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Course on Research Methodology

Module title: Research Methodology

Module code: REM 8411
Number of credit units: 10
Mode of assessment:
 Quizzes out of 10 marks;
 Assignments out of 10 marks;
 CATs out of 40 marks;
 Final exam out of 40 marks.

Lecturer: Prof. Francois Nsengiyumva

Tel: 0782060290
Email: [email protected]
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Unit I: Introduction

I.1. Rationale for scientific research:

The word rationale means the reason or motivation for doing something. In this section, we
discuss the reason why scientific research is important in your studies and in your career after
you have got a degree.

The mission of every university is teaching, research, and community outreach.

In addition to teaching, university academic staff must also do research to solve the problems
that the community is facing. Within the framework of the research mission, university students
are also required to have basic research skills and basic academic writing skills by the time they
graduate.

During your undergraduate studies at INES, you have to conduct a small research project and
write a dissertation. This is a very good opportunity for students to practice what they have learnt
from the module of research methodology, and the process equips you with basic research skills
and basic academic writing skills. However, the course is not only useful for your dissertation,
but the knowledge and skills gained can also be applied to many businesses after graduation.
This will be discussed as the teaching sessions go on.

A university has two components: Undergraduate education and postgraduate education.

The undergraduate education is mainly meant for the knowledge transfer to students and leads to
the award of a bachelor’s degree. The types of bachelor’s degrees include (just to name a few):
 Bachelor of Science (BSc);
 Bachelor of Engineering (BEng);
 Bachelor of Technology (BTech);
 Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery (MBChB);
 Bachelor of Arts (BA);
 Bachelor of Education (BEd), etc.

At the end of your undergraduate studies at INES, you will be awarded a degree called
“Bachelor of Science with Honours in Civil Engineering”.
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The postgraduate education is mainly through the knowledge generation based on scientific
research in a given field. The research project that you have to conduct during your
undergraduate studies and the associated dissertation are an introduction to what is done at the
postgraduate level. The postgraduate education includes master’s and doctorate programmes.
The types of master’s degrees include (just to name a few):
 Master of Science (MSc);
 Master of Engineering (MEng);
 Master of Technology (MTech);
 Master of Arts (MA);
 Master of Education (MEd), etc.

The doctorate degrees include:

 Doctor of Philosophy (PhD);
 Professional doctorate.
In this context, the word “philosophy” is related to scientific research because a PhD degree is a
research degree that is obtained through a comprehensive research work and associated research
publications in a given field. Once you get a PhD degree, you qualify as a researcher. A holder of
a PhD degree is more qualified for employment at university or research institution.

The professional doctorate programme is through coursework and a research component that
prepare the candidate for employment in industries. A holder of a professional doctorate degree
is more qualified for employment in industries.

With the above in mind, you can understand that to rise up in academia, scientific research plays
an important role. You cannot get a doctoral degree without scientific research. Once you get an
employment at university, you have to continue doing research and publications in order to rise
up in academic grades. The university academic grades, in Rwanda and in most commonwealth’s
countries, are as follows:
 Tutorial Assistant: At least a bachelor’s degree is required to qualify for this position;
 Assistant Lecturer: At least a master’s degree is required;
 Lecturer: Holder of a PhD degree without prior experience in teaching at university or
holder of a master’s degree with advanced experience in teaching and research at
university;
 Senior Lecturer:
The main requirements to qualify as senior lecturer are:
 A PhD degree;
 Having held a teaching and research position at university as lecturer for at least
three years;
 A good number of research outputs (research publications: research articles,
books, research grants, etc);
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 Other important contributions to the advancement of the university (examples:

funded projects implemented, conferences organized, etc);

 Associate Professor:
The main requirements to qualify as associate professor are:
 A PhD degree;
 Having held a teaching and research position at university as senior lecturer for at
least three years;
 Advanced research outputs at the level of senior lecturer (research publications:
research articles, books, research grants, etc);
 Other important contributions to the advancement of the university (examples: funded
projects implemented, conferences organized, PhD and Master’s students supervised,
etc);

 Full Professor:
The main requirements to qualify as full professor are:
 A PhD degree;
 Having held a teaching and research position at university as associate professor for
at least three years;
 Advanced research outputs at the level of associate professor (research publications:
research articles, books, research grants, etc);
 Other important contributions to the advancement of the university (examples: funded
projects implemented, conferences organized, PhD and Master’s students supervised,
etc).
Academic titles:
The internationally recognized academic titles also contain some information about scientific
research; they are as follows:
Academic title Meaning
Prof Holder of a doctoral degree with advanced
experience in teaching and research at
university.
Dr Holder of a doctoral degree.

