to a global community, enhancing their overall sense of
well-being.

8.11 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON LABOUR

Positive Negative
Labour mobility - enabling them to move to areas with Labor Exploitation- Increasing outsourcing has led to
better opportunities, enhancing their career growth & poor working conditions for labour, wage suppression,
gaining diverse experiences. rising informalization & contractualization, lack of social
security in case of gig worker.
Better wages & working conditions- as global Work-life balance: Increasing migration leading to
competition incentivizes companies to improve wages to fragmented family structures, weakening social ties
attract & retain best talent. leading to ‘Marginal Man’ in an urban land.
Global advocacy for labour rights- with formation of Increased mechanization/automation leading to
international organisations like ILO and increased decline in employment opportunities for Traditional
discussion on labour welfare, eg, Freedom of Association sector workers and displacement of unskilled/low skilled
and Protection of Right to Organised Convention. workers.
Job Displacement- relocation of industries to countries
with lower labour costs, causing job losses in higher-cost
regions due to outsourcing.
Erosion of labour rights - Globalization can weaken labor
unions and collective bargaining power, making it harder
for workers to negotiate fair wages and better working
conditions.
8.12 GLOCALIZATION
• Glocalization is a term that combines "globalization" and "localization." It refers to the concept of developing
or tailoring products, services, and strategies under both global and local requirements.
- Strikes a balance between reaching a global audience and catering to local tastes, customs, and regulations.
• The goal of glocalization is to create a global product or service that has been adapted to the local culture,
taste, laws, and market demands where it is being sold.

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Key features:
• Understanding Local Culture: Gain knowledge about local customs, values, and tastes to ensure relevance and
appeal.
• Adapting Products/Services: Modify design, packaging, features, and names to suit local preferences.
• Compliance with Local Regulations: Adjust products, services, or operations to meet local laws and standards.
• Local Marketing Strategies: Tailor marketing to local languages, cultural values, and media channels.

Some Examples of Glocalization:


Company Glocalization Approach
McDonald's Adapts its menu to local tastes (McAloo Tikki in India, Teriyaki Burger in Japan)
Coca-Cola Uses different formulas and sweeteners based on local taste preferences and health
regulations
IKEA Adapts furniture sizes to local living situations (bigger beds/kitchens in the US)
Netflix Invests in local content production (Indian movies and series, "Money Heist" in Spain)

8.13 THE PHENOMENON OF DE-GLOBALIZATION


• Deglobalization refers to the deliberate and multifaceted process characterized by the reduction, retraction,
or recalibration of interconnected global economic, social, and political networks and the heightened
emphasis on localized, self-reliant, and nation-centric paradigms.
• Nations become more inward looking and tend to focus their resources within their territorial limits, putting
their national interests first.
• It entails resurgence of protectionist policies, trade barriers, and regional blocs, ultimately leading to a
diminished level of cross-border integration, economic interdependence, and cultural exchange.

CAUSES OF DEGLOBALISATION
• Geopolitical Tensions: For eg, Russia – Ukraine war; USA-China Conflict etc
• Weakening global governance structures For eg stagnation of WTO negotiations, failure of IMF to foresee
impending subprime lending crises, Eurozone crises, WHO failure during COVID etc.

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• Faltering regional cooperation platforms For eg. BREXIT, and resultant weakening of European Union, US
withdrawal from Trans Pacific Partnership treaty etc.
• Protectionist trade policies restricting labour, goods & services, and capital. For eg. US imposition of Tariffs &
non tariff barriers leading to trade war, Visa restrictions in US, Australia etc.
• Rise of conservative governments and polarized political ecosystems For eg. rise of right wing parties in
Europe, USA (“America First Policy”), withdrawal of USA from Paris Climate deal and Iran Nuclear deal,
unilateral sanctions (on Iran & Russia) etc.
• Supply chain Disruption: COVID exposed vulnerabilities in global supply chain forcing the nations to focus on
building domestic strengths & reducing dependence on global sources ➔ Decoupling from Global Economies.
• Job losses in developed countries - Integration with global value chains has allowed corporates to shift labour
intensive process to developing countries like India & China ➔ Populist Movements resisting globalization.
• Increasing Inequality - 1% of global population owns 50% of its wealth ➔ feelings of alienation from the
benefits of globalization.
• Migration Crisis: Economic disparity, conflict, and climate change drive large-scale migration, fueling anti-
globalization sentiments and policies in many countries.
• Technology Disruptions: While technology drives globalization, concerns over data privacy, cybercrime, and
digital divides prompt some countries to restrict the free flow of digital information.
• Environmental Concerns: The environmental impact of globalization has led to calls for more sustainable,
localized practices to mitigate ecological damage. For eg. Bhutan’s aversion to BBIN corridor.

IMPACTS OF DE-GLOBALISATION
• Reversal of Peace dividends: Economic interdependence among nations has historically played play a crucial
role in ensuring peace & security. But with de-globalization chances of wars and conflicts may increase.
- For eg. Peace on Indo-China LAC is hinged on economic interdependence between the two nations.
- ‘Water or resource wars’ among nations, that were previously avoided through cooperation &
agreements may become a reality esp. in vulnerable areas like Middle East, north Africa, S. Asia etc.
• Global Economic impact: Lower growth rates & higher inflation as goods and labor become less optimized.
• Impact on developing economies: Service based developing economies like India, Philippines, Malaysia and
other South Asian countries that are heavily dependent on international trade and investment as a means of
sustained growth will be hit the hardest ➔ may adversely impact efforts in reducing global poverty levels.
• Impact on innovation and knowledge sharing- Deglobalization may limit the free flow of ideas, knowledge,
and technological innovation potentially impeding the pace of technological advancement and innovation.
• Labor Market Shifts: Deglobalization can lead to reshoring or nearshoring of production, impacting labor
markets. While this may create jobs in some industries, it might also lead to job losses in other sectors.
− For eg, Gulf countries, heavily reliant on expatriate labor, saw significant changes in their labor markets
due to border closures during pandemic, affecting sectors like construction & services.
⚫ Restrictions on Developmental aid: Loss of relevance of institutions like World Bank, IMF etc. may make
developing countries vulnerable at the time of crisis like war, disaster, food scarcity, epidemics etc.
⚫ Challenges of Climate change, Food Security, Terrorism etc which requires united efforts from all the
nations, cannot be effectively dealt with by a divided world.

GLOBALISATION 4.0 ➔ NEO GLOBALISATION


⚫ "Globalization 4.0"- a term coined in 2019 World Economic Forum summit, refers to the current phase of
globalization.
⚫ Characterized by the major global changes brought on by technologies such as AI, robotics, IOT combined
with a rapidly fluctuating global economy, social inequality and political tensions both at the international level
and between political leaders and citizens.

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FACETS OF GLOBALISATION 4.0
⚫ Rise of GVCs- Neo-globalization is characterized by the fragmentation of production processes across multiple
countries, allowing each nation to specialize in specific tasks within global value chains. This can lead to
increased efficiency and productivity.
⚫ Focus on decentralization: Unlike earlier phases of globalization that were often dominated by large
multinational corporations, neo-globalization allows smaller businesses, startups, and individuals to participate
in global markets and share their products, services, and ideas directly with a global audience.
⚫ Rise of knowledge economy- While traditional globalization often focused on manufacturing and goods, neo-
globalization places a greater emphasis on the global exchange of services, intellectual property, and
knowledge-based industries.
⚫ Rise in concept of ‘telemigration’- Rise of remote work and freelancing is a facet of neo-globalization. It allows
individuals to collaborate with organizations and clients from different parts of the world, challenging
traditional notions of work and employment, placing more emphasis on ‘regional’ than ‘global’.
⚫ Rise of emerging markets- Neo-globalization might see a further shift in economic power toward emerging
markets playing a more prominent role in global trade, investment, and innovation, challenging the dominance
of traditional economic powers.

WAY FORWARD
⚫ Moving towards inclusive globalization that considers the needs and aspirations of all segments of society,
prioritizing environmental stewardship, social responsibility, and ethical business practices to ensure that
globalization benefits both people and the planet.
⚫ Facilitating cultural exchange & mutual understanding to foster a more interconnected and empathetic
world. Supporting initiatives that celebrate diversity, preserve cultural heritage, and facilitate intercultural
dialogue to bridge gaps and build trust.
⚫ Collaborative diplomacy- Promote diplomatic efforts that emphasize cooperation, conflict resolution, &
negotiation. Multilateralism and open dialogue can help prevent tensions and conflicts from escalating in an
interconnected world.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)


1. Elucidate the relationship between globalization and new technology in a world of scarce resources, with special
reference to India. (2022, 15 Marks)
2. What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global society? Has it been affecting Indian society also? (2021, 15
Marks)
3. Discuss how emerging technologies and globalization contribute to money laundering. Elaborate measures to
tackle the problem of money laundering both at national and international levels. (2021. 15 marks)
4. Is diversity and pluralism in India under threat due to globalization? Justify your answer. (2020, 15 Marks)
5. Are we losing our local identity for the global identity? Discuss. (2019, 15 Marks)
6. ‘Globalization is generally said to promote cultural homogenization but due to this cultural specificity appears
to be strengthened in the Indian Society. Elucidate. (2018, 15 Marks)
7. To what extent globalization has influenced the core of cultural diversity in India? Explain. (2016, 12.5 Marks)
8. Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization on women in India. (2015, 12.5 Marks)
9. In a globalized world, Intellectual Property Rights assume significance and are a source of litigation. Broadly
distinguish between the terms-Copyrights, Patents and Trade Secrets.
10. Critically examine the effects of globalization on the aged population in India. (2013, 10 Marks)

========================================================================================

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9 SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT: MEANING, NEED AND INITIATIVES


Related Keywords
• Prisoners of aspirations to Agents of change, Catalysts of change, From Labharthis (beneficiaries) to Equals,
Principle of Differential treatment to Principle of sovereign equality, Making invisible visible, Silver generation
of India.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Social empowerment is the process of enabling individuals from vulnerable sections of society to emerge from their
subordinate positions and achieve self-sufficiency. It refers to
- Ability to gain FULL CONTROL of EVERY ASPECT of one’s life (Social, economic, political, cultural, etc.).
- Capability to take decisions based on FREE WILL & COMPLETE KNOWLEDGE (sense of independence and self-
assurance + build capacities through access to education and other developmental services).
- Actualise potential through UNRESTRICTED & ACTIVE PARTICIPATION (absence of social barriers, and presence
of a platform to participate as full citizens).

