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Course Title: Experimental Lab

Course Code: PSY-406-B

Group Members

Zoha Rozain Butt

211520122

Tayyaba Sabir

211520060

Minahil Malik

211520116

Aleeza Fatima

211520130

Sheherbano

211520131

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Digit Span

Introduction

The Digit Span task is a widely used cognitive assessment tool that measures an individual's

ability to remember and recall a sequence of numbers. This task has a long history, dating back to the

early 20th century, and has been extensively used in various fields, including psychology,

neuroscience, education, and clinical settings. The Digit Span task was first introduced by

psychologist Henry Herbert Goddard in 1921 as a measure of short-term memory and attention. Since

then, it has undergone several modifications and standardizations, leading to the development of

various versions, including the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler

Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). The primary purpose of the Digit Span task is to assess an

individual's working memory capacity, attention, and cognitive processing abilities. It requires the

ability to hold and manipulate information in working memory, making it an excellent tool for

evaluating cognitive functions. Digit Span, which comes in two formats—Forward Digit Span and

Reverse Digit Span—is a test of linguistic short-term and working memory. This is a verbal task

where the subject speaks their responses, which are then automatically scored by the program. The

stimuli are delivered auditorily. In forward digit span, the individual is asked to repeat the sequence

in the same order as presented. In backward digit span, the individual is asked to repeat the sequence

in reverse order. While superficially very similar tasks, forward and backwards span rely on

somewhat separable cognitive capacities: the simpler forward span task requires verbal working

memory and attention, while the backwards span task additionally tests cognitive control and

executive function. Digit span was investigated by J. Jacobs (1887), as an investigation into how

much information short-term memory could retain, thus its capacity. Later, G. A. Miller (1956) built

on this experiment, suggesting that 'chunking' could enhance our short-term memory capacity. Miller

also asserted that we could hold 7, plus or minus 2, items in our short-term memory at one time. The

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background of the Digit Span Experiment is rooted in the broader field of cognitive psychology,

which seeks to understand the processes and mechanisms that underlie human cognition. Short-term

memory, in particular, is a critical area of study because it plays a fundamental role in learning,

problem-solving, and everyday functioning. The Digit Span Experiment, with its focus on verbal

working memory, contributes to our understanding of how individuals encode, store, and retrieve

information temporarily. This knowledge is crucial for developing educational strategies, therapeutic

interventions, and diagnostic tools aimed at improving cognitive function and treating memory-

related disorders.

Literature review

Hutton, U. M., & Towse, J. N. (2001) reported that forward recall yielded higher spans than

backward recall overall. The difference was larger for STM and WM than for STM with articulatory

suppression (STMAS). Older children (11-year-olds) performed significantly better than younger

children (8-year-olds) on all memory and ability measures. He also reported average forward digit

spans ranged from 6 to 9 digits and also reported average backward digit spans ranged from 4 to 8

digits which is also in accordance of our results and hypothesis.

Giofrè, D., & Stoppa, E., (2016) reported that children with specific learning disorder (SLD)

performed poorly on both the forward and backward digit span tasks from the WISC-IV compared to

typically developing children. Their performance was significantly below the control group. The

SLD group performed worse on the forward digit span task compared to the backward task,

indicating their difficulties primarily involve the phonological short-term memory component

assessed by forward span. These results are in accordance with the results of our study that forward

span is larger than backward span and also shows the usefulness of digit span for early assessment of

SLD.

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Kessels, R. P., et al (2008) examined the performance on the Corsi Block-Tapping Task and

Digit Span was measured in terms of span length, number of trials correct, and a product score

combining both measures. Principal component analysis identified two factors - a verbal working

memory factor loading the Digit Span scores, and a spatial working memory factor loading the Corsi

scores. In contrast to the Digit Span, the backward Corsi was not found to be more difficult than the

forward version. For the Digit Span, performance was better on the forward versus backward

condition.

Groeger, J. A., Field, D., & Hammond, S. M. (1999) in this research study measured memory

span and concluded that individual differences in span tasks can be attributed to variations in

cognitive strategies and working memory capacity. This study supports the out scores for forward

and backward digit span which are more than the cutoff scores as the participant's high scores may

reflect effective cognitive strategies and a high working memory capacity.

Gregoire, J., & Van der Linden, M. (1997) in this study examines the effects of age on digit

span performance, highlighting that younger adult typically achieve higher scores due to better

working memory and cognitive flexibility. This study supports our results which are higher than the

given cutoff scores as our participants are the younger adults and participant's high scores in both

forward and backward spans are consistent with younger adults' performance as described in this

study.

Problem Statement

To study the forward and backward memory for digit span.

Methodology

Hypothesis

Memory span is larger for forward digits than the memory span for backward digits.

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Independent Variable

Sequence of retrieval

Dependent Variable

Memory Span

Sample/subject

The test is only conducted with 1 participant. Her age is 20, from 6th semester.

Instruments/Tools

A document on which digit span table was used, paper, and pencil.

Procedure

Begin by explaining the task to the participant. Let them know that you will read a sequence

of digits aloud, and that their task is to remember the digits and then repeat them back in the same

order. Explain that the number of digits will increase each time they are able to correctly repeat back

the sequence. There will be only one group. The experimental group will do 1 forward trail and 1

backward means totals 2 trails. In this experiment, the experimenter reads a sequence of numbers

placed in front of the subject and asked the subject to repeat the same sequence back to the

experimenter in order (forward span) or in reverse order in five to six trials until subject can't

remember the complete sequence, or until subject repeat it incorrectly. Meanwhile the experimenter

notes the recall score. From the table of contents in tabular form we get performance, the

experimenter derives the highest score. of forward and backward memory span and write in a

separate table. In this experiment all ethical considerations were followed. Subject was given only

one chance to memorize the stimulus, no second chance was given to the subject.