N. B: Holders of bachelor’s degrees in

Medicine also have this title, but are not
qualified for employment at university unless
they further their studies at the postgraduate
level.
Mr Male without PhD degree
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Mrs Married female without PhD degree

Miss unmarried female without PhD degree
Ms Neutral female without PhD degree (when
you are referring to a female whose marital
status is not known).

Outcomes expected from this course:

At the end of this course, students should, inter alia, be able to:
 design a scientific research project;
 conduct a scientific research project and generate new knowledge in a given field;
 write an academic document in a scholarly manner;
 design and write fundable project proposals.

N.B: The module is more practical than theoretical. You are recommended to do all assignments
that will be given to you as the course goes on, because it is an opportunity for you to practise
what has been discussed in class.

Assignment 1:

Go to the library and get a dissertation of a former student of the department of civil engineering
of INES-Ruhengeri. Read through the background of the study and the problem statement
sections. Identify the rationale behind the work presented in that dissertation.

I.2. Definition and objective of scientific research

Whenever we encounter problems, we try to find solutions to them. Scientific research is a

systematic search for answer to a question or a solution to a problem. It seeks to find
explanations to unexplained phenomenon, to clarify the doubtful propositions and to correct the
misconceived facts. In this course, we discuss the methodology for scientific research in civil
engineering.

The objective of scientific research is to generate new knowledge in a given field, which may
also be applied to solving a real-life problem.

I.3. Types of research in civil engineering:

We classify the research projects done in civil engineering into two types: Fundamental and
applied research.
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Fundamental research is a research that is conducted to generate new knowledge without any
intention to use that knowledge in practice. Example: Analysis of the quality of water in the lake
Kivu. Fundamental research is also called basic research or pure research.
Applied research is a research conducted to find a solution to a real-life problem requiring an
action or policy decision. It seeks an immediate and practical result. Example: A research
conducted to find vaccine against COVID-19. An applied research results in a tangible product.
INES-Ruhengeri is mainly interested in applied research (because it is a university of applied
sciences).

Unit II: Steps for scientific research in civil engineering

There are steps that you need to go through to conduct a research project. Those steps are
organized in project design and project implementation.

II. 1: Project design

II.1.1: Problem identification
The problem identification (also called problem definition) is the first step of any research
process. To identify a research problem, you need extensive reading of published materials
(research articles, books, reports, etc) in your area of research interest; this is commonly called
literature review. The literature review helps you to know what other researchers have done in
your area of research interest and topics that have not been considered for research. The topics
that have not been considered for research, hence that are still open for research, are called
research gaps. A research gap helps you to develop a research idea for your project. A good
research idea helps you to motivate the relevance (rationale) of your project.

Note: A good idea is also important for any project, whether the project is oriented towards
research or not. For example, a good idea is very important in entrepreneurship. To start a
construction company, there must be a need (good reason) for it to exist.

In addition to the literature review, for an applied research the researcher also needs to consider
the field observations (visit to the site where the problem is located) to find out the nature of the
problem.

Assignment 2:
1. Choose an area of research interest in civil engineering (example structural engineering,
geotechnical engineering, water resources engineering, transportation engineering, etc);
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2. Read published materials (literature review) in your area of research interest and also do
field observations, if necessary, to identify a research gap;
3. Based on the research gap that you identify in 2, formulate a research topic.

II.1.2. Formulation of the identified problem

After the research problem has been identified, you must formulate the title of the project. A
good title should be short and clear, but reflecting the intention of the researcher. You must also
define the research questions that the project seeks to address. The research questions must be
contributing to the achievement of the objectives of the project.

II. 1.3. Formulation of hypothesis

A hypothesis is a doubtful proposition to be tested empirically (empirically=through scientific

research).

Examples:

 The landslide that occurred in Gakenke district in 2016 was due to heavy rain;
 Upper-class people have fewer children than lower-class people.
These statements are hypotheses because they are uncertain; the statement could be
correct or not.

After going through the process of empirical testing of a hypothesis, it may either be
confirmed or rejected.

Note: The formulation of a hypothesis is not commonly considered for research projects
conducted in civil engineering, but it is also useful to know about it. The formulation of
a hypothesis is mainly considered for research projects in social sciences.

II.1.4. Formulation of the project objectives

You must formulate the project objectives. These include the general and specific
objectives. The general objective is the overall objective of the project, that is to say,
what the project wants to achieve at the end of the process. The specific objectives are a
set of objectives to be achieved as the project implementation goes on in order to achieve
the general objective.