9.2 KEY CONCEPTS RELATED WITH SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT


• Agency: The ability of individuals to act independently and make their own choices.
• Social Mobility: The ability of an individual or family to move up or down the social and economic ladder within
a society. It can be inter-generational or intra-generational.
• Empowerment: Processes that enable participation, enhance control, and foster actions leading to desired
outcomes for individuals or communities.
• Social Capital: The networks of relationships among people in a society, which enable it to function effectively.
• Intersectionality: The interconnected nature of social categories like race, class, and gender, creating
overlapping systems of discrimination or disadvantage.
• Conscientization: Developing a critical awareness of one's social reality through reflection and action.
• Relative Deprivation: The feeling of a negative gap between what one expects and what one currently has,
often driving empowerment movements.
• Social Inclusion: Efforts to ensure equal opportunities for all, regardless of their background.
• Collective Action: Actions taken together by a group of people to enhance their status and achieve common
goals, often used as a means of social empowerment.

9.3 MEANING OF VULNERABLE SECTION


It refers to socially, economically, politically, physically, & psychologically disadvantaged sections who are susceptible
to higher risk of discrimination, social exclusion, & poverty than the general population. Thus, need special attention
to avoid potential exploitation.
- Vulnerable section includes scheduled tribes, women, SC/ST/OBC, minorities, senior citizens, persons with
disabilities, children and LGBTQ+ community etc.

Type of vulnerability:
• Social Vulnerability: Abuse, social exclusion, loneliness and depression, levels of literacy and education,
health, access to basic human rights, systems of good governance, social equity etc.
• Physical Vulnerability: Difficulty in access to water resources, means of communications, hospitals, police
stations, fire brigades, roads, buildings in an area in case of disasters etc.

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• Economic Vulnerability: Sources of income, means of production (e.g. farm and livestock, irrigation, etc.) and
the economic transactions.
• Environmental Vulnerability: Pollution, urban flooding, global warming and urban heat etc.
• Attitudinal Vulnerability: Lack of tolerance, negative attitude towards change, hopelessness and pessimism,
and becoming victim of conflicts.

9.4 CHALLENGES FACED BY SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS

9.5 NEED FOR SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT


• Reduce social inequality: In wealth, status, and opportunities.
• Foster self-efficacy: To control their lives and rights.
• Promote social justice: To gain fair access to resources and opportunities.
• Facilitate social integration: By promoting inclusivity and togetherness in society.
• Enhance democratic participation: Education, capacity building, awareness helps people to participate in
decision making process in a free and open democracy through – voting rights, RTI, citizen charter etc.
• Enable resource access: Empowerment helps people or groups access important resources and services.
• Encourage collective action: It inspires people to work together to bring about positive change in society.
• Contribute to individual and societal well-being: Empowered individuals contribute to stronger, healthier
communities.
• Challenge and change power structures: Empowerment can lead to changes in societal norms and power
dynamics.
• Encourage social innovation: Empowered individuals or groups are more likely to challenge existing ways and
innovate for the benefit of society.

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9.6 SCHEDULE CASTES
Scheduled Castes (SC) Statistics
Scheduled Castes (SCs) are officially designated groups of historically
• SC Population: 17% of population
disadvantaged people in India who suffered from the age-old practice • Literacy (PLFS): 75% (National Average –
of untouchability. The term is recognized by the Constitution of India 80%).
(under Article 341) and various laws to provide representation and • Poverty: >30% of Dalit in India are
protection to these groups. multidimensionally poor (UNDP, MPI)
ISSUES FACED BY SCHEDULE CASTES • Conviction rate in offences against
• Economic marginalization: limited access to resources and Dalits (2022): 35%
employment opportunities.
• Landlessness and land rights: Many Dalit families lack land, contributing to economic vulnerability.
• Caste-based discrimination: historically marginalized through discrimination & exclusion based on their caste.
• Education disparities: Scheduled Castes have lower enrolment rates and limited access to quality education.
• Limited access to healthcare: Dalits often has limited access to quality healthcare services.
• Social stigma and identity-based violence: Dalits face violence, including physical and sexual abuse.
• Manual scavenging: Manual scavenging, primarily affecting Dalit women, persists despite legal prohibitions.
• Limited political representation: SC often struggle to access political representation despite reserved seats.
• Limited access to justice: for caste-based crimes and atrocities.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION RELATED TO SC & ST


EDUCATIONAL
Recognized under SC: Art 341; ST: Art 342

• Article 15 – State can make special provision for SEBC & SC/ST (including in education)
• Article 16: reservation in employment and promotion of Backward class, SC/ST
• Article 17 abolishes Untouchability.
Protection & • Article 46: promote educational and economic interests & protection from social injustice
Welfare • Article 338 & 338 A: National Commission for the SC &ST
• Art 350A: Instruction in Mother Tongue; Article 350B: Special Officer for linguistic
minorities
Political • Article 243D: reservation of seats for SCs, STs and women in every Panchayat.
Empowerment • Article 243T: reservation of seats for SCs, STs and women in every Municipality
• Article 330 & 332 – reservation of seats for ST/ST in Lok Sabha & LA

STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT FOR EMPOWERMENT OF SCs:


INITIATIVE OBJECTIVE
EDUCATIONAL
Post & Post Matric Empower SC students through education
Scholarship for Students
Dr Ambedkar National Centre Establish a world-class library and e-learning center at Janpath
SHRESTHA: Scheme For Residential Education for Students in High Schools in SC Dominated areas
LEGAL
The Protection of Civil Rights Enacted to prevent untouchability and promote civil rights.
Act, 1955
SC and ST (Prevention of Provide financial assistance to states/UTs for implementing these acts.
Atrocities) Act, 1989

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ECONOMIC
National Scheduled Castes Finance support to income-generating activities of SCs below the poverty line
Finance and Development limits.
Corporation (NSFDC)
Credit Enhancement Provide credit guarantee facility to young and start-up entrepreneurs belonging
Guarantee Scheme for SC to the SC community.
PM-DAKSH Provide long and short-term skills training to target youth.
PM AJAY Merger of centrally sponsored schemes: Special Central Assistance to Scheduled
Castes Sub Plan (SCA to SCSP) and Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY).

9.7 MANUAL SCAVENGING

• It is the practice of manually cleaning, carrying, disposing MANUAL SCAVENGING IN INDIA: FACTS
of, or otherwise handling, human excreta in an insanitary • Total No. of manual scavengers - 1.8 lakh
latrine, open drain or pit, or in sewer or in a septic tank households (SECC, 2011).
without protective gear. • Deaths due to Manual Scavenging (2019-
• It is a hazardous and dehumanizing caste-based practice 22): 233 (due to hazardous cleaning of
that is often forced upon Dalits and other marginalized sewer & septic tanks).
communities. • States with high prevalence: Maharashtra,
- Banned under the Prohibition of Employment as MP, UP, Tripura & Karnataka.
Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, • Women form 95% of Manual scavengers.
2013.
MANUAL SCAVANGING: REASONS FOR ITS PREVALENCE IN INDIA
• Caste system: Deep-rooted discrimination based on caste perpetuates the practice as an exploitative means
of sustaining social hierarchies.
- 95% of manual scavengers in India are Dalits (National Commission for Safai Karamcharis report).
• Absence of data: Lack of database at state and central level results in gaps in implementation of existing laws
and schemes. Large informal economy leads to gross under reporting.
• Sanitation Challenges: lack of access to modern sanitation systems & mechanisation for sanitary disposal of
excreta, lack of water facilities & low-cost toilets etc ➔ Continuation of insanitary practices ➔ creates demand
for manual scavengers. more than 2.6 million insanitary latrines were being cleaned manually (Census 2011)
• Lack of Alternative Livelihoods: Absence of viable alternative livelihood opportunities, illiteracy, lack of skills
& credit, and systemic discrimination limit their chances of transitioning to other professions.
• Poor Rehabilitation: Govt. measures - Governments’ schemes have suffered from implementation paralysis,
hence effective rehabilitation has not been undertaken for manual scavengers.
• Weak enforcement of Acts by states, inefficient monitoring, unreported cases, low conviction rates, lack of
empathy among law enforcement officers etc.
• Lack of awareness: among manual scavengers on legislative protection and rights.

MANUAL SCAVANGING: IMPACT


• Health hazards: Respiratory problems, skin infections, and deaths due to poisonous gases.
• Social discrimination and exclusion: Manual scavengers are considered "polluted", limiting their access to
education, healthcare, skills ➔ impacts social mobility + violation of human rights.
• Wastage of Demographic Dividend: Children of manual scavenger’s face discrimination within schools,
resulting in high dropout rate ➔ forced to take up manual scavenging due to lack of avenues.
• Hindrance to ‘Swachh Bharat’: Relying on manual scavenging hinders the adoption of modern sanitation
technologies and practices→ impede efforts to achieve Open Defecation Free (ODF) status.

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• Economic cost to society: World Bank estimates that the lack of proper sanitation and hygiene practices costs
India 6.5% of its GDP, primarily due to health-related issues arising from poor sanitation.
WAY FORWARD
• Comprehensive data collection to accurately record number of Manual scavengers, their socio-economic
background, geographical distribution, etc for evidence-based policymaking.
• Socio-economic rehabilitation: Convergence of benefits under existing rehabilitation schemes (SRMS, Udyami
Yojana) with other schemes such as PM Awas Yojana, Skill India, Stand up India, Swachh Bharat
- NSKFDC can be leveraged to provide funds for income-generating opportunities, esp. for women.
• Technological solutions: Mechanized cleaning of sewers, provision of safety gears, scientific waste disposal
etc. to be the responsibility of state. For eg, Bandicoot (robotic technology) by Kerala Govt.
• Attitudinal change and awareness creation: Altering Caste based prejudices through sensitizing the
community - Nukkad Nataks, community dining etc.
• Community-Led Total Sanitation aiming at ending open defecation by triggering behavior change
• Robust monitoring and accountability framework to track progress, ensure compliance with laws, and hold
accountable those involved in perpetuating manual scavenging.
• Inter-sectoral collaboration between government departments, NGOs, and private sector entities to
comprehensively address the issue. For eg. NGOs like Safai Karmachari Andolan (SKA), Sulabh International,
Navsarjan Trust, Jan Sahas etc have played instrumental roles.

KEY GOVT INITIATIVES


• Legislative steps: Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013; The SC/ST
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. Constitutional Provisions: Article 15, 17, 21, 42
• International conventions: Universal declaration of Human Rights (UDHR); International convention on
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD); Convention on Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
• Financial assistance: Self Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS), Safai Karmchari
Suraksha Kosh (Sanitation Workers Safety Fund).
• Other initiatives: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Rashtriya Garima Abhiyan, NAMASTE Scheme.

9.8 SCHEDULE TRIBE (STs) IN INDIA


Scheduled Tribe (SC) Statistics
• The Indian Constitution recognizes tribal communities as
• SC Population (Census 2011): 8% of
'Scheduled Tribes' under Schedule V and defined as tribes
or tribal communities specified under Article 342 of the population
Constitution. • Literacy (PLFS): 72% (National Average –
• Key characteristics: Primitive traits, geographic isolation, 80%).
distinctive cultures, aversion to interaction with the outside • Poverty: >50% of STs in India are
world, and economic backwardness. multidimensionally poor (UNDP, MPI)
• STs live in two separate geographic regions, broadly: • Conviction rate (2022) in offences against
Central India and the North-Eastern Area. Largest ST STs: 28% (even as crime rate has gone up).
populations found in Odisha, Jharkhand, & Chhattisgarh.

PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TRIBAL GROUPS (PVTGs)


• The Dhebar Commission (1973) created Primitive Tribal
Groups (PTGs) as a separate category. In 2006, the
government renamed the PTGs as PVTGs.
• PVTGs were identified as more vulnerable and less
developed among the tribal groups.
• There are 75 PVTGs in India at present, residing in 18
States and UT of A&N Islands

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• Some basic characteristics of PVTGs are
- Mostly homogenous & Zero or negative growth of population
Relatively physically isolated & Extremely low level of literacy
- Primitive Social institutions & Having pre-agriculture level of technology
- Livelihood depends on food gathering, Non-Timber Forest Produce, hunting, livestock rearing, shifting
cultivation & artisan works
DE-NOTIFIED TRIBES (DNTs)
• Denotified tribes (DNTs) are communities that were KEY FACTS (Renke Commission)
‘notified’ as being ‘criminal tribes’ during the British • 10% of India’s population is Denotified & Nomadic
regime under the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871. Tribes.
• After independence, this Act was repealed in 1952 • 97% of Denotified come under SC, ST, or OBCs (but
(on the recommendations of Ayyangar Committee, several are still excluded).
1951), and the communities were ‘de-notified’. • Heterogeneous group: These communities are diverse,
• However, it was replaced with Habitual Offenders with different languages, cultures, and traditions.
Act.

CHANGES IN THE TRIBAL SOCIETY


• From Traditional to Modern: Tribes have adopted modern practices and technologies, leading to changes in
their traditional ways of life. E.g., the Study of the Baiga tribe by R. Joshi (1984) observed the transition of the
fun-loving Baiga tribe to a stressful modern lifestyle.
• From Isolation to Interaction: Tribes have moved from a state of isolation to increased interaction with the
larger society and civilization.
• From Static to Dynamic: Tribal society has transitioned from being static to dynamic, with changes in culture,
economy, and politics ➔ Changes in Lifestyle: Particularly in those tribes living in or near the Urban areas.
• Economic Development: many tribes now engaging in cash-based economies and adopting new livelihoods
such as agriculture and mining. Eg: Plant based oil selling on e-commerce sites.
• Tribal Autonomy: The Indian government has also recognized the importance of tribal autonomy, with many
tribes being granted self-governance and the right to manage their affairs.
• Loss of Languages: Many of the tribal languages are on the verge of extinction due to migration, globalization,
and urban-centric economic growth. E.g., the death of Boa language in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Decline of Egalitarian values in Tribal societies and the emergence of economic classes. Such changes are
more visible in tribal people from Chotanagpur working as laborers in tea gardens of Assam and North
Bengal.
ISSUES FACED BY STs:
• Land Rights: Tribal communities often face land alienation, displacement, and loss of traditional territories
due to developmental projects, mining activities, and encroachment.
• Lack of Livelihood & Poverty: Many tribal communities struggle with poverty, limited access to livelihood
opportunities, and lack of infrastructure. They often rely on subsistence agriculture, forest resources, and
traditional occupations for their sustenance.
• Developmental Displacement: due to industrial projects and other development initiatives often leads to
inadequate rehabilitation and lack of access to basic services.
• Poor access to Education & Healthcare: High illiteracy rate (30%), High dropout rates, lack of schools, and
inadequate healthcare infrastructure contribute to disparities in tribal communities.
• Threat to Forest Rights and Conservation: Many tribal communities have a deep connection with forests and
depend on them for their livelihoods. Balancing conservation efforts with the rights of tribal communities is
essential to ensure sustainable development.

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• Social Discrimination: Tribal communities often face social discrimination, stigmatization, and marginalization.
Caste-based discrimination, prejudice, and lack of awareness about their rights exacerbate their vulnerability.
• Erosion of Identity + Loss of Language and Culture: The disappearance of tribal languages and dialects is
indicative of a broader loss of tribal identity.
• Lack of Representation: Tribals often lack representation in government and decision-making processes,
leading to a lack of voice and influence in policy-making.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF VARIOUS COMMITTEES FOR TRIBES:


• Kaka Kalelkar Commission, 1953: Appointed under Article 340, defined ST as “They lead a separate exclusive
existence and are not fully assimilated in the main body of the people. They may belong to any religion.”
• Elwin Committee (1959): To examine the functioning of Multi-Purpose Development Blocks, the basic
administrative unit for all tribal development programs.
• U.N. Dhebar Commission (1960): To address the overall situation of tribal groups, including the issue of land
alienation in tribal areas.
• The Lokur Committee (1965): To look into criteria for defining Schedule Tribes.
• The Bhuria Committee (1991): Recommendations paved the way for the enactment of the PESA Act, 1996.
• Xaxa Committee: To examine the socio-economic, educational, and health status of tribal communities and
recommend appropriate interventional measures to improve the same.

• Dhebar commission Mungekar Report (2005) Xaxa Committee recommendations for


(1960) • The Gram Sabha should welfare of STs (2013-14)
• Provide the mid-day meal, become fully functional. • Empower Tribes Advisory Council.
clothing, free book, • Participatory Approach of • Ensure due share in socio-economic
reading and writing Programme Implementation progress for tribals, including facilities like
materials, etc. to all the should be a compulsory pre- health, education, livelihood, drinking
tribal children in backward requisite for programme water, sanitation, roads, electricity and
areas, opening of schools implementation. sustainable income.
in localities where there • Review land laws • Reservation for tribal women, Prevention
were at least 30 school- • Devolution of powers and of tribal land alienation
going children, adjustment avoid misuse of power in • Teachers for schools in the tribal regions
of timing, vacations, and tribal areas should be recruited locally, teacher
holidays of schools to suit • Health crisis in Tribal areas training, curriculum, policy of multilingual
the tribal social and should be handled on education, so that early learning is
cultural life, create an priority basis conducted in the local language.
atmosphere of tribal • Residential schools.
culture in the schools etc. • Respect & protect tribals customary rights

STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT FOR EMPOWERMENT OF STs:


INITIATIVE OBJECTIVE
EDUCATIONAL
Eklavya Model Residential Schools to provide quality middle and high level education.
for ST students
Digital Transformation of Tribal Joint initiative of Ministry of Tribal Affairs and Microsoft.
Schools
LEGAL
• SC& ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989
• Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996

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• ST & Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006
ECONOMIC & SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT
National ST Finance & Development providing the target population with preferential financial assistance.
Corporation (NSTFDC)
• Van Dhan Yojana (VDY): Market Linked Tribal Entrepreneurship
Development Program.
Marketing Schemes • Marketing And Logistics Development for Promotion of Tribal
Products from North Eastern Region (PTP-NER)

PM Vanbandhu Vikas Yojana Venture capital fund set up to promote start-up projects by ST youth
Van Dhan Vikas Kendra Provides skill upgradation & sets up primary processing facilities.
PM Janjatiya Unnat Gram Abhiyan will adopt saturation coverage for tribal families in tribal-majority villages
(Budget 2024): and aspirational districts.
SEED Scheme Umbrella scheme for welfare of De-notified, Nomadic & Semi Nomadic
Communities.

WAY FORWARD
• Holistic Development Approach:
Adopt a comprehensive data-
driven digital governance model
to reach diverse tribal
populations and cover critical
sectors like education, health,
livelihood, water, and village
development.
• Improving Access to Basic
Services: Strengthen Sub-
Centres, Primary Health Centres,
and Community Health Centres
with relaxed population norms
for setting up health facilities in tribal areas.
• Empowering Tribal Panchayati Raj Institutions: By enhancing their decision-making capabilities at local level.
• Improving Livelihoods and Food Security.
• Effectively implement the Public Distribution System (PDS): To minimize the stress of low income and food
insecurity among tribal households.

Conclusion:
Indian society demonstrates resilience, unity in diversity, and inclusivity. It has achieved remarkable progress in
education, technology, arts, and sports, producing globally recognized individuals. To sustain this growth, it must
promote tolerance, acceptance, and respect for diversity. Education, awareness, and social reforms are vital for
creating a more equitable, harmonious, and progressive nation.
9.8.1 CHALLENGES FACED BY NCSCS/NCSTS:
• Manpower and budgetary shortage: Lack of adequate staff and funds to carry out its duties effectively.
- For eg. Ministry of Tribal Affairs in Parliament has revealed that the NCST is currently functioning with less
than 50% of its sanctioned strength.

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• High rate of pendency: Inability to resolve cases/disputes in a timely manner due to various reasons such as lack
of cooperation from state governments, non-appearance of parties, non-submission of reports, etc.
- As per the latest annual report of NCST, the rate of pendency of complaints and cases was close to 50%.
• Lack of awareness and outreach: NCSC/NCST also has limited outreach and accessibility, especially in remote
and inaccessible areas where most of the SC/ST reside.
• Lack of enforcement and implementation: NCSC/NCST has no binding powers to enforce its recommendations
on the government or other authorities ➔ Recommendations are ignored or not implemented properly.
• Other challenges: Lack of regular meetings, proliferation of other institutions (duplication of efforts);

WAY FORWARD FOR NCSCS/NCSTS:


• Grant more Powers to NCSC/NCST: To investigate and monitor all matters relating to the safeguards provided for
SC/STs and power to issue directions to the authorities concerned its effective implementation.
• Give Financial autonomy to NCSC/NCST: Its budget should be charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.
• Establish Regional and district offices: This would help the commission to reach out to the grassroots level and
address the grievances and issues of SC/STs more effectively.
• Facilitate online reporting and prosecution of crimes. By creating a simplified SOP and making it available in local
languages at all police stations.
• Help build the capacity of lawyers, judges, and police officers➔ensures discreet correspondence with registered
caste members.
• Offer rewards for a department's or organization's work that exhibits innovation, effectiveness, or good impact.
• Framework for organized engagement with civil society organizations working on these communities' problems
may be created by the Commission.
• Reduce the pendency of complaints: By strengthening its coordination and cooperation with state governments,
and adopting alternative dispute resolution (ADR) mechanisms such as mediation and conciliation.
CURRENT CONNECT
Supreme court in its recent landmark judgment (2024): It permitted states to create sub-classifications within the
SC and ST categories for the purpose of according wider protections — through fixed sub-quotas — to the most
backward communities within these categories.
This overturns the apex court’s decision in E V Chinnaiah v State of Andhra Pradesh (2004), in which it had held
that the SC/ST list is a “homogenous group” that cannot be divided further.
Polavaram Dam Conflict: Tribal communities, such as the Koya and Kondh tribes, in Andhra Pradesh oppose the
construction of the Polavaram dam due to violations of their land rights, inadequate compensation, and
displacement without proper rehabilitation.
• The conflict highlights the challenge of balancing development projects with the protection of tribal rights and
cultural heritage.