Results

Quantitative Analysis
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Table 1

Forward Memory Span

Stimulus Recall Score

3,4,8 3,4,8 3

2,3,4,8 2,3,4,8 4

3,4,2,9,71 3,4,2,9,7,1 6

9,3,6,4,5,7,1 9,3,6,4,5,7,1 7

9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 9

Table 2

Backward Memory Span

Stimulus Recall Score

3,4,8 8,4,3 3

2,3,4,8 8,4,3,2 4

3,4,2,9,71 1,7,9,2,4,3 6

9,3,6,4,5,7,1 1,7,5,4,6,3,9 7

9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 7,8,1,5,3,4,9 7

Table 3

Total Memory Recall for Forward and Backward Span

Sequence of Recall Memory Span

Forward Memory Span 9

Backward Memory Span 7

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Discussion

Digit Span comes in two formats—Forward Digit Span and Reverse Digit Span—is a test of

linguistic short-term and working memory. Highest forward memory span score is 9 and highest

backward memory span score is 7. Typically, normative data suggest cutoff scores of 7 for forward

span and 4 for backward span as benchmarks for average performance (Conway, Kane, & Engle,

2003; Groeger, Field, & Hammond, 1999). However, deviations from these cutoffs, such as the

observer scores of 9 for forward span and 7 for backward span in this experiment, provide valuable

insights into individual differences in cognitive capacity and executive functioning (Gregoire & Van

der Linden, 1997; Salthouse, 1996). It was hypothesized that the memory span is larger for forward

digits than the memory span for backward digits. The results of the experiment also supported the

hypothesis.

Limitations

This experiment can only be done in room with less noise because it may cause disturbance

for participant to repeat certain numbers. This experiment suggests limited timings which can cause

confusion. Comparing the digit span test to other tests, including the Picture Completion subtest, it

has been discovered that the former is a poor predictor of daily attention. Digit span test may have

limitations in detecting subtle cognitive impairments in children.

Recommendations

It should be studied more, then it will be able to test different aspects of memory as well.

Participant and experimenter should be in room with no noise, that will help them to get accurate

results. Time should be flexible.

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Muller-Lyer Illusion

Introduction

The Muller-Lyer illusion, first described by Franz Carl Müller-Lyer in 1889, remains a

captivating phenomenon in the field of visual perception. The Müller-Lyer illusion is an optical

illusion consisting of three stylized arrows. When viewers are asked to place a mark on the figure at

the midpoint, they tend to place it more towards the "tail" end. It is an optical illusion in which two

lines of the same length appear to be of different lengths; two identical straight lines appear different

in length when they are terminated, respectively, with "arrow-heads" that extend inward or "feather

heads" that extend outward with respect to the "line. It is based on the Gestalt principles of

convergence and divergence: the lines at the sides seem to lead the eye either inward or outward to

create a false impression of length. The Poggendorff illusion depends on the steepness of the

intersecting lines. This classic optical illusion challenges our intuitive understanding of line lengths

and spatial relationships. In the Müller-Lyer illusion, a straight line appears subjectively longer or

shorter based on the orientation of its fins (also known as wings). Two variations exist: the inward-

pointing fins (><) and the outward-pointing fins (< >). When the fins point inward, the line seems to

slope away, akin to the corner of a building, leading us to perceive it as longer. Conversely, when the

fins point outward, the line appears shorter. Researchers have explored various aspects of this

illusion. Geometric and physical parameters, neurophysiological factors, age-related differences,

sociocultural influences, and even personality traits have all been investigated in relation to the

Müller-Lyer illusion. Additionally, clinical applications have examined its relevance to certain

disorders. This illusion continues to intrigue scientists and artists alike, offering insights into the

intricate interplay between visual perception, cognition, and context. As we delve deeper into the

Müller-Lyer illusion, we uncover new avenues for research and gain a deeper appreciation for the

complexities of our perceptual experiences. Muller-Lyer proposed it as evidence that visual

perception is affected by learned assumptions, not just physical characteristics. Specifically, the
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inward fins trigger an assumption of depth or perspective that makes the line appear further away and

therefore longer. The purpose of the Muller-Lyer illusion is to study visual perception and how

contextual or learned information can influence basic judgments of spatial properties. It helped

establish that perception involves more than just passive reception of physical stimuli, and those past

experiences and assumptions play a role. It also revealed limits and fallibilities in how our visual

system processes and interprets visual information. Over the years, the Muller-Lyer illusion has seen

various applications. It is commonly used in psychology research to better understand visual

processing and cognitive biases. In design, it highlights how contextual shapes and framing can

purposefully distort spatial qualities. It also demonstrates that personal experiences can differ from

objective realities and requires accepting some degree of uncertainty in perception. Overall, the

illusion provides crucial insights into the complex workings of the human visual and cognitive

systems (Judd, 1905).