II. 1.5. Specification of the project activities

You must elaborate a list of the activities to be implemented as part of the project. Each
activity must be contributing to the achievement of a specific objective.
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All activities taken together must be contributing to the achievement of the general
objective of the project.

II. 1.6. Specification of the methodology to implement the project activities

You must specify the procedure to implement each activity of the project and ensure that
you understand that procedure. The materials (equipment) required to implement the
project activities must also be specified. You must ensure that you know how to use the
required equipment. In case you do not know how to use the required equipment you
should get a training from an expert. For example, in civil engineering, softwares are
commonly used in research. So, if a software is required in a project, you must ensure
that the software is installed in your computer and that you know how to use that
software.

II. 1.7. Specification of the timeline to implement the project activities

Timeline=timeframe. The amount of time required to implement each activity must be

specified. You must also specify the amount of time that is needed to complete the
implementation of the project.

II. 1.8. Specification of the team of experts required to implement the project

You must specify the persons who will implement the project. Those persons must have
the required expertise and experiences to successfully complete the implementation of
the project. In case of a student research project, the team of experts is composed of
student and his/her supervisor (s). A student may have one supervisor or more. When
there are more than one supervisor, the first supervisor is called main supervisor and
other supervisors are called co-supervisors.

II. 1.9. Specification of the project budget

You need a budget to implement a project. The required amount of budget is planned
based on the activities to be implemented. What are the possible sources of budget?
There are many sources of budget. Some of them are (a) the Rwanda National Council
for Science and Technology (NCST), (b) the African Union, (c) the European Union, (d)
the World Bank, etc.

In order to get funds from those sources, you must be aware of their strategic objectives
and guidelines and make sure that your project contributes to the achievement of the
funder’s objectives.
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To attract funds from the NCST, you must ensure that your project is in line with the
Rwanda National Strategy for Transformation and the Rwanda Vision 2050.
To attract funds from the African Union, make sure that your project is in line with the
Agenda 2063 of the African Union (The Africa We Want). Also all funders require fund
seekers to demonstrate how their projects will contribute to the achievement of the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs).

Assignment 3:
Read about (a) the Rwanda National Strategy for Transformation 2 (NST2), (b) the
Rwanda Vision 2050, (c) the Agenda 2063 of the African Union, and (d) the 17 UN
SDGs.

The following key words will remind you the key steps for the project design:

 What: Associated with the problem to be addressed by the project;

 Why: Associated with the project’s rationale;
 How: Associated with the methodology to implement the project;
 Who: Associated with the team of experts required to implement the project;
 When: Associated with the timeframe during which the project will be implemented.

Assignment 4 (this is an extension of the assignment 2):

1. Choose an area of research interest in civil engineering (example structural engineering,
geotechnical engineering, water resources engineering, transportation engineering, etc);
2. Read published materials (literature review) in your area of research interest and also do
field observations, if necessary, to identify a research gap;
3. Based on the research gap that you identify in 2, formulate a research topic;
4. Formulate the title of your project;
5. Write a literature review section in which you summarise the research publications
(research articles, etc) by other researchers in your area of research interest. Include
references using the APA style.

II. 2. Project implementation

To implement a project means to translate plans into actions.
Here, we discuss specifically the methodology to implement a project that is oriented towards
research. The starting point is the collection of facts required to analyse the problem under
investigation. Those facts are called data. We distinguish between quantitative and qualitative
data. Quantitative data are data (scientific information) that are expressed in numbers.
Qualitative data are data that are expressed in words.
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Before the start of the process of data collection, we have to define variables. These include the
dependent and independent variables. An independent variable is a variable whose value has
an effect on the other variable called dependent variable. For example, in a stress-strain
diagramme, the deformation (strain) of an elastic material is the result of a stress applied to that
material. Hence, a stress is an independent variable and a strain is a dependent variable. In
general, when plotting a curve, an independent variable (I.V) coincides with the X axis and a
dependent variable (D.V) coincides with the Y axis, but the reverse is also possible depending on
the objective of the researcher.

Depending on the sources, data are classified into primary and secondary data.

Primary data:
Primary data are original data (not previously used) collected by the researcher himself
and for the first time. Example: When you conduct laboratory test, the data that you
obtain are primary, because you are the first person to collect them in their original form.

Secondary data:

Secondary data are data that a researcher obtains from someone else who used them
before for a different purpose. Example: Data downloaded from internet.

Note: The plural form of data is data. “Datas” does not exist.

Definition:
A research that is conducted based on secondary data is called desk research.