Forest Rights Act (FRA) Violation:


• The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act (FCAA) of 2023 discards the need to obtain consent from habitation
level gram sabhas before final forest clearance. It violates FRA 2006, which designated forest dwellers and gram
sabhas as the statutory protectors of forest. Wildlife and biodiversity.
- The Amendment Act does not recognise “deemed forests” as land subject to the provisions of the FCA.
Consequently, forest land classified as “deemed forests” can be diverted without the consent of the Gram
Sabhas.
• The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) invoked its power to requisition FRA implementation
reports, leading to a dispute with the Union Environment Ministry over potential violations of tribal rights.

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A report Status of Adivasi Livelihoods (SAL) Report, 2022, released by NGO PRADAN highlights that Food subsidy
through Public Distribution System (PDS) has reduced the stress that Adivasi households would have faced due to
lower income.

9.9 OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES (OBCs) & NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR BACKWARD CLASSES
• The Indian Constitution recognizes OBCs as socially and educationally backwards, with entitlements to
reservations in employment and education.
• The NCBC was initially established as a statutory body under the National Commission for Backward Classes
Act, 1993.
• Constitution 102nd Amendment Act, 2018 repealed 1993 act, added Article 338-B to the Constitution, making
it a constitutional body.
• 2 Backward Class Commissions appointed i.e. Kaka Kalelkar commission and B.P. Mandal Commission.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR OBCs:

Schemes for OBCs:


• Pre and post matric scholarship to the OBCs: financial assistance to OBC students to complete their education.
• Construction of Hostel for OBC Boys and Girls: For students from socially and educationally disadvantaged
groups, particularly those from rural regions, to enable them to pursue secondary and higher education.
• National Fellowship for OBCs Students - to pursue superior higher education and get degrees like M.Phil & Ph.D
• SHREYAS scheme: Educational Empowerment of OBC & EBC students by way of awarding fellowship (financial
assistance) in obtaining quality higher education and interest subsidy on educational loan for overseas studies.
NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR BACKWARD CLASSES:
Functions Limitations
• Investigating and monitoring how safeguards • Non-Binding: The government is not required to
provided to the backward classes under the abide by the NCBC's recommendations.
Constitution and other laws are being implemented. • Lack of authority: It cannot handle the current issue of
• Inquiring into specific complaints regarding violation demands from other castes to be listed as BCs since it
of rights. has no obligation to define what is considered to be
• Advising and making recommendations on socio- backward.
economic development of OBCs. • SC directives ignored: The Supreme Court's
• Presenting annual reports to the President upon the requirements for an expert body are not included in
working of safeguards for OBC. the new NCBC's makeup. OBCs are underrepresented
in numerous government committees, commissions,
boards, and other forums.
WAY FORWARD:
• As required by the SC, the composition must represent the characteristics of an expert body.
• The results of the caste census and the commission's recommendations must be made public knowledge by
the government.

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• The gender sensitivity and stakeholder representation of the commission's membership should be reflected
in its makeup.
• In order to ensure that only the really underprivileged segments of society benefit from reservations, vote-
bank politics should make way for value-based politics.

OBC RESERVATION AND SUB CATEGORIZATION: JUSTICE ROHINI COMMISSION


• The Second Backward Class Commission was established by the • Constituted in 2017, under article 340
Government of India (GOI) in 1979. In a paper that was submitted of the Constitution, to examine the
in 1980, it advocated for a 27% quota for OBCs. In 1990, the issues of the sub-categorization of
government approved it. Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
• In Indra Sawhney case (1992), the Supreme Court affirmed the • Creating subcategories within OBCs for
OBC reservation but disallowed the so-called "creamy layer" of the reservation in order to guarantee
economically affluent OBCs. They are therefore ineligible for the
"equitable distribution" of
advantages of reservations.
representation among all OBC
• Meanwhile, OBCs' poorest subgroups have not received benefits
communities is known as
from reservations. As a result, the need for subcategorization
within the OBCs has drawn considerable attention. subcategorization of OBCs.

BENEFITS OF SUB-CATEGORISATION OF OBCs


• Addressing intra-community disparities: It identifies and supports more backward communities within OBC,
promoting balance and targeted upliftment.
• Ensuring equitable distribution of benefits: Sub-categorization creates separate quotas for different OBC
subgroups within the 27% reservation, preventing the domination only few communities.
- Improved access to education, healthcare, and other basic services for disadvantaged OBC communities.
• Improved data accuracy: It would correct the repetitions, ambiguities, inconsistencies and errors in the
Central List of OBCs and make it more accurate and comprehensive.
• Effective policy implementation: It will allow tailored interventions, addressing unique needs and promoting
socio-economic development within the OBC community.
• Greater awareness and understanding: Of the diversity and specific needs of different OBC groups.
• Increased accountability and transparency: In the allocation of government resources and benefits.

CHALLENGES IN SUB-CATEGORISATION
• Defining subgroups: This involves identifying the relevant factors, such as socio-economic status, educational
attainment, and occupational patterns, that can capture the diversity and disparity among OBC communities.
• Balanced sub-categorisation: Finding a balance between creating meaningful subgroups and avoiding
excessive fragmentation is essential.
• Data unavailability: Reliable and comprehensive data on various OBC communities is vital for
subcategorization which may be limited or inconsistent.
- Data from the 2011 socio-economic caste census were never made public.
• Legal and constitutional challenges: Subcategorization requires legal and constitutional amendments.
Ensuring that such amendments comply with the principles of equality, non-discrimination, and social justice
can be a complex task.
• Challenges of Consensus: Reaching consensus of all stakeholders can be challenging, Sub-classification policies
can face opposition from political groups and advanced OBC communities ➔ create social tensions.
• Administrative implementation: Once subcategorization is established, ensuring accurate identification and
verification of beneficiaries, managing reservations in educational institutions and government jobs, and
monitoring the impact of subcategorization require robust administrative systems and capacity.
WAY FORWARD
• Consultation and dialogue: Engage in extensive consultations with various stakeholders, including OBC
community leaders, experts, and scholars ➔ ensure an inclusive & informed approach to sub-categorization.

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• Develop objective and relevant criteria for sub-categorization, considering factors such as socio-economic
indicators, educational attainment, representation in public offices, and historical disadvantage.
• Data collection and analysis: Conduct comprehensive data collection and analysis, utilising surveys, census
data, and other relevant sources to gather accurate information for effective sub-categorization.
• Legal framework and implementation: Enact necessary legislation or amend existing laws to accommodate
the sub-categorization of OBCs and clearly define the rights, benefits, and entitlements.
• Outreach and awareness: Conduct extensive public outreach and awareness campaigns to educate the OBC
community about the sub-categorization process, its objectives, and benefits.
• Regular review and updates: Establish a mechanism for periodic review and updates of the sub-categorization
process to adapt to changing socio-economic dynamics.
• Consult states having sub-categorised OBCs: State of Bihar already have this in system in place where the
OBC is further divided into BC-I, BC-II, OBC-women.

9.10 BEGGARS
• Chronic joblessness fuels poverty and undermines
human values, driving people towards begging.
• The government attempted to repeal the Act by
introducing the Persons in Destitution (Protection, Care,
and Rehabilitation) Model Bill, 2016.
• The bill proposed eliminating the Beggary Act and
suggesting the establishment of rehabilitation centres
for the destitute in every district.
SCHEMES FOR BEGGARS:
• SMILE-75 Initiative: To establish a comprehensive support system for the holistic rehabilitation of individuals
involved in the practice of begging.
• Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana - National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM): This scheme focuses on the
urban poor, including beggars, to enhance their livelihoods through:
- Shelter for Urban Homeless (SUH): Providing shelters equipped with essential services.
- Skill Training and Employment: Facilitating skill training and employment opportunities.
- Social Mobilization and Institution Development: Forming self-help groups for social and financial
inclusion.
Recent reforms in begging
• Uttarakhand's Begging Ban: In 2024, Uttarakhand implemented a ban on begging following a court order.
However, this legal measure has had limited impact on reducing the number of beggars in the state.
• Begging as Organized Crime: In Lucknow, experts have highlighted that begging has evolved into a multi-crore
business, with over 14,000 individuals involved. This has raised concerns about the exploitation and trafficking
of vulnerable individuals, including children, who are often coerced into begging networks.

9.11 RELIGIOUS MINORITIES


• The National Commission for Minorities (NCM) Act, 1992, empowers the central government to designate
certain communities as minorities under section 2(c).
• The Act recognizes Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians (Parsis) as minority
communities.
• Despite the Supreme Court's ruling in the T.M.A. Pai case, which advocated for identifying linguistic and
religious minorities at the state level, Section 2(c) of the NCM Act, 1992, allows the Centre to designate
minorities.
ISSUES FACED BY MINORITIES
• Discrimination: Minorities can face unfair treatment based on their race, ethnicity, religion, language, or other
characteristics. This can lead to unequal opportunities, prejudice, stereotyping, and hate crimes.

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• Marginalization and Exclusion: Minorities may be marginalized and excluded from mainstream society, facing
barriers in accessing education, healthcare, employment, housing, and political representation. This can create
social and economic gaps between minority and majority groups.
• Socioeconomic Inequality: Minorities often experience higher levels of poverty, unemployment, and income
inequality. Limited access to quality education, healthcare, and financial resources can trap them in cycles of
poverty and hinder their ability to progress.
• Cultural Preservation and Identity: Minority communities may struggle to preserve their cultural heritage and
identity. They face challenges such as language loss, erosion of traditional practices, and pressure to assimilate
into the dominant culture.
• Political Underrepresentation: Minorities may have limited representation in political institutions, leading to
a lack of voice and influence in decision-making processes. This can result in policies that do not adequately
address their needs.
• Violence and Intolerance: Minorities are at risk of violence, hate crimes, and intolerance fueled by prejudice.
This can create fear and insecurity within minority communities, impacting their well-being and cohesion.
• Lack of Legal Protection: Some minorities may not have sufficient legal protection of their rights.
Discriminatory laws or policies can perpetuate inequality and make it challenging for minorities to seek justice.

STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT FOR MINORITIES EMPOWERMENT


SCHEMES AND OTHER INITIATIVES DESCRIPTION
Pre and post-matric scholarship schemes Scholarships provided to minorities for pre- and post-matric
for minorities (2007 and 2012) education.
Nai Roshni scheme (2013) Leadership development program for women of minority
communities.
Minority Cyber Gram (MCG) (2014) Introducing digital literacy skills in identified minority clusters.
Nai Manzil scheme (2015) Education and skill development program for youth from the minority
community.
Upgrading The Skills and Training In Upgrading skills and training in the preservation of traditional arts and
Traditional Arts/Crafts For Development crafts of minorities.
(USTAAD) (2015)
Hamari Dharohar (2015) Preserving the rich and diverse heritage of the minority community in
India.
PM Jan Vikas Karyakram (2018) Improving basic needs and socio-economic conditions in minority
concentration areas.
Naya Savera (2019) Free coaching and allied scheme for minorities.
Nai Udaan Support for minority students after clearing prelims of UPSC, State
PSC, and SSC.
Khwaja Garib Nawaz Senior Secondary School established at Ajmer by Maulana Azad Education Foundation to
School boost minority education.
Maulana Azad fellowship scheme for Fellowship scheme for minority students.
minority students

9.12 SENIOR CITIZENS


The National Policy for Older Persons, 1999, defines ‘senior citizen’ or ‘elderly’ as a person who is of age 60 years or
above.

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ELDERLY POPULATION IN INDIA: KEY FACTS & TRENDS
Population • India is home to the 2nd largest population of elderly in the world.
[Elderly in India Report, • Elderly persons (aged 60 years or above): 10% in 2021 ➔ increase to 20% by 2050.
2021 (NSO)] • In Rural areas: 70%, In Urban Area: 30%

Feminisation of Ageing • 1,065 elderly women per 1,000 elderly men


Working Elderly • 8% of Total Labour Force (Elderly Men – 65%, Elderly Women – 18%).
population [PLFS] • 30% elderly are below poverty line.
Literacy • Literates among elderly persons: increased from 27% in 1991 to 45% in 2011.
[Census 2011] - Elderly females: 28%, Elderly males: 60%

ISSUES FACED BY SENIOR CITIZENS


• Healthcare challenges: Such as chronic
illnesses and limited access to
healthcare. Medical costs can be high,
and specialized geriatric care may be
lacking.
• Financial insecurity: Due to inadequate
retirement savings, limited income
sources, and rising living costs.
• Social Isolation and mental health:
Seniors may feel lonely due to loss of
friends, reduced mobility, and limited
social interactions.
- Mental health issues like depression
and anxiety, often underdiagnosed
and undertreated.
• Elder Abuse: Some seniors are
vulnerable to abuse, including physical, emotional, financial, and neglect.
• Ageism and discrimination: Older individuals may face age-related discrimination in various areas, affecting
their opportunities and well-being.
• Safety and Security: More susceptible to crime and scams etc.
• Limited access to Services: Like transportation, legal assistance, and social support programs can pose
challenges for seniors.
• Elderly Caregiving: Many seniors need assistance with daily activities, and lack of support for family caregivers
can be challenging.

WAY FORWARD
• Policy framework should cater to 21st century demographic change and focus on elderly population. Eg in
formulating development programme, Disaster Strategies etc.
• Silverisation of economy via Innovative financing models: Incentivise private investment, philanthropy, Social
impact bonds, crowdfunding etc. to drive innovation & growth of silver economy.
• Meeting the healthcare needs – Access to affordable geriatric healthcare and mental health counselling.
Rehabilitation or home-based disability support and end-of-life care should also be provided.
- For eg. Implement Palliative care on lines of Malappuram model at the national and state level.
• Promoting awareness about the concept of healthy ageing and the health problems and to involve the
community in the process of their mitigation ➔ destigmatise old age.
• Economic Security through Income Generation Opportunities for Able and Willing Older Persons ➔
harnessing ‘longevity dividend’. For eg. SACRED Portal.
- Special Schemes for Women, Dalits, Rural, Poor, Destitute and Disabled Older Persons, Widows etc.
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• Re-skilling and up-skilling: Promoting education and training to improve the digital capabilities of older people
is key for extending working careers, but also for enhancing well-being and their independence.
• Efficient use of ICT & technology – promoting Digi Health, Senior friendly Apps (online delivery of
groceries/medicines), assistive technologies to facilitate independent living etc.
• Society's role is very crucial. Avenue for bonding between generations may be explored for eg. Integration of
children day care facilities/orphanages with Old Age homes via MAITRI APP.

CURRENT CONNECT
• According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), loneliness has been declared as a pressing global health
threat with a mortality effect equivalent to smoking 15 cigarettes a day.
- Loneliness is far more than just a bad feeling - it harms both individual and societal health. It is associated
with a greater risk of cardiovascular disease, dementia, stroke, depression, anxiety, and premature death.
• India recently celebrated World Senior Citizen Day 2023. Amidst the celebrations, the Government reaffirmed
its commitment to the Atal Vayo Abhyuday Yojana (AVYAY), a pioneering initiative aimed at addressing the
multifaceted needs of senior citizens across the country.

9.13 PERSONS WITH DISABILITY (PwD)


Persons with Disability (PwD), according to PwD Act, 2016, include all those who have long-term physical, mental,
intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective
participation in society on equal basis with others.

KEY FACTS: STATUS OF PERSON WITH DISABLITIES IN INDIA (CENSUS 2011)


1 Persons with disability • 2.2% of total population (56% of disabled are males, 44%
females)
• 70% of the disabled population is rural.
2 Disability among children 1.2% of the total children (0-6 years)

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3 Literacy rate Only 55% of total disabled are literates (65% males, 45% females)
4 Percentage of disabled children • Only 60% of disabled children aged 5-19 years attend
aged 5-19 years attending educational institution.
educational institution • 50% of the children with mental illness never attended
educational institution
5 PwDs employed 35% of total PwDs

ISSUES FACE BY PERSONS WITH DISABILITY:


• Social Isolation: due to societal stigma, physical barriers, and a lack of social support.
• Violence and Abuse: PwD are at a higher risk of facing physical, sexual, and emotional abuse.
• Health: The health sector, particularly in rural areas, has not been proactive in addressing the needs of persons
with disabilities. Greater vulnerability among mentally disabled & poor quality rehabilitation services.
• Restricted access to Education & Skills: The education system often lacks inclusivity, making it challenging for
children with mild to moderate disabilities to integrate into regular schools.
• Employment: Lack of gainful employment (only 35% of PwD employed) ➔ assetless + vicious cycle of poverty
• Inadequate Infrastructure: Many public and residential facilities lack disability-friendly infrastructure, making
mobility and access difficult including Digital exclusion.
• Lack of authentic data – Absence of strong disability statistics and lack of universal definition of what
constitutes a disability, leads to identification problems and ineffective and insufficient service delivery.
• Political Apathy: Poor implementation of PwD act & policies.
• Limited Political Participation: inaccessible polling places and information.
• Lack of Representation: People with disabilities are often underrepresented in media, popular culture, and
decision-making positions, leading to a lack of visibility and advocacy.

STEPS TAKEN FOR BETTERMENT OF PERSON WITH DISABILITY:


Policies & Schemes
• The National Policy for Persons with Disabilities, 2006
• Schemes - Sugamya Bharat Abhiyaan, Unique Disability ID (UDID) Card, Assistance for Differently Abled
scheme, ADIP Scheme, Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme, Scholarships for PwD, etc.
• Divyangjan Swavalamban Yojna: concessional loan for economic and overall empowerment
• KIRAN Helpline: The 24x7 Toll-Free Mental Health Rehabilitation Helpline
• EKAM Fest: by National Handicapped Finance Development Corporation (NHFDC) to Promote Craftsmanship
& Products of Divyang Artisans & Entrepreneurs.
• National Awards for Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities
Legislative Framework
• Right of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 to fulfil obligation under UNCRPD; Rehabilitative Council of India
(RCI) act, 1992; Mental Health Act 1987 etc.
Institutional Framework
• ALIMCO (Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India), a Mini Ratna Company under aegis of Min of
Social Justice & Empowerment was setup to provide aids, appliances and components.
• National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation (NHFDC)
International Convention/Treaties Signed/Ratified By India
• United Nations Convention on Rights of Persons with Disability (UNCRPD) in 2008.
• ‘Declaration on the Full Participation and Equality of People’ with Disabilities in the Asia-Pacific Region’
• Biwako Millennium Framework working towards an inclusive, barrier free and rights-based society.

WAY FORWARD
• Inclusive Design: Ensure public spaces, transportation, buildings, and facilities are designed to be accessible
to all, including ramps, elevators, tactile pathways, and accessible restrooms.
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• Assistive Technologies: Promote the development and distribution of assistive technologies that aid mobility,
communication, and daily living for persons with disabilities.
• Special Education Programs: Develop and support inclusive education programs that integrate children with
disabilities into mainstream schools while providing necessary accommodations and support.
• Job Training: Offer vocational training and skill development programs tailored to the abilities and interests
of persons with disabilities to enhance their employability.
• Workplace Accommodations: Encourage employers to provide reasonable accommodations and create an
inclusive work environment that supports the productivity and participation of employees with disabilities.
• Specialized Services: Ensure that healthcare services are accessible and tailored to the needs of persons with
disabilities, including physical therapy, mental health services, and regular medical care.
• Affordability: Implement policies to reduce the financial burden of healthcare for persons with disabilities,
ensuring they have access to necessary treatments and medications.
• Community Engagement: Promote community programs and activities that include persons with disabilities,
fostering social interaction and reducing isolation.
• Anti-Discrimination Laws: Strengthen and enforce laws that protect the rights of persons with disabilities
against discrimination in all areas of life, including education, employment, and access to services.
9.14 CHILDREN

KEY FACTS AND DATA:


Health indicator (NFHS - • Proportion of stunted children under 5 - 35% (global Average: 23%)
5) • Proportion of Underweight children - 30% (global Average: 13%
• Proportion of wasted children - 20%
Malnutrition • >65% children under age of 5 years are anaemic.
Child sex ratio • 108 boys per 100 girls as NFHS 5.
Infant Mortality Rate • Decline to 28 per 1000 live births in 2020 from 30 per 1000 live births in 2019.
(IMR)
Neonatal Mortality Rate • Declined from 22 per 1000 live births in 2019 to 20 per 1000 live births in 2020.

Under 5 Mortality Rate • It has declined from 32 per 1000 live births in 2020 against 35 per 1000 live births
in 2019. It varies from 36 in rural areas to 21 in urban areas.
Child brides • According to UNICEF, one in three of the world’s child brides live in India.
• NFHS-5 data show that about 25% of women aged 18-29 years married before the
legal marriageable age of 18.
Child labour • Children engaged in work = 10 million in age group of 5-14 years (Census 2011).
• 80% of Child labour in Rural Areas (engaged as cultivators & agriculture labourers).
• State wise - UP, Bihar, Rajasthan, Maharashtra & MP constitute 55% of the total
child labourers.