Literature review

The Müller-Lyer illusion is the misinterpretation of line lengths caused by the inclusion of

arrowheads or arrow tails; the feather-headed arrow’s size is overstated and the arrowhead figure is

understated. Many studies have been conducted on this well-known and contentious visual

phenomenon. The study examined the perceptual impact of the Müller-Lyer stimulus and its

variations using a range-image collection of nature settings. The researchers sought to explore how

participants estimate the sizes of these figures based on the probabilistic approach of visual

processing by sampling the range pictures for groups of pixels matching the geometrical

configurations of the Müller-Lyer stimuli examined. The study’s findings were consistent with the

theory that visual perception is a probabilistic process that has developed to handle the

unpredictability of retinal information. As expected from the probability distributions of the physical

sources underlying the retinal pictures, participants consistently overestimated the size of the feather-

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headed arrow and underestimated the size of the arrow-headed figure. This implies that the Müller-

Lyer illusion is an example of how visual processing in response to unclear retinal cues is

probabilistic (Howe & Purves, 2005).

The Muller-Lyer illusion involves misunderstanding of line lengths due to alterations at their

endpoints, such as arrowheads or feathers. In this study illusion, participants tend to overestimate the

size of the feather-headed arrow while underestimating the size of the arrow-headed figure. This

illusion has three basic explanations: confusion hypothesis, misapplied size constancy scaling, and

competing stimuli. Participants in the study compared the line lengths of the “spectacle” and

“dumbbell” versions of the Muller-Lyer illusion using the adjustment method. While seated at a fixed

distance, participants adjusted the length of the top-most line on a monitor by selecting random

stimulus orderings. Baseline versions of the illusion and configurations with modified bounding

elements were planned to be compared. Results showed the magnitude of the illusion increased

greatly when the inner bounding circles and glasses were increased, but the illusion surprisingly

reduced significantly when the outside bounding circles were magnified. The data’ observed pattern

closely matched the Confusion Hypothesis, pointing to many explanations for a thorough

comprehension (Woloszyn, 2010).

There are two variations of the Muller-Lyer (M-L) illusion: the wings-in form, which causes an

underestimation of length due to the feathered arrowhead, and the wings-out form, which causes an

overestimation of length due to the pointed arrowhead. The Müller-Lyer illusion's magnitude is

significantly influenced by visual attention, and attentional modulation suggests that high-level or

cognitive processes are involved in the illusion's development. Two experiments were carried out in

the study to review the impact of selective spatial attention on the Müller-Lyer illusion's wings-in and

wings-out forms, as well as a composite figure (XX) that superimposes both forms. Similar

instructions were provided, asking participants to evaluate the effect on shaft length estimation by

ignoring the XX figure's inner or outer wings. Ignoring the external wings of the XX figure resulted
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in a notable underestimate of shaft length, while ignoring the internal wings had no noteworthy

impact. Results showed, there was an imbalance in the attentional modulation of the two forms of

illusion for the M-L figures; ignoring the wings was more efficient in lowering the size of the wings-

out illusion than the wings-in illusion (Predebon, 2004).

The study used integrative field theory to examine participants’ size assessments of feather-

headed and arrow-headed figures in a size judgment test. The Muller-Lyer pattern was used to

evaluate how attentive fields affect size perception. It consists of fin variations between or outside

typical shafts. In a compounded Muller-Lyer job, fins were removed either systematically within or

outside of the conventional shafts. A computer was used to simulate the work and provide theoretical

functions based on various attention field sizes. The ideal attention field size for each Muller-Lyer

pattern variation was then determined by comparing these theoretical functions with empirical data

collected from actual observers. According to the study results, individuals in the Muller-Lyer pattern

tended to overestimate the size of the feather-headed arrow (expansion form) and underestimate the

size of the arrow-headed figure (shrinkage form). Remarkably, with the shrinkage type as opposed to

the expansion form, the ideal attentive field size was less. The attentive field was more sensitive to

changes in stimulus variables in the expansion form than in the shrinking version. Furthermore,

changes in viewing distance had negligible impact on the attentive field's ideal size, suggesting that

attention plays a part in figure-ground segregation and object constancy maintenance (Pressey &

Pressey, 1992).

Problem Statement

To find out how much error is involved in discriminating the length of the lines

Methodology

Hypothesis

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Participants will under-estimate the size of arrow headed figure and feather headed arrow is

over-estimated.

Independent Variable

Arrow headed figure

Dependent Variable

Feather headed arrow

Sample/subject

The test is conducted with only one participant. Her age is 20, from 6th semester.

Instruments/Tools

Muller-Lyer cards, pen, paper, calculator.

Procedure

Participant’s informed consent was taken. Muller-Lyer illusion cards given to participant.

Participant asked to move moveable card from inward to outward with right hand. Participant report

when you see equal length of line on both cards. Observer notes values from cards in the form of

table. Ask participant to repeat this 10 times. Participant to move movable card from outward to

inward with right hand until you see equal lengths of line of both cards. Observers note down reading

with at the point where participant seems equal. Ask participant to perform this procedure by 10

times, meanwhile observer note down the values on cards. Then observer ask participant to perform

same procedure with left hand and observer note the values. At last, sum up all the values and divide

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the answer with no. of responses to find out the point of subjective equity. Then observer fined

magnitude of illusion by subtracting range of scale, 60mm and point of subjective equity.