Methods for collecting primary data:

Recall that primary data are collected by the researcher from their original sources. In
this case, the researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research
needs and in the form he needs them. In civil engineering, the main methods for
collecting primary data are laboratory tests, field observations, and interviews. The
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choice of the method for the collection of primary data depends on the nature of the
problem under investigation.

Tools for collecting primary data:

Most of the research conducted in civil engineering are done in laboratories. In this case,
the researcher needs a laboratory that is equipped with all required equipment (Note:
The plural form of equipment is equipment; “equipments” does not exist). Sometimes,
you may also need to generate some data from a software; in this case you need the
required software to be installed in your computer.

You may also need to collect data through interviews with some people. In this case, you
need to prepare a set of questions to be asked to those people. Such a set of questions is
called a questionnaire. The questionnaire must be logically related to the problem under
investigation and must be contributing to the achievement of the objectives of the
project.

While preparing a questionnaire,

 make sure that each question is clear;
 avoid difficult questions;
 multiple choice questions are preferable;
 avoid a long questionnaire; a good questionnaire should not take the respondent
more than 10 minutes to complete.

Data processing
After data have been collected, there is a need to organize them in a way that can easily be
analysed and interpreted. The data preparation for analysis is called data processing.
At this stage, the data should be
 tabulated according to the two types of variables (independent and dependent variables);
 edited so that the number of significant figures is uniform for all data. For example, if
you have 2.01234 and 2.012, data may be edited as 2.01234 and 2.01200 so that the
number of significant figures is six for both data.

Data analysis and interpretation of results

After data have been organized in a table, it is easier to plot them. The dependent variable is
plotted as function of the independent variable. Once the plot has been generated, the analysis
and interpretation of results is easier. When there are more than one dependent variable,
overlapping the plots is preferable, because the effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable can easily be observed and interpreted accordingly.
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Sampling
Definitions:
In statistics, population is the totality of things, objects, etc, about which information is being
collected (the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about). Sample is a subset or part
of a population selected to draw conclusions about the population. Sampling is the process of
selecting a sample from the entire population.
Example: Let us assume that you want to study the quality of water from lake Kivu. To do this,
you will not consider the entire lake Kivu, but rather a portion of it. In research, the entire water
of lake Kivu is called the population and the amount of water from lake Kivu that you analyse is
called the sample.

The following are the factors to be considered in deciding whether to sample or not:
 The size of the population: If the population to be studied is small, the investigator may
decide to consider the entire population. But if the population to be studied is large,
sampling is required.

 Amount of budget available: Sampling may be considered when the amount of budget
available to conduct the research is small.

 Staff and other facilities: The extent of facilities and staff available is another factor to
be considered in deciding whether to sample or not.

 Time: The time limit within which the study is planned to be completed is a primary
reason for considering sample by most researchers.
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Error analysis:
In research, like any other experimental work, there are always errors due to various reasons. We
may not be able to avoid the errors, but we can minimize them and effectively manage them in
our conclusions.
During a research process in a lab, we can minimize the errors buy repeating the process many
times, then calculate the average result. Let us assume that you are analyzing a quantity x whose
measurement appears n times. The mean value is calculated using the formula

One way to estimate the error associated with the measurement of x is to calculate the standard
deviation (

If sampling is considered,

and if you are considering the entire population,

The most probable value of x is then

where is the error in x.

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Equation (4) means that xp is not hundred percent assured because of the errors, but whatever its
value is, it must be within the range

Assignment 5:
You measure a quantity x 10 times in civil engineering lab and obtain the following data (in unit
of measurement): 3, 3.5, 2.8, 4, 3.2, 2.9, 4.2, 3.9, 3.7, 2.9.
(a) Calculate the mean value

(b) Estimate the error in the measurement of x

(c) Write the value of x taking account of the errors

(d) Interpret your result in (c)

UNIT 3: Academic writing

3.1. A sentence:
A sentence is a collection of meaningful words.

Examples:
 Go out;
 I am watching a TV.

3.2. A paragraph:
A paragraph is a collection of sentences, logically linked, and containing one idea (one key
point). In a paragraph, a sentence introduces the next one. At INES, a paragraph must have 6-
9 lines.
3.3. Academic document:
An academic document is a collection of ideas organized in paragraphs (recall that there must
be one idea in each paragraph). There must be a clear link between paragraphs. Each
paragraph introduces the next one; this ensures a logical flow of ideas throughout the
document. In order to organize the ideas, an academic document is organized in sections and
chapters.
3.4. Punctuation and spacing:

Definition:
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Punctuation is the use of specific marks or symbols in writing to separate different elements
from each other or to make the writing clearer.