PROVISIONS FOR PROTECTION & DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN


A. Constitutional
• Article 21-A: provides for fundamental right to free & compulsory education to all children of age 6 to 14 years.
• Article 23: Traffic in human beings & begar and other similar forms of forced labour are prohibited.
• Article 24: No child below the age 14 years shall be employed in work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other
hazardous employment.
• Article 39: State shall direct its policy towards ensuring that tender age of children is not abused and citizens are not
forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their age or strength.
B. Statutory & Policy initiatives
• Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act
• Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) of Children Act, 2015
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• Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012
• Right of Children to Free & Compulsory Education Act, 2009
• National Policy on Child Labour (1987)
C. Institutional
• National commission for protection of child rights: Inquires into violation of child rights like child labour.
D. Key Initiatives
• Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS): health, nutrition, and pre-school education to children under 6
• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao: Aims to improve the status of girls through awareness and welfare schemes.
• Saksham Anganwadi and Mission Poshan 2.0 Scheme: To address the challenge of child malnutrition and maternal
under-nutrition.
• National Child Labour Project (NCLP) & Engaging with NGOs such as Bachpan Bachao Andolan, Pratham.
• ‘PENCIL’ Portal - Platform for Effective Enforcement for No Child Labour.
E. International
• Sustainable Development Goals: SDG 8 - target to eliminate the child labour in all forms by 2025.
- Others: Poverty (Goal 1), hunger (Goal 2), health (Goal 3), education (Goal 4), gender equality (Goal 5), climate
change (Goal 13) or violence against children (Goal 16.2).
• United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
• ILO Convention 138 and 182: regarding admission of age to employment and worst forms of Child Labour.
• UNICEF works to prevent and respond to child labour, especially by strengthening the social service workforce.

9.14.1 KEY CHALLENGES RELATED TO CHILDREN

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CHILD LABOUR
• ILO defines Child labour as ‘The work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential, and their
dignity and, that is harmful to their physical and mental development’.
• Worst forms of Child Labour – Slavery, trafficking of children, debt bondage, children in armed conflict, sexual
exploitation, prostitution, pornography, use in drug trafficking and organised beggary.
• Under the Child Labour Prohibition & Regulation Act, 2016, a ‘child’ means a person who has not completed
his/her fourteenth year of age.

CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR


(I) Economic Factors
• Poverty & Unemployment - Poor parents, devoid of any social protection net, consider child labour as means
to augment their family income. Lack of decent work opportunities for adults and adolescents.
• Distress migration to urban areas: Expose children to trafficking & demand for cheap domestic helps.
• Rising informalisation - Exploits the cheap labour offered by child, insulated from the labour regulations. For
eg. in agriculture sector, rag-picking, beedi-rolling, mining sector, restaurants etc.
(II) Social Factors
• Poor quality education: Thus, increasing dropouts, further forcing children, esp girls, to engage in work
• Social inequalities - Majority of child labourers in India belong to marginalised sections like SCs, ST etc.
• Social norms condoning Child labour: Some cultural traditions rationalise & encourage child labour to
continue their family occupation in the name of character building and skill development for children. For eg.
agriculture, carpet making, diamond business, local businesses etc.
(III) Administrative factors: Outdated data on child labour, ineffective implementation of law, weak institutions,
apathetic/untrained enforcement officers etc.
• Loopholes in the act that allows children to work under certain conditions For eg. in entertainment industry,
family enterprise etc.
(IV) Aggravating factors: Covid reversed the gains made in combating child labour: Economic crises & Poverty (Parent
mortality, loss of jobs, unsafe migration), Learning poverty (Closure of schools), health & nutrition (deprivation of mid
day meal at schools), increase in Child labour (due to lack of monitoring) etc.

IMPACT OF CHILD LABOUR


• Prevents the normal well-being: Neglect of adequate food, clothing, shelter and medical treatment. Working
in hazardous situations adversely impacts a child’s physical and mental health.
• Perpetuate poverty: It prevents children from gaining the skills they require to have opportunities for decent work
when they become an adult ➔ perpetuate intergenerational cycles of poverty.
• Loss to nation’s economy: lack of opportunity for higher education for older children deprives nation of
developing higher skills & technological capabilities that are required for economic development.
• Emotional neglect: deprivation of family love & affection, resulting in loneliness, & hopelessness.
• Competition: with adult workers leads to depressing wages and salaries.
WAY FORWARD
• Policy Reforms: Strengthen and streamline child protection laws and policies to ensure comprehensive
coverage and implementation, especially for children with disabilities and special needs.
• Strengthening Child Protection Mechanisms: Enhance the capacity and reach of child protection services,
including Childline and child welfare committees ➔ sensitization training.
• Removing all definitional ambiguity of who constitutes a child and what is child labour.
• Expanding education access - improving quality of education, addressing violence in schools, providing
relevant vocational training and using existing systems to ensure child workers return to school.
• Healthcare Access: Enhance access to healthcare services, particularly in rural and underserved areas, through
mobile health units and telemedicine.
• Awareness-raising and mobilization of families & communities about child rights and protection issues.

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- For eg. Crucial Role of Panchayat – Create awareness about ill-effects of child labour & benefits of
education, ensure sufficient facilities in schools, strengthen Anganwadis etc.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Implement robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track the
effectiveness of child welfare programs and policies.
9.15 LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY
DEFINITION OF A TRANSGENDER PERSON TRANSGENDER IN INDIA
• The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 • Total population (Census 2011) - around 5
defines a transgender person as one whose gender does Lakh.
not match the gender assigned at birth. ie. whose gender • Over 65% of the transgender population
identity does not conform to their biological sex. lived in rural areas.
• It includes trans-men and trans-women, persons with
• Literacy level - 55%, as compared to 75% in
intersex variations, genderqueers, and persons with socio-
general population.
cultural identities, such as kinnar & hijra.
- 50-60% never attended school (NHRC).
• “Gender identity” refers to a person’s internal, deeply felt
• Work participation - Proportion of working
sense of being either man or woman, or something other,
Transgender is less than 40%, as compared
which may or may not correspond with the sex assigned at
to more than 55% in general population.
birth.
• Biological sex (sex assigned at birth) refers to physical attributes such as sex chromosomes, sex hormones,
internal reproductive structures, & external genitalia that define a person as male or female.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND LEGAL MILESTONES:


• Ancient acceptance: Texts like the Kama Sutra
and temple carvings show historical
acceptance of same-sex relationships and
gender fluidity.
• Colonial impact: British colonial rule imposed
Victorian morals, leading to laws like Section
377, which criminalized homosexuality.
• Section 377: Introduced during British rule in
1861, Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code
criminalized "carnal intercourse against the
order of nature." This law was often used to
persecute LGBTQ+ individuals.
• NALSA vs. Union of India (2014)
- Self perception of identity: SC held that
each person has the right and autonomy
to decide their own gender.
- Reservation: Transgender people to be
treated as socially and economically
backward classes (SEBC).
• Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union of India (2018): A landmark judgment by SC decriminalized consensual same-sex
relations, declaring Section 377 unconstitutional in this regard.
• Supreme Court (SC) verdict in Supriyo Chakraborty V Union of India (2023): SC recently delivered a verdict,
rejecting petitions to legalize same-sex marriage under the Special Marriage Act, 1954➔ No fundamental right
to marry under the Constitution➔ Queer couples do not have the right to adopt➔ Couples do not enjoy a
right to a civil union.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES:
• Cultural Acceptance: Despite legal progress, social acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals vary widely across India.
While urban areas tend to be more accepting, rural regions often maintain conservative views.
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• Media Representation: There has been a gradual increase in positive representation of LGBTQ+ characters in
Indian cinema and television. Films like "Fire," "Aligarh," and "Shubh Mangal Zyada Saavdhan" have brought
LGBTQ+ issues to the forefront.
• Pride Parades and Activism: Major cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru host annual Pride parades, which
have become platforms for the LGBTQ+ community to demand equal rights and visibility.
KEY INITIATIVES FOR MAINSTREAMING LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY
• NALSA judgment: Allowed them to change their name and gender in records even without medical intervention.
• Transgender Rights: The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, provides legal protections.
• Ministry of Social Justice: SMILE scheme for transgender people and set up shelter homes called Garima Grehs.
• Kerala became the first state to have a policy for transgenders.
• The recruitment of transgender persons in Maharashtra Police.
• Political representation: Delhi’s first transgender municipal councilor.
• Karnataka has become the first state to provide 1% reservation for TGs in all the government services.
• Odisha became the first state to confer the Below Poverty Line (BPL) status to transgenders.
• RML Hospital (Delhi): It has inaugurated India’s first dedicated OPD for Transgenders.
• Khudol: Crowdfunded initiative of an Imphal-based NGO that created India’s first transgender football team.

WAY FORWARD:
• Collection of data - A National level survey needs to be undertaken by the Government to collect socio-economic
status of TGs for effective delivery of social benefits to them.
• Restoration of civil rights - Rights to get a passport, ration card, make a will, inherit property and adopt children
must be available to all regardless of change in gender / sex identities.
• Administrative & legal measures - Strict implementation of the Transgender Act, 2019 and appropriate
sensitization training to officials at all levels (Police, prosecutors, judiciary etc)
- Addressing Intersectionality: Recognizing and addressing how intersecting identities, such as caste, class,
religion, and disability, impact the experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals.
• Change in Transphobic mindset – Incorporating LGBTQ+ issues into school curriculums and workplace training to
foster acceptance and reduce stigma.
• Education and employment measures - Reservation in education and employment in line with Supreme Court’s
NALSA judgement, Vocational courses for TGs, & incentivizing private companies to employ TGs
• Health measures - Separate HIV sero-surveillance centres for TGs, holistic health care ie. safe drinking water,
sanitation, nutrition, mental health counselling, counselling on sex change operations etc.
- Training healthcare professionals on LGBTQ+ health issues to provide inclusive and competent care.
• Support Systems: Strengthening community support systems, including LGBTQ+ organizations and helplines, to
provide resources and assistance including Mental Health Support.
• Visibility and Representation: Encouraging positive representation of LGBTQ+ individuals in media, politics, and
public life to normalize LGBTQ+ identities and foster acceptance.

Conclusion: India's progress on LGBTQ+ rights include legal victories and social challenges. Decriminalizing same-sex
relations was a major step, but efforts must continue to combat societal prejudices, improve healthcare, and achieve
full equality in marriage and adoption rights to live with dignity and equality in India.

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10 COMMUNALISM
Related Keywords
• Augury of polarisation, Religious conservatism, Teething problems, War against invisible armies, from ethnic
rift to ethnic harmony, Creating a common thread of acceptance/tolerance, India a melting pot Vs. a salad bowl.

10.1 MEANING OF COMMUNALISM


Communalism, specifically in the Indian context, is commonly understood as the occurrence of religious differences
between groups, often resulting in tension and even violent clashes. It can also manifest in forms of discrimination
against religious communities in areas like employment and education.
Features of Communalism:
• Characterised by orthodoxy and
intolerance.
• Promotes a strong aversion and
hostility towards other religions.
• Advocates for the exclusion and
eradication of other religions and
their values.
• May resort to extremist tactics,
including employing violence.
• Exhibits an exclusive outlook, where
adherents consider their own religion
as superior to others.