Results

Quantitative Analysis

Right Hand Outward to Inward Left-Hand Outward to Inward

Inward to Outward Inward to Outward

45 50 32 42

43 50 33 44

47 53 32 45

45 52 33 42

50 51 31 40

46 51 34 40

43 49 33 41

48 50 32 42

47 48 37 35

48 40 37 42

462 494 334 413

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Total = 1703

Point of Subjective Equity = total / No. of responses

= 1703/ 40

= 42.575

Magnitude of Illusion = 60 – Point of subjective equity

= 60 – 42.575

= 17.425

Qualitative Analysis

The results of the experiment using the Muller-Lyer illusion cards suggest a consistent

perceptual bias when participants are asked to judge line lengths. The magnitude of the illusion,

quantified as 17.425 mm, provides insight into the extent of the perceptual distortion caused by the

Muller-Lyer illusion. The calculated Point of Subjective Equity (PSE) is 42.575 mm, which is

significantly less than the actual line length of 60 mm. This indicates that the participants perceive

the line with the arrowheads (Muller-Lyer illusion) as being equal in length to a shorter line without

the illusion.

Discussion

The test demonstrates how contextual signals can distort our perception and cause us to make

inaccurate assumptions about the length of lines. Our hypothesis was that participants would

underestimate the size of the arrow-headed figure and overestimate the size of the feather-headed

arrow. The results of our experiment support this hypothesis, showing a consistent perceptual bias

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when participants were asked to judge line lengths. The magnitude of the illusion, quantified as

17.425 mm, indicates a significant perceptual distortion caused by the Müller-Lyer illusion. The

calculated Point of Subjective Equity (PSE) of 42.575 mm is significantly less than the actual line

length of 60 mm, suggesting that participants perceive the line with the arrowheads as being equal in

length to a shorter line without the illusion. Our findings are consistent with previous research on the

Müller-Lyer illusion, which has shown that the illusion is a robust and reliable phenomenon

(Gregory, 1968; Finley & Dodwell, 1983). The results of our study support the idea that the Müller-

Lyer illusion is caused by a misapplication of size constancy scaling, as suggested by Gregory

(1968). However, our findings contrast with some previous research that has suggested that the

Müller-Lyer illusion is caused by attentional factors (Morrone & Burr, 1988). Our study did not find

any evidence to support this hypothesis, suggesting that the illusion is primarily caused by perceptual

factors rather than attentional factors. Overall, our study provides further evidence for the Müller-

Lyer illusion and its effects on perception. The results support our hypothesis and are consistent with

previous research on the topic.

Limitations

Important variables that affect the size of the Mueller-Lyer illusion include fundus

pigmentation, tachistoscopes’ duration, and lightness contrast. It has been demonstrated that culture

affects this illusion since individuals who are reared in cultures with fewer right angles—like the

Zulu people in Africa—are less likely to be affected by it than persons who are raised in cultures with

more right angles.

Recommendations

Verifying that the participant understood the instructions is the responsibility of the

experimenter. The person and the device are kept at a constant distance from each other. In the

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ascending series, the variable line should be remained with shorter, while in the descending series, it

should be held longer. To prevent habituation, the variable line's starting position should be different

from trial to trial.

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Retroactive Inhibition

Introduction

Müller and Pilzecker showed that the materials and the task that intervene between

presentation and recall may interfere with the to-be-remembered items, and they named this

phenomenon “retroactive interference” (RI). The adverse effect of an activity after memorizing on

the memory of the material memorized is known as retroactive inhibition. The recall of the

information may not be as thorough if memory is followed by an activity other than rest. This decline

in memory can be attributed to the "inhibitory" effect of the activity that follows learning. As a result,

the inhibition in question is known as retroactive inhibition. It goes without saying that this

"retroactive effect" cannot be taken literally as having an impact on the memorizing process itself.

Since this process is already finished by the time the next task starts, we are just dealing with the

"traces" left behind from the memorizing process—rather than the process itself. Retroactive

inhibition became the object of extensive study (printed in a considerable number of publications) in

which the effects of the most diverse conditions on this phenomenon of great scientific interest were

examined (Smirnov, 1973). Retroactive inhibition is of substantial theoretical interest, since it

pertains directly to the problem of the causes of forgetting. Some investigators even believe that

retroactive inhibition is, if not the only, then at least the main cause of forgetting (Smirnov, 1973). In

this regard, the French psychologist Foucault (Britt, 1935) states that "what causes forgetting is not

time itself, but how this time is occupied." Storing (1931) holds the same views, asserting that "not

time in itself, but the impressions received in the course of time lead quite naturally to the forgetting

of old impressions (Smirnov, 1973). Retroactive interference refers to conditions in which new

learning interferes with old learning. Forgetting may be due to decay, a failure to reinstate the context

of initial learning, or interference. Retroactive interference (new learning interferes with old) is

contrasted with proactive (old interferes with new). In the case of retroactive interference, learning

new things can make it more difficult to recall things that we already know. For example, a musician
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might learn a new piece, only to find that the new song makes it more difficult to recall an older,

previously learned piece. Retroactive inhibition is one aspect of the theory of interference.

Interference Theory states that people forget not because memories are actually lost from storage but

because other information gets in the way of that people want to remember. It occurs when material

learn later destructs retrieval of information learnt earlier so old information overlap with new

information. Overall, retroactive inhibition experiments provide valuable insights into the

complexities of human memory and cognition, shedding light on how new information can impact

the retention and recall of past experiences. Investigating how newly acquired information interferes

with the recall or retention of previously learned material. Understanding the mechanisms underlying

interference in memory processes. Exploring the factors that influence the extent of retroactive

inhibition, such as the timing and nature of the interfering material. Examining the implications of

retroactive inhibition for memory consolidation and retrieval processes. Shedding light on cognitive

processes involved in learning and memory, and how they may be affected by interference from new

information. (Bower, Thompson-Schill, & Tulving,1994)

Literature review

Anderson & Reder (1999) in this study explores the "fan effect," which suggests that the more

associations a concept has, the slower and less accurate recall becomes due to interference. However,

meaningful connections can reduce interference effects. As our results are inconsistent with the

hypothesis so this study states the possibility that the meaningful words (List A) may have been

resistant to interference from non-sense syllables (List B) due to their strong associations, similar to

the findings in this study.

