UE College of Arts and Sciences

Note:
1. The topics to be reviewed are expected to have been covered in Junior
and Senior High School. The focus should then be on deepening and using
these to be able to critically examine information from various sources.
2. Exert efforts to use technology that are available to students.
• Statistics is the branch of science that deals with the collection,
presentation, organization, analysis and interpretation of data.
• The population is the collection of all elements under consideration in a
statistical inquiry. The sample is a subset of the population.
• The variable is a characteristics or attributes of the elements in a
collection that can assume different values for the different elements.
1. Descriptive statistics includes all the techniques used in organizing,
summarizing and presenting the data on hand.
2. Inferential statistics includes all the techniques used in analysing the
sample data that will lead to generalizations about a population from
which the sample came from.
Example:
Classify whether the statement belongs to the area of Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics.
1. Ninety two percent of the class has age between 16-18 years.

2 . Ninety five percent of the class may pass Basic Statistics.

3. According to the local survey, the top three popular courses are:
Nursing (23%), Computer Related Course (19%) and HRM (10%).

4. The normal blood sugar level of human is 70 mg/dL to 120 mg/dL.

5. Drinking pineapple juice may boost our immune system.

Measurement is the process of determining the value or label of the
variable based on what has been observed.
Levels of measurement are used to determine the statistical tool that can be used to describe a data.

The first level is called the Nominal level. In this level, names are assigned to objects for the
purpose of identifying or belonging to a group or category. The data can not be arranged in an
ordering system.
Examples of data under this level are religion, nationality or race, gender, birthplace and course.

The second level is the Ordinal level. In this stage, the words or numbers are assigned to objects to
represent the rank or order between them.
It implies ranking, order or inequalities.
Examples are class rank, contest winners, degree of burn and cancer stages.
Interval level is the third level of measurement. It refers to quantitative measurements used to
identify and rank but in this scale, differences between two items can be determined and operations
such as multiplication and division are worthless. Interval scales do not have a true zero point.
Example of an interval data is temperature.

Lastly, fourth level of measurement is the Ratio level. It is similar to interval scale but ratio has
a true zero point and operations such as multiplication and division are therefore significant.
Examples of data under ratio are income, age, height, weight, area and volume.
Measures of Central Tendency are descriptive measures that are used to describe the
center of a set of data, arranged numerically.
1. The arithmetic mean is the most common type of average. It is the sum of all the
observed values divided by the numbers of observations.
2. The median is the value that divides the array into two equal parts.
3. The mode is the observed value that occurs with the greatest frequency in a data set.
A. MEAN
The formula for the mean is:

x=
å x
n
where x = sample mean
x = the values of each item
n = total number of items
Example: Consider the grades in Biology quiz of 10 students. Compute for the mean.

75 100 99 82 70 91 83 97 86 92
Solution:

x=
å x
n
75 + 100 + 99 + 82 + 70 + 91 + 83 + 97 + 86 + 92
x=
10
875
x=
10
x = 87.5
The mean grade of 10 students in Biology is 87.5.
B. MEDIAN
In computing the median, the data must first be arranged in either
ascending or descending order.
ØWhen the set of data is odd in number, the median is simply the middle value.
ØWhen n is even in number, the median is the average between the two middle scores.
Examples: Find the median in the set of numbers.
1. 23 25 26 28 30 28 27 25 24
In array: 23 24 25 25 26 27 28 28 30
There are 9 values in the set of data, 9 is odd.
Therefore, the median is the middle value in the distribution. The median is 26.
2. 350 240 190 230 290 300
In array: 190 230 240 290 300 350
The number of values in the set of data is 6, which is even.
The median is the average between the two middle values, and those are 240 and 290.
The average between 240 and
290 is 265.
C. MODE
The third measure on central tendency is the mode. It is easily found by inspection. It is a
point on the distribution in which the frequency is higher than any other value.

A distribution with only one mode is called unimodal while f it has two modes, then it is
called bimodal. If it has more than two modes, the distribution is called multimodal. The mode
does not exist in a distribution if no value is repeated.
Determine the median and mode of the given set of data.
A.8, 10, 13, 13, 16
Determine the median and mode of the given set of data.
A.
B.2, 5, 3, 8, 5, 7, 2
Determine the median and mode of the given set of data.
A.
B.
C.12, 10, 15, 14, 11, 18
Determine the median and mode of the given set of data.
A.
B.
C.
D.1, 9, 10, 2, 9, 4, 2, 1
Determine the median and mode of the given set of data.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.3, 6, 4, 4, 6, 3, 6, 3, 4
 The mean is computed if the values are in interval or ratio scale. The mean is influenced by outliers
that may be at the extremes of the data set. The median is used for ordinal scale. Unlike the mean, the median is
not influenced by outliers at the extremes of the data set. The mode is practical for nominal data. In such cases, the
mode may not exist or may not be very meaningful.