10.2 THREE STAGES OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

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10.3 TYPES OF COMMUNALISM
Communalism, an ideology can be classified into:
• Religious Communalism: This type of communalism is based on religious differences and involves the
promotion of the interests of one religious community at the expense of others. It can result in religious
tensions, discrimination, and conflicts.
• Ethnic Communalism: Ethnic communalism focuses on the interests of a particular ethnic group and can
involve the exclusion or marginalization of other ethnic groups. It often leads to identity-based conflicts and
challenges to national unity.
• Political Communalism: Political communalism refers to the instrumental use of religious or ethnic identities
by political parties or leaders to gain power, mobilize support, or polarize communities for electoral or political
gains. It exploits communal divisions for political purposes, leading to communal tensions and conflicts.
• Cultural Communalism: Cultural communalism emphasizes the cultural identity and heritage of a particular
group and can result in the marginalization or suppression of other cultural groups. It can manifest in cultural
dominance, cultural clashes, or the imposition of a dominant culture on others.
• Economic Communalism: Economic communalism involves the preferential treatment or economic
exploitation of a particular religious or ethnic community in terms of access to resources, employment,
business opportunities, or economic benefits. It can lead to economic disparities, resentment, and social
tensions.
• Regional Communalism: Regional communalism focuses on the interests and aspirations of a particular region
or geographic area, often leading to conflicts with other regions. It can involve demands for regional autonomy
or the perception of unfair distribution of resources and opportunities between regions.

Key Social Concepts of Communalism:


• In-Group and Out-Group: These concepts refer to the groups to which individuals feel they do or do not belong.
Communalism often arises from strong in-group identities and exclusionary out-group attitudes.
• Power Dynamics: The imbalance of power between different communal groups often leads to dominance of
one over the other, contributing to communal tensions.
• Symbolic Interactionism: Symbols, rituals, and ceremonies that signify group identity can sometimes become
flashpoints for communal tension.
• Social Change: The process of alterations in the basic structures of a social group or society can often instigate
communal tensions.
• Social Control: This refers to the mechanisms a society uses to get individuals to conform. The way social control
is exercised can either mitigate or exacerbate communal tensions.

10.4 FACTORS LEADING TO THE RISE OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA


• Historical Causes:
- Policy of Divide and Rule: Britishers implemented a policy of dividing communities along religious lines to
maintain control and exploit divisions for their own benefit. For instance, the policy of separate
electorates by Morley Minto Reforms.
- Partition legacy: The traumatic experience of partition and the formation of Pakistan based on religious
lines have left a lasting impact on communal relations.
• Political Causes:
- Communal politics: Politicians exploiting religious sentiments for electoral gains and promoting divisive
agendas. E.g., Recently the Supreme Court raised concerns about Hate speeches.
- Failure of secular governance: Ineffective implementation of secular policies and inability to address
communal tensions.

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• Economic Causes:
- Socio-economic disparities: Unequal distribution of resources and opportunities leading to feelings of
marginalisation among certain communities.
- Economic competition: Perceived competition for limited resources, jobs, and economic benefits leading
to communal tensions. E.g., Issue of alleged illegal migrants consuming local resource and jobs is often
seen the context of Assam and Bengal.
• Social Causes:
- Identity politics: The promotion of religious identity as a primary marker of social and political affiliation,
leading to the strengthening of communal divisions.
- Social segregation: Communities living in separate enclaves and limited social interactions contributing
to the development of communal attitudes. For e.g., Issues like Cow Slaughter, Religious processions
often lead to communal clashes
• Psychological Causes:
- Prejudices and biases: Deep-rooted prejudices, stereotypes, and biases against other religious
communities leading to communal tensions.
- Fear and insecurity: Perceptions of threat and fear, fuelled by communal propaganda and incidents,
leading to the rise of communalism.

Conclusion:
Communalism, with its roots in political, economic, historical, social, and psychological causes, has had a profound
impact on Indian society. It has led to divisions, conflicts, and a sense of mistrust among different religious
communities. Overcoming communalism requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the underlying causes
and promotes unity, tolerance, and harmony.
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
1. Discuss the impact of post-liberal economy on ethnic identity and communalism. (2023, 10 Marks)
2. Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation.’ Argue by giving suitable illustrations.
(2018, 15 Marks)
3. Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has got
transformed into the latter in independent India. (2017, 15 Marks)

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11 REGIONALISM
Related Keywords
• Historical heartlands, From competitive to cooperative approach, Primary and secondary
citizens/regions/states, Collective responsibility/capacity, From BIMARU to Saksham Pradesh, Seeds of growth.

Regionalism in the contemporary world is characterised by loyalties to a specific region of origin. It involves asserting
regional identity and demands for special privileges as a remedy for past neglect or deprivation.

Interesting Fact: 12th five-year focusses on “Faster, sustainable and more inclusive growth”, for balanced regional
growth.

11.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF REGIONALISM


• Regionalism arises from disparities in the economic, social, political, and cultural aspects between regions.
• Regionalism can be driven by emotional and psychological factors.
• Regionalism is based on the expression of group identity and loyalty to a specific region.
• Regionalism prioritises the development of one's own region without considering the interests of other
regions.
• Regionalism restricts the benefits of a particular region to people from outside that region.

11.2 TYPES OF REGIONALISM


• Supra-State Regionalism: Supra-state regionalism involves shared interests among people residing in multiple
states, working towards promoting regional autonomy and local agendas. It suggests that a larger state with
common interests has higher chances of success than smaller states. E.g., North Eastern states in India.
• Inter-State Regionalism: Inter-state regionalism creates divisions among two or more states, often due to
territorial and identity-related factors. It can undermine the interests of certain groups within the states
involved. E.g., Disputes between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the distribution of Kaveri water.
• Intra-State Regionalism: Intra-state regionalism emerges when a specific region or state seeks autonomy, self-
identity, and self-reliance. It can be seen as a positive form of regionalism as it promotes self-dependence for
the region. E.g., Saurashtra in Gujarat, East U.P. in Uttar Pradesh, Vidarbha in Maharashtra etc.

11.3 TYPES OF REGIONAL MOVEMENTS


• Secessionism: Secessionist movements involve fundamentalist groups advocating for separatism and the
formation of separate entities. E.g., The National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Isac Muivah) and Islamic
fundamentalist groups in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Separatism: Separatist movements demand the creation of separate states. E.g., The formation of Telangana,
Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, and others.
• Demand for Full Statehood: This type of movement arises from Union territories seeking full statehood, such
as the case of the National Capital Territory of Delhi. Such demands are generally accepted, as seen with
Arunachal Pradesh (former NEFA) and Sikkim.
• Demand for Autonomy: The demand for autonomy arises due to excessive central political interference,
gaining strength since the 1960s.
• Demand for Regional Autonomy within a State: In this type of movement, people from a specific region
demand recognition based on their regional identities within a larger state.

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• Son of Soil theory: It connects individuals to their place of birth, granting them specific privileges and
responsibilities. It is evident in movements like Shiv Sena's defence of Maharashtrians and conflicts between
Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims in Assam.

11.4 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR RISE OF REGIONALISM

11.5 IMPACT OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA


Positive Impacts of Regionalism:
• Decentralized Governance due to creation of Smaller States: For instance: The creation of smaller states like
Telangana and Uttarakhand required the establishment of new administrative structures to govern these
regions effectively.
• Emergence of New Regional Political Parties: The rise of new regional political parties, such as the Telugu
Desam Party (TDP), driven by regionalism, advocating for separate regions or states.
• Focus on Specific Regional Problems: The formation of regional parties provides an opportunity to address
and prioritise region-specific issues and challenges. Example: The Shiv Sena in Maharashtra emerged to
address the concerns of Marathi-speaking people, particularly related to job opportunities and cultural
preservation.
• Linguistic and Cultural Preservation: Regionalism can contribute to the preservation and promotion of
regional languages, cultures, and traditions, allowing for the diversification of cultural fabric. Example: The
Dravidian movement in Tamil Nadu has played a significant role in preserving and promoting the Tamil
language and culture.
• Healthy Competition among the states: Regionalism often encourages a sense of competition for growth
among different states.

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Negative Impacts of Regionalism:
• Undermining National Unity: Regionalism can undermine national integration, as loyalty and allegiance to a
specific region may overshadow loyalty to the nation. E.g., Secessionist Movements (Demand for greater
Nagaland.)
• Disturbed Law and Order: Agitations and conflicts arising from regional demands can disrupt the law-and-
order situation, leading to social unrest, protests, and violence. E.g., Division of Andhra Pradesh saw violent
agitations across the state.
• Infiltration of External Factors: It can create opportunities for external factors, such as terrorist groups or
extremist organisations, to exploit the situation and incite disruptions within the region.
• Divisiveness and Fragmentation: Intense regionalism can create divisions and fragmentation within the
country, as regional identities and interests take precedence over national unity and solidarity.
• Economic Disruptions: Regionalism can disrupt economic activities and investments, as uncertainty and
conflicts arising from regional demands can deter business growth and hinder economic stability.
• Hindrance to Inter-State Cooperation: Regionalism can strain inter-state relations and hinder cooperation
among different states, as regions compete for resources, infrastructure projects, and economic opportunities.
Eg. Recent developments along the Maharashtra and Karnataka border
• Weakening of National Institutions: It can weaken national institutions and governance structures potentially
leading to challenges in effective governance and decision-making.

11.6 REGIONALISM AND THREAT TO NATIONAL INTEGRATION


• Coexistence and Development: Regionalism and national integration can coexist, emphasising development.
• Federal and Democratic System: A federal and democratic political system reconciles regionalism and national
integration.
• Preserving National Solidarity: Regionalism, when managed well, does not disrupt national solidarity.
• Strengthening Federalism: Regionalism enhances federalism through equal regional partnership.
• Decentralisation of Power: Regionalism reduces centralization, empowering states.
• Inevitability in a Diverse Nation: Regionalism is natural and inevitable in diverse countries like India.
• Fundamental to Federalism: Regionalism is foundational to federalism, respecting regional identities.

Thus, it will be wrong to say that regionalism is a threat to national integration. India is the best example of co-
existence and successfully maintaining regionalism along with strong national integration.
Combating Social Evils: Casteism, Regionalism, and Linguistic Fanaticism:
• Casteism, regionalism, and linguistic fanaticism are social evils that can be combated through social movements
and by empowering citizens through education and economic opportunities.
• The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, addresses untouchability and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, aims to prevent atrocities against SCs and STs.
• This information was given by the Minister of State for Social Justice and Empowerment in a written reply in
Lok Sabha in March 2023.

Conclusion:
Regionalism in India has both positive and negative effects on the social, political, and economic landscape of the
country. While it provides a platform for addressing region-specific issues and preserving linguistic and cultural
diversity, it can also lead to tensions, conflicts, and challenges to national unity. Finding a balance between regional
aspirations and national integration is crucial for maintaining harmony and sustainable development in a diverse
country like India.