Baddeley & Hitch (1977) in this research revisits the recency effect, demonstrating that recent

information can influence recall but is modulated by the type of material and context. This study

supports our results in such a way that the meaningful words' strong recency effect might have helped

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the experimental group recall List A similarly to the control group, mitigating retroactive

interference.

Magill & Hall (1990) in this review examine the contextual interference effect, noting that

interference varies based on task similarity and context. High contextual interference can lead to

poorer practice performance than lower levels while enhance learning in the long term. This study

supports our results in such a way that the different nature of List A (meaningful words) and List B

(non-sense syllables) might have led to low contextual interference, thus supporting similar recall

performance in both groups.

Underwood (1957) in this seminal paper discusses how both proactive and retroactive

interference impact forgetting, with interference effects varying by the similarity and nature of the

material. This paper reports the similar results as given by the previous study and supports our results

as the dissimilarity between List A and List B in the experiment might have reduced retroactive

interference, explaining the lack of significant difference in recall performance between the groups.

Wickens (1970) highlights the role of semantic encoding in reducing interference. Words with

meaningful content are less susceptible to interference. These findings support the results of this

experiment as the list A's meaningful words likely benefited from semantic encoding, helping

participants in the experimental group recall them effectively despite exposure to List B.

Waugh & Norman (1965) in this study explored primary memory and suggests that

interference effects are pronounced in short-term memory tasks but can be mitigated by factors such

as rehearsal and encoding strategies. The findings of this study indicate that the participants in our

experiment might have used effective rehearsal strategies for List A, reducing the impact of List B on

their recall, leading to similar performance across both groups.

Problem Statement

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To determine the effect of new learning on prior learning by function of two non-sense

syllables.

Methodology

Hypothesis

Subjects’ performance in control group on recall list A will be better than the recall of

subjects in experimental group.

Independent Variable

The list of non-syllables, Meaningful word

Dependent Variable

Subject recall

Sample/subject

Two sample subjects were taken. First participant was assigned as an experimental group. She

was 21 years old. Second participant was assigned as a control group. She was 22 years old. Both

participants were from 6th semester and had no prior knowledge of the experiment.

Instruments/Tools

List of non-syllables, memory drum paper pencil, stop watch

Procedure

The experiment was conducted in a classroom. The list A (meaningful syllables) was given to

the experimental group. She memorizes the 12 words and then gave back the list to me. Then she

recalled the meaningful syllables. The errors will be recorded if she tells the wrong word. After the 7

trials of repeating the meaningful words is completed, the participant is given the list B (non-sense

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syllables) to memorize. The 7 trials are taken by repeating the words. The last step for experimental

group is recording the single trial of recall of meaningful words from list A without giving them

access to the list of relearning. The control group experiences the same treatment except the non-

sense syllables list. At first list A meaningful words are memorized by control group. The errors in 7

trials are recorded. After that, the single recall trial is taken for list A of meaningful words.

Results

Quantitative Analysis

Round 1

Table 1

Experimental Group Meaningful Words List (A)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7

1. CAT       

2. FUR       

3. MAN       

4. SUN       

5. RAM       

6. BOY       

7. FAT       

8. TOY       

9. GOD       

10. MAT       

11. FAN       

12. SIT       

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In 1st trial, 2 errors occurred. In 2nd trial, 1 error occurred. In 3rd trial, no error occurred. In 4th trial, no

error occurred. In 5th trial, 2 errors occurred. In 6th and 7th trials, no error occurred.

Table 2

Experimental Group non-sense Syllables (list B)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7

1. MEZ       

2. XOW       

3. FIV       

4. PEQ       

5. RAV       

6. NUZ       

7. GIR       

8. SOF       

9. WEP       

10. CIB       

11. XAY       

12. VUF       

In 1st trial, 1 error occurred. In 2nd trial, no error occurred. In 3rd trial, 1 error occurred. In 4th & 5th

trial, no error occurred. In 6th trial, 1 error occurred. In 7th trial, 1 error occurred.

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Table 3

Control Group Meaningful List (A)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trial 7

1. CAT       

2. FUR       

3. MAN       

4. SUN       

5. RAM       

6. BOY       

7. FAT       

8. TOY       

9. GOD       

10. MAT       

11. FAN       

12. SIT       

In 1st trial, 3 errors occurred. In 2nd trial, no error occurred. In 3rd trial, 1 error occurred. In 4th & 5th

trial, no error occurred. In 6th trial, 1 error occurred. In 7th trial, 1 error occurred.

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Meaningful Words vs Non-sense Syllables

Table 4

Groups List Trial Responses Errors

Experimental A 7 12 4

Group

Meaningful

Words

Experimental B 7 12 4

Group Non-Sense

Syllables

Control Group A 7 12 21

Meaningful

Words

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Round 2

Table 5

Experimental Group Meaningful Words List (A)

Trial 1

1. CAT 

2. FUR 

3. MAN 

4. SUN 

5. RAM 

6. BOY 

7. FAT 

8. TOY 

9. GOD 

10. MAT 

11. FAN 

12. SIT 

No error occurred.