The common punctuation marks are as follows:

3.4.1 Comma (,)

 A comma may be used after introductory words. Example: In the beginning, there was
light;
 A comma may be used to separate items. Example: The districts of the northern province
of Rwanda are Musanze, Gakenke, Burera, Rulindo, and Gicumbi;
 A pair of commas may be used to insert a secondary (non-essential) information in a
sentence, to enrich the sentence. Example: Peter, the best student of this class, is absent
today.

3.4.2. Colon (:)

A colon is used at the end of a complete statement to introduce a list.
Example: I see three students: Jane, Peter, and Paul.

3.4.3. Semicolon (;)

A semicolon is used to link two independent clauses that are closely related in thought, and
which would otherwise be separated by a full stop.
Example: Peter is absent today; he is the best student of this class.

3.4.4. Full stop (.)

A full stop is used to end a sentence.

3.4.5. Question mark (?)

A question mark is used after a direct question.

Example: What is your name?

3.4.5. Quotation marks (“ ’’)

 Quotation marks are used to indicate a direct speech and quotation.

Example: “John thinks that his brother (Claude) will be a great leader”, said Andrew.

 Quotation marks are used to show the irony.

Example: Joe Biden told Donald Trump that he “loves” him.
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3.4.6. Exclamation marks (!)

It is used to indicate strong feelings, such as anger, joy, or surprise.

Examples:
 That’s fantastic!
 I am surprised!

Spacing:
There is no space before every punctuation mark, and there is space after every punctuation
mark. Example: I see three students: Jane, Peter, and Paul.

3.5. The inclusion of tables and figures in an academic document

Each table included in an academic document must have a table number and a description on top
of it.
Example:
Table 1: Rainfall data during the period 2020-2023
Independent variable Dependent variable
Data 1 Data 1
Data 2 Data 2
Data 3 Data 3
etc etc

The information behind each table included in an academic document must be clearly discussed
in the text. Example: Table 1 contains data about ….
Similarly, each figure included in an academic document must have a figure number and a
description below the figure. The description of the figure is called figure caption.
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Figure 1: Stress-strain diagramme of steel.

Each figure included in an academic document must be clearly discussed in the text. Example:
Figure 1 shows that ….
3.6. Appendix section

An appendix (plural form: appendices) is a section that is placed at the end of an academic
document after the list of references, which contains secondary but useful results. For example, if
you do lab tests and generate 10 plots which are almost the same, you do not include all those 10
plots in the main body of the document. Rather, you consider the main plot and discuss it in
detail in the main body of the document, then place the remaining (non-essential) plots in the
appendix. All results placed in the appendix must also be discussed in the text. Example: Figure
1 shows that…. Other related figures are in Appendix A.

3.7. References
An academic document must include a list of references. This is a list of research publications by
other researchers in your field of research interest on closely related topics. You must show that
you are aware of earlier research publications in your field of research interest, then show how
your work extends the existing knowledge. The references are also useful to you when you are
discussing your results because they help you to compare your results with earlier results on
closely related topics in the literature. Every citation in the list of references must appear in the
text. You must include references as you write your document. Including references at the last
moment, after you have completed your document, is not meaningful.
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At INES, references must be written using the APA style. APA=American Psychological
Association. A referencing style is a way of writing references. There exist many referencing
styles and APA is one of them.

Briefly,
 the references are a proof that you are aware of the existing knowledge in your field
of research interest, which is a basis for the research gap that the project is
addressing;
 the references help you to compare your research findings with earlier research
findings by other researchers on closely related topics in the literature;
 the references help the readers of your document to access original documents in the
literature from which they get more information about what is being discussed.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the use of the idea (s) of another person without acknowledgement. Copying and
pasting is also plagiarism. When you read a research publication (for example, a research article)
written by another researcher, you must understand the information then summarize what you
have understood using your own words before writing it in your document (with the inclusion of
references to the source where the information was obtained from). KUDODESHA is also
plagiarism. Plagiarism must be avoided while writing an academic document. Because of
plagiarism you may not get a degree.
Assignment 6 (Extension of the assignment 4):

1. Choose an area of research interest in civil engineering (example structural engineering,

geotechnical engineering, water resources engineering, transportation engineering, etc);
2. Read published materials (literature review) in your area of research interest and also do
field observations, if necessary, to identify a research gap;
3. Based on the research gap that you identify in 2, formulate a research topic;
4. Formulate the title of your project;
5. Write a literature review section in which you summarize the research publications
(research articles, etc) by other researchers in your area of research interest. Include
references using the APA style;
6. Write the problem statement section;
7. Formulate the research objectives;
8. Formulate the research questions;
9. Write the research methodology section;
10. Include a list of references.