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UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
1. Do you agree that regionalism in India appears to be a consequence of rising cultural assertiveness? Argue
(2020, 10 Marks)
2. What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that unequal distribution of benefits of development on regional basis
eventually promotes regionalism? Substantiate your answer. (2016, 12.5 Marks)
3. Growing feeling of regionalism is an important factor in the generation of demand for a separate state. Discuss.
(2013, 10 Marks)

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12 SECULARISM
Related Keywords
• Positive and Negative secularism, Principled distance, Sarva Dharma Sambhava, Vasudaiva Kutumbakam,
Religious neutrality/pluralism/tolerance/harmony, Equal respect for all.

12.1 MEANING OF SECULARISM


Secularism is a principle that advocates the separation of religion from politics and governance. It seeks to establish a
society where religious institutions and state institutions are independent of each other.

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Supreme Court recent interpretation on Secularism
• Two-judge bench rejects PIL to restore original names of ancient cultural, historical and religious places that
had purportedly been rechristened by Mughals.
• Supreme Court said “The State “must be guided by the sublime realisation that Bharat is a secular nation
committed to securing fundamental rights to all sections as contemplated in the Constitution.

12.2 COMPARISON OF INDIAN SECULARISM VS WESTERN SECULARISM

INDIAN SECULARISM WESTERN SECULARISM


• Equal Protection of all Religions: Indian • Separation of State and Religion: Western secularism
secularism upholds the principle of providing advocates for the mutual exclusion of the state and
equal protection to all religions, without religion, with each operating in separate spheres.
favouring one over the others or adopting any • Individual-Centric Approach: It interprets liberty,
religion as the state religion. freedom, and equality primarily in terms of individual
• Inter-Religious and Intra-Religious Equality: rights, with less emphasis on community-based or
Indian secularism emphasises both inter- minority-based rights.
religious equality and intra-religious equality, • Intra-Religious Equality: The focus of Western
addressing religious freedom for individuals as secularism is more on intra-religious equality rather than
well as minority communities. inter-religious equality, maintaining an arm's length
• State-Sponsored Reforms: It promotes state- distance between the state and religion in all matters.
led reforms within the religious sphere on an • Homogeneity and Individual Freedom: The Western
equal footing, allowing for principled state model of secularism emerged from a relatively
intervention in all religions. For eg. Abolition of homogeneous society, emphasising strict separation of
Untouchability, ban on practice of Tripple Talaq. the state from the church to safeguard individual
freedom.

12.3 CONSTITUTIONAL AND JUDICIAL PROVISION ON SECULARISM IN INDIA

Constitutional Provisions on Secularism in India Judicial Pronouncements on Secularism in India


• Freedom of Religion (Article 25): Ensures the right • Secularism as Basic Structure (Keshavananda Bharati
to freely practice, propagate, and profess any case, 1973): The Supreme Court held that secularism is
religion. an integral part of the "Basic Structure of the Indian
• Religious Freedom for Denominations (Article 26): Constitution" and cannot be altered by Parliament.
Grants religious denominations the autonomy to • Explicit Recognition of Secularism (S. R. Bommai vs
manage their religious affairs. Union of India case, 1994): The Court affirmed that
although the terms "Socialist" and "Secular" were
added to the Constitution in 1976, the concept of

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• Freedom from Religious Taxation (Article 27): secularism was already embedded in the constitutional
Prohibits the promotion of any specific religion philosophy.
through taxation. • Limitations on Right to Propagate Religion (Stanislaus
• Freedom of Religious Instruction (Article 28): vs State of Madhya Pradesh case, 1977): The Court
Grants the freedom to attend religious instruction clarified that the right to propagate religion (Article 25)
or worship in educational institutions. does not include the right to engage in forcible
• Prohibition of Discrimination (Article 15): Forbids conversions that may disrupt public order.
discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or • Non-Interference with Religious Essentials (Ratilal vs
place of birth. State of Bombay case, 1954): It was established that
• Equality in Public Employment (Article 16): Ensures state regulations should not interfere with the
equal opportunity for all citizens in matters of public essential practices of religion.
employment, irrespective of religion or other • Maintaining Public Order in Religious Practices
factors. (Church of God vs K.K.R Majestic Colony Welfare
• Protection of Minority Language and Culture Association case, 2000): The Court emphasized that
(Article 29): Safeguards the distinct language, while the right to religion is protected, prayers or
script, or culture of minority communities. religious activities should not disturb the peace of
• Minority Educational Rights (Article 30): others or violate public order.
Recognizes the rights of minorities to establish and • Autonomy of Minority Educational Institutions (St.
administer educational institutions of their choice. Stephen's College vs University of Delhi case, 1992):
• Secular Nature of India (Preamble): Declares India The Court upheld the autonomy of minority
as a secular country (added through the 42nd educational institutions, stating that it is essential to
Amendment Act in 1976). preserve their right to establish and administer
educational institutions.

12.4 CONSTITUTIONAL SECULARISM AND PARTY-POLITICAL SECULARISM


Constitutional secularism:
• It is marked by critical respect for all religions and is not anti-religious.
• It acknowledges the need for the state to maintain a principled distance from all religions and intervene when
religious groups promote communal disharmony or discrimination.
• Such intervention could be either due to inter-religious issues or intra-religious issues, such as the inability of
religious groups to protect their own members from oppression.
• This form of secularism requires a collective commitment from the judiciary, media, civil society activists, and
citizens.
Party-Political secularism:
• It is characterized by opportunism and alliances with religious communities for immediate electoral benefits.
• It has often been involved in controversial issues, such as the Babri Masjid/Ram temple case and the Shah
Bano case.
• It is a doctrine that has removed the values from the core idea of secularism, replaced them with opportunism,
and has been complicit in igniting communal violence.

12.5 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SECULARISM

POSITIVE SECULARISM NEGATIVE SECULARISM


• This approach of secularism is generally more proactive • This type of secularism emphasizes the
and interactive. complete separation of religion from the state.
• In positive secularism, the state takes an active role in • In negative secularism, the state neither
ensuring religious harmony and respect for all religions. recognizes nor intervenes in religious affairs.

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• It doesn't advocate the total separation of religion from Religion is considered to be a private matter
the state. Instead, the state acknowledges and respects all that should have no influence on state affairs.
religions equally without favoring one over the other. • Example: The French concept of "laïcité", often
• Example: India's approach to secularism often falls under falls under negative secularism.
positive secularism. - The French state maintains a strict
- The Indian constitution provides every citizen the separation between the state and religious
right to practice, preach, and propagate any religion affairs, aiming to keep public life and public
of their choice. institutions secular.
- The state often intervenes to maintain religious - This principle is so rigidly applied that it
harmony, protect minorities, and ensure that often leads to policies like banning religious
religious institutions are free from discrimination. symbols in public schools and prohibiting
India's approach of positive secularism is reflected in public employees from displaying their
its motto of 'Unity in Diversity', where diverse religious beliefs at work.
religions co-exist and are respected.

12.6 THE NEED FOR SECULARISM TO PRESERVE DIVERSITY IN INDIA


• Promotes Equality: Secularism ensures that all religions are treated equally by the state, which is crucial in a
diverse country like India where a multitude of religions coexist.
• Prevents Discrimination: By separating the state from religion, secularism helps to prevent discrimination on
the basis of religion. It provides a framework for the state to make decisions without favoring or
disadvantaging any particular religion.
• Upholds Democratic Values: Secularism upholds democratic values by ensuring freedom of religion. It gives
individuals the freedom to choose, change, and practice their religion, or to not follow any religion at all.
• Promotes Unity: By treating all religions equally, secularism can help to promote unity among people of
different faiths. It helps to foster a sense of shared citizenship and national identity, despite religious
differences.
• Protects Minority Rights: In a diverse society, secularism is crucial for protecting the rights of religious
minorities. It ensures that minority religions are not marginalized or disadvantaged by the state.
• Supports Social Harmony: By providing a neutral platform where religious differences are respected,
secularism supports social harmony. It helps to reduce religious conflict and promote peaceful coexistence.

12.7 POSITIVE ASPECTS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA


• Religious Freedom: Secularism guarantees the freedom of individuals to practice and propagate their religion
without interference or discrimination.
• Preventing Religious Conflict: By keeping religion separate from politics, secularism helps mitigate potential
conflicts and tensions arising from religious differences
• Protection of Religious Freedom: Secularism guarantees the freedom of individuals to choose and practise
their religion without discrimination or persecution.
• Social Cohesion: Secularism promotes unity and harmony among people from different religious backgrounds,
fostering a sense of inclusivity and national integration.
• Equality and Justice: Secularism ensures equal treatment and protection of rights for all citizens, regardless of
their religious beliefs.
• Protection of Minority Rights: It safeguards the rights and interests of religious minorities, preventing their
marginalisation and ensuring their participation in society.
• Democratic Values: Secularism upholds the democratic principles of pluralism, tolerance, and respect for
diverse opinions and beliefs.

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“Welfare without discrimination is true secularism” - Prime Minister of India Narender Modi
• "Secularism and Harmony” is not "political fashion" but it is "perfect passion" for India and Indians. This inclusive
culture and commitment have united the country with fabric of “Unity in Diversity” – Former Union Minister for
Minority Affairs Shri Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi.

12.8 CHALLENGES TO SECULARISM

• Promoting Secularism and Inclusive Education: Examples from India


- Ayodhya Verdict: In 2019, the Supreme Court delivered a landmark judgment on the Ayodhya land
dispute, providing a peaceful resolution to the long-standing dispute between Hindu and Muslim
communities. The judgment focused on the secular principles of law and ensured the construction of a
temple for Hindus and a mosque for Muslims in separate locations.
- National Education Policy 2020: It aims to promote a secular and inclusive education system. It
emphasizes the importance of imparting values of tolerance, harmony, and respect for diversity among
students, fostering a secular mindset from an early age.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS ON UNIFORM CIVIL CODE (UCC)
• The Uttarakhand became the first state after Goa to pass the UCC laws in the state.
• Recently, the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, Law and Justice called a
meeting on the Uniform Civil Code (UCC) during which it said it will hear the views of stakeholders.
Conclusion:
Secularism in India is a foundational principle that ensures religious freedom and equality for all citizens. It has
promoted social harmony and diversity, allowing people of different faiths to coexist peacefully. However, challenges
such as communal tensions and political exploitation of religious identities persist. Upholding secular values, fostering
interfaith dialogue, and promoting inclusive policies are crucial for maintaining a pluralistic society and strengthening
the fabric of Indian democracy.
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
1. Are tolerance, assimilation and pluralism the key elements in the making of an Indian form of secularism?
Justify your answer. (2022, 15 Marks)
2. What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism? (2019, 10 Marks)
3. How the Indian concept of secularism different from the western model of secularism? Discuss (2018, 10
Marks)
4. How do the Indian debates on secularism differ from the debates in the West? (2014, 12.5 Marks)

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