Table 6

List B

Control Group Meaningful List (A)

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Trial 1

1. CAT 

2. FUR 

3. MAN 

4. SUN 

5. RAM 

6. BOY 

7. FAT 

8. TOY 

9. GOD 

10. MAT 

11. FAN 

12. SIT 

2 errors occurred.

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Experimental Vs Control Group

Groups List Trial Responses Errors

Experimental A 7 12 0

Group

Meaningful

Words

Experimental B 7 12 2

Group Non-

Sense Syllables

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Experimental Vs Control Group

Groups List Trials Responses Errors

Experimental A 7 12 4

group

Meaningful

words

Experimental B 7 12 2

group non-

sense syllables

Control group A 7 12 21

Meaningful

words

Experimental A 1 12 0

group

Meaningful

words

Control group A 1 12 2

Meaningful

words

Qualitative Analysis

List A was given to experimental group and 4 errors were occurred within 7 trials. Then list

B was given to experimental group and 2 errors were occurred within 7 trials. Then list A was
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given to control group and 21 errors were occurred within 7 trials. Then List A was given to

experimental group and no error was occurred within 1 trial. Then list A was given to control

group and 2 errors were occurred within 1 trial.

Discussion

The test assesses the participants' ability to recall the initial information following the

acquisition of new knowledge. The hypothesis of the test is that the subjects’ performance in

control group on recall list A will be better than the recall of subjects in experimental group. The

results indicated that the experimental group outperformed the control group in recalling both types

of words. The control group made more errors when recalling both meaningful words and

nonsense syllables. These findings contradict previous studies cited in the report's literature, where

the control group performed better than the experimental group. Notably, experiments by Postman

(1960, as cited in McLeod, 2018) and McKinney (1935) involved providing interfering information

to their experimental groups, which affected recall. This current study, however, focused solely on

memory recall errors for meaningful and nonsense words, yielding different results.

Limitations

The outcome may be distorted if there are individual variations between the participants or

if one has superior memory. Distractions and noise in the surroundings can also have an impact on

the accuracy of the outcome. Each person interprets nonsense syllables differently when they are

pronounced. It may have an impact on memory and learning.

Recommendations

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By coming up with new and innovative ways to perform experiments can lead to better and

accurate results. Prior to conducting an experiment, the researcher needs to make sure that the

surrounding area is calm and silent.

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Proactive Inhibition

Introduction

When outdated knowledge or information obstructs the acquisition of new knowledge, this is

known as proactive interference. Old memories are easily recalled since they have been practiced

numerous times and are frequently retained in long-term memory. Sometimes learning new things

is challenging because of these recollections. For instance, after only a short time at the previous

location, someone moving into a new home could find it difficult to recall the new one. It is

challenging to remember the new address because of the outdated memories of the old one. What's

even more intriguing is that the idea of purposeful interference gets clearer as one ages. Because

older people have a significantly larger volume of memories preserved in their memory than

younger people do, proactive interference is even more likely to occur. Making the new

information stand out so that it is remembered is maybe the best strategy to lessen the impacts of

proactive intervention. Adding a song, rhyme, or mnemonic to the new memory or knowledge can

help it stick in the mind of the learner. Information that is more memorable than previous

information will probably stick out and be simple to remember in the future. It will be easier to

remember new information and resist the effects of aggressive interference if you do this with new

material on a regular basis. When more recent memories are retrieved and older memories get in

the way, this is known as proactive interference. It is frequently simpler to recall knowledge that

has been taught in the past rather than that which has been learned more recently since earlier

memories are frequently more thoroughly practiced and firmly ingrained in long-term memory.

The first person to offer proof of proactive interference was Whitely (1927). Whitely provided a

target list of terms for participants to retain, with each word centered on a broad subject.

Participants were also given a summary of a subject that was either unconnected or relevant to the
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subject of their word list, or they were given a quiz on it. They were given this summary or quiz

either just before or after the word list, or just before recall. He discovered that any interpolated

information made later recollection more difficult than it was for a control group. The individuals

who were given information pertaining to their lists revealed the biggest obstacle in terms of

accuracy percentage and percentage of error over all time periods. Early research by Underwood

(1957) showed that knowledge acquired prior to encoding a target item may make it harder to

remember that target item. Through a meta-analysis spanning several experiments,

he demonstrated that the more lists a person had previously memorized, the more difficulty they

had remembering the most current. This is proactive interference, in which the memory of the past

makes recalling recent recollections is more difficult. To ascertain the proactive inhibition process,

the introduction of the probe task, an experimental procedure where participants were given a list

of words to commit to memory, then have them recall.

Literature review

Blankenship and Albert B. Paul L. Whitely (1941) The phenomenon of retroactive

inhibition1 has been demonstrated with various types of learning material, such as nonsense

syllables, words, numbers, and poetry. McKinney has found that this sort of inhibition also occurs

with the recall of advertising material. Proactive inhibition1 has also been found to occur with such

materials as poetry, syllables, and the like (3, 4, 5, and 6). The present experimental study was

undertaken on the assumption that the phenomenon of proactive inhibition might be important to

advertisers, if such inhibition were found to exist in the recall of advertising materials. In the

experiments, five advertisements were used, each containing 18 items with prices, and one store

name total table list 1-5. Four of the advertisements (A> B, C, D) were composed of sense items,

the other (E) of nonsense items.