The table below summarizes the most appropriate measure of central tendency based
on the scale of measurement of data:

Measurement Scale Best Measure of the

Central Tendency

Nominal Mode
Ordinal Median
Interval Mean
Ratio Mean
 Set A: 9, 12, 13, 15, 15, 17, 24
Set B: 7, 11, 15, 15, 17, 19, 21
Set C: 11, 11, 15, 15, 15, 18, 20

Set Mean Median Mode

C
Measures of Dispersion or Variability describes the spread or the
scatterings of the values around the mean.
1. The range is the distance between the maximum value and the minimum value.
2. The variance is the average squared difference of each observation from the mean.
3. The standard deviation is the positive square root of the variance.
4. The coefficient of variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean,
expressed as a percentage.
Kinds of Distribution
1. Symmetrical or Normal Distribution
In a symmetrical distribution the mean, median, and mode all fall at
the same point or equal.
2. Positively Skewed Distribution
In a positively skewed distribution, the extreme scores are larger,
thus the mean is larger than the median.

3. Negatively Skewed Distribution

The order of the measures of central tendency would be the opposite
of the positively skewed distribution, with the mean being smaller than the
median, which is smaller than the mode.
1. Parametric tests
2. Non-parametric tests
The parametric tests are tests applied to data that are normally
distributed, the levels of measurement of which are expressed in
interval and ratio.
• A parametric test applied to one group of samples.
• It can be used in evaluation of a certain program or treatment.
• It is applied when the mean before and the mean after are being
compared.
• Used when we compare the means of two independent groups.
• Used when the sample is less than 30.
• It is used to compare two means: the sample means and the
perceived population mean.
• It is also used to compare the two sample means taken from the
same population.
• When samples are equal to or greater than 30.
• It can be applied in two ways: the One-sample mean test and the
two sample mean test.
• It is another parametric test used to compare the means of two or
more independent groups.
• It is also know as the analysis of variance (ANOVA).
• Kinds of ANOVA: One-way, two-way, three-way
• We used ANOVA to find out if there is a significant difference
between and among the means of two or more independent
groups.
• It is used to analyze if a relationship exists between two variables (measured in the
interval or ratio scale) say variable x and y.
• It was developed by Karl Pearson that is why the correlation
coefficient is sometimes called "Pearson's r." The formula is defined
by:
NSXY - SXSY
r=
[ NSX - (SX ) ][ NSY - (SY ) ]
2 2 2 2
Nonparametric tests are tests that do not require a normal
distribution. They utilize both nominal and ordinal data.
This is the test of difference between the observed and expected
frequencies.
• The Test for Goodness of fit determines if the sample under
analysis was drawn from a population that follows some specified
distribution.
• The Test for Homogeneity answers the proposition that several
populations are homogeneous with respect to some characteristic.
• The Test for independence (one of the most frequent uses of Chi
Square) is for testing the null hypothesis that two criteria of
classification, when applied to a population of subjects are
independent. If they are not independent then there is an
association between them.
 FREQUENTLY USED INFERENTIAL STATISTICAL TOOLS
Single Two Two More than More than
LEVEL OF Sample Related Independent Two Related two CORRELA
MEASURE- Samples Samples Samples Independe TIONAL
MENT nt MEASURE
Samples S

PARAMETRIC
INTERVAL/ t test for Paired t t test for Pearson r
RATIO single test independent ANOVA for ANOVA
sample samples repeated F-test
measures
Z test
ORDINAL Kolmogorov Sign test, Mann- Friedman Kruskal- Spearman
-Smirnov Whitney U Rank Test Wallis rank order
one-sample Wilcoxon test, H Test correlation
test matched-

NON-PARAMETRIC
pairs, Wald-
Wolfowitz
Signed- runs test
ranks test
NOMINAL Chi-square McNemar Chi-square Chi- Phi
one-sample test for square Coefficient,
test independent test for
samples with with more Yule’s Q
two than two
subclasses subclasses
• Almeda, Josefina V. et al, Elementary Statistics – Quezon City: The
University of the Philippines Press, c2010 (2013 printing)
• Ang, Raymond et al, Basic Statistics
• Broto, Antonio S, Parametric and Nonparametric statistics – National
Book Store (2008)
• Salvador, Ivy., Powerpoint: Pampanga State Agricultural University
(2017)