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It was always Lists A, B, and C which were recalled in the later period. Advertisement D

was always used as the similar advertisement preceding learning in the similar condition, and

Advertisement E was used as the "different" advertisement preceding learning in the different

condition. A total of 85 male students of Franklin and Marshall College participated in this

experiment. The values in this row were obtained by determining the proportion of increase in

errors in recall as compared to the errors in learning. Correct score is approximately the same for

the three conditions. These results indicate that proactive inhibition occurred with the type of

advertising material used. The inhibitive effect was greatest when the advertisements were similar;

recall differed little in the different condition from that in the normal condition.

Postman, L., & Keppel, G. (1977) the conditions and characteristics of cumulative

proactive inhibition were investigated in three experiments. Under the standard procedure, subjects

went through eight study-recall cycles, with the critical tests of retention occurring 48 hr after

acquisition. Final tests of recall and of list differentiation were administered at the end of the last

session. In Experiment 1, the influence of prior tests of retention, as distinguished from the

acquisition of prior lists, on the recall of paired associates was examined. Different groups were

given delayed tests on either one, two, three, or eight lists. At comparable stages of practice, the

number of prior tests had only minor effects on the amount of proactive interference. The final test

showed better retention of previously tested than untested lists; list differentiation was low. The

acquisition of successive lists in the same experimental context appears to be a sufficient condition

for the build-up of cumulative proactive interference. In Experiment 2, acquisition was by the

method of free-recall learning. Retention declined progressively as a function of stage of practice

for both no categorized and categorized lists. In the case of the latter, the retention losses resulted

almost entirely from a decline in the number of categories recalled: The number of items per

category recalled remained virtually unchanged. Thus, the proactive decrements were attributable
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to the temporary inaccessibility of higher order units. Internal analyses suggested that the

mechanisms of interference were similar for noncategorized lists. Two methods of verbal

discrimination learning were used in Experiment 3. One required verbalization during study,

whereas the other did not. The former is less favorable to the establishment of frequency

discriminations than the latter. Retention was high under both conditions and showed only small

and irregular changes as a function of stage of practice. The results of the experiments support the

conclusion that cumulative proactive inhibition builds up only when retention is measured by

means of a test of recall. It is suggested that the progressive degradation of retrieval processes

reflects increases in generalized competition and declines in list differentiation. Perhaps the most

massive losses in long-term retention that can be observed in the laboratory are found in

experiments on cumulative proactive inhibition.

In such studies, the subject goes through a series of learning-recall cycles. In Session 1, he

learns List 1; in Session 2, he recalls List 1 and learns List 2; and so on. The successive lists are

unrelated, so that the possibility of specific negative transfer is minimized. While speed of

acquisition usually increases as a function of stage of practice, or at least remains relatively

constant, the amount recalled declines progressively. The occurrence of cumulative proactive

inhibition has been demonstrated repeatedly for paired-associate lists (Greenberg & Underwood,

1950; Keppel, Postman, & Zavortink, 1968; Underwood & Ekstrand, 1967b). There is also some

evidence for such progressive declines in retention under conditions of serial learning (Archer,

reported in Underwood, 1957) and free recall (Wipf & Webb, 1962). The main conclusions that

can be drawn from the results of the three experiments will be summarized as a series of points.

The present findings add to the evidence that the use of recall tasks is a sufficient condition for the

development of cumulative proactive inhibition in the retention of successive lists. The results

obtained in Experiment 2 with categorized lists are entirely compatible with the hypothesis of
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generalized response competition. The number of categories represented in recall decreased as a

function of stage of practice, whereas the number of items per category did not. There were strong

indications in all three experiments that list differentiation declined as a function of stage of

practice.

Problem Statement

To determine the effect of prior learning on new learning by function of two non-sense

syllables.

Methodology

Hypothesis

Subjects’ performance in control group on recall list B will be better than the recall of

subjects in experimental group.

Independent Variable

The list of non-syllables, Meaningful word

Dependent Variable

Subject recall

Sample/subject

Two sample subjects were taken. First participant was assigned as an experimental group.

She was 19 years old. Second participant was assigned as a control group. She was 21 years old.

Both participants were from 4th semester and had no prior knowledge of the experiment.

Instruments/Tools

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List of non-syllables, memory drum paper pencil, stop watch

Procedure

The participant in the experimental group is given list A, which consists of twelve nonsense

syllables, to commit to memory. After a while, the subject is given the list of words and asked to

say them in the right order. If they repeat the incorrect word or sequence, the mistakes will be

noted. Following the completion of seven repetitions of the list A words, the participant is handed

list B, which consists of twelve distinct nonsense syllables, to learn by heart. Repetition of the right

word order is required for the seven trials. The experimental group's final step is to record their one

recall attempt of List B terms without providing them with access to the list so they can review it.

With the exception of not being introduced to the list A nonsense syllables, the control group

receives the same treatment. The control group initially commits list B nonsense syllable words to

memory. Seven trials' worth of errors are recorded. The identical list B is then used for the single

recall trial. The recall of list B for the experimental groups and list B for the control group are

compared.

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Results

Quantitative Analysis

Round 1

Table 1

Experimental Group Meaningful Words List (A)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trail 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trail 7

1. CAT       

2. FUR       

3. MAN       

4. SUN       

5. RAM       

6. BOY       

7. FAT       

8. TOY       

9. GOD       

10. MAT       

11. FAN       

12. SIT       

In 1st trial, 3 errors occurred. In 2nd trial, 1 error occurred. In 3rd trial, 1 error occurred. In fourth

trial, 2 errors occurred. In 5th, 6th and 7th trials, no error occurred.

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List B

Experimental Group non-sense Syllables List (B)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trail 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trail 7

1. MEZ       

2. XOW       

3. FIV       

4. PEQ       

5. RAV       

6. NUZ       

7. GIR       

8. SOF       

9. WEP       

10. CIB       

11. XAY       

12. VUF       

In 1st trial, 6 errors occurred. In 2nd trial, 3 errors occurred. In 3rd trial, 3 errors occurred. In 4th

trial, 4 errors occurred. In 5th trial, 3 errors occurred. In 6th trial, 3 errors occurred. In 7th trial, 2

errors occurred.

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List B

Table 3

Control Group non-sense Syllables List (B)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trail 4 Trial 5 Trial 6 Trail 7

1. MEZ       

2. XOW       

3. FIV       

4. PEQ       

5. RAV       

6. NUZ       

7. GIR       

8. SOF       

9. WEP       

10. CIB       

11. XAY       

12. VUF       

In 1st trial, 1 error occurred. In 2nd trial, no error occurred. In 3rd trial, 1 error occurred. In 4th trial,

no error occurred. In 5th trial, 1 error occurred. In 6th trial, no error occurred. In 7th trial, 1 error

occurred.

Meaningful Words vs Non-sense Syllables

Table 4

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List Trial Responses Errors

Experimental group A 7 12 7

meaningful words

Experimental group B 7 12 24

non-sense syllables

Control group non- B 7 12 4

sense syllables

Round 2

Table 5

Experimental Group non-sense syllables List (B)

Trial 1

1. MEZ 

2. XOW 

3. FIV 

4. PEQ 

5. RAV 

6. NUZ 

7. GIR 

8. SOF 

9. WEP 

10. CIB 

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11. XAY 

12. VUF 

No error occurred.

Table 6

List b

Control Group non-sense Syllables List (B)

Trial 1

1. MEZ 

2. XOW 

3. FIV 

4. PEQ 

5. RAV 

6. NUZ 

7. GIR 

8. SOF 

9. WEP 

10. CIB 

11. XAY 

12. VUF 

Two errors occurred.

Experimental Vs Control Group

Groups List Trial Responses Errors

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Experimental B 7 12 0

Group Non-

Sense Syllables

Experimental B 7 12 2

Group Non-

Sense Syllables

Experimental Vs Control Group

Groups List Trials Responses Errors

Experimental A 7 12 7

group

Meaningful

words

Experimental B 7 12 24

group non-

sense syllables

Control group B 7 12 4

non-sense

syllables

Experimental B 1 12 0

group non-

sense syllables

Control group B 1 12 2

non-sense

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syllables

Qualitative Analysis

List A was given to experimental group and 7 errors were occurred within 7 trials. Then list

B was given to experimental group and 24 errors were occurred within 7 trials. Then list B was

given to control group and 4 errors were occurred within 7 trials. Then list B was given to

experimental group and no error was occurred within 1 trial. Then list B was given to control group

and 2 errors were occurred within 1 trial.

Discussion

To study the effect of proactive inhibition on subjects’ ability to recall. According to the

research results hypothesis is accepted and findings of this experiment is totally supporting the

other researches result. Blankenship and Albert B. Paul L. Whitely (1941) Proactive inhibition has

also been found to occur with such materials as poetry, syllables, and the like (3, 4, 5, and 6). The

present experimental study was undertaken on the assumption that the phenomenon of proactive

inhibition might be important to advertisers, if such inhibition were found to exist in the recall of

advertising materials. In the experiments, five advertisements were used, each containing 18 items

with prices, and one store name total table list 1-5. Four of the advertisements (A> B, C, D) were

composed of sense items, the other (E) of nonsense items. It was always Lists A, B, and C which

were recalled in the later period. Advertisement D was always used as the similar advertisement

preceding learning in the similar condition, and Advertisement E was used as the "different"

advertisement preceding learning in the different condition. A total of 85 male students of Franklin

and Marshall College participated in this experiment. The values in this row were obtained by

determining the proportion of increase in errors in recall as compared to the errors in learning.

Correct score is approximately the same for the three conditions. These results indicate that

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[Type here]

proactive inhibition occurred with the type of advertising material used. The inhibitive effect was

greatest when the advertisements were similar; recall differed little in the different condition from

that in the normal condition.

Limitations

The first potential drawback of the current study is that both participants might

have individual variations or the possibility of one having superior memory can skew the outcome.

The environmental distractions and noise might also affect the accuracy of the results.

The pronouncing nonsensical Everybody interprets syllables differently. It may have an impact on

memory and learning.

Recommendations

Researchers can innovate and introduce computerized stimulus representations to further

expand on the usual method of conducting experiments. Before starting the experiment, the

researcher needs to make sure that everything is calm and quiet in the area.

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Bilateral Learning

Introduction

Learning is cognitively organizing new information into a coherent cognitive

representation, integrating it with previously acquired knowledge that has been awakened from

long-term memory, and paying attention to pertinent components of incoming information,

whether consciously or unconsciously. It refers to "a process that leads to change, which occurs as

a result of experience and increases the potential for improved performance and future learning"

(Ambrose et al., 2010).

Learning is something that people do for themselves, not something that is done to them. It

is directly related to how individuals understand and react to their experiences.

And a methodical procedure through which a person undergoes a long-lasting, irreversible shift in

their understanding, actions, or perspectives on the world. It is a crucial behavioral process in

people. Every living thing has a mind. We can determine the impact that learning has had on an

individual by contrasting the basic, undeveloped ways in which children behave and feel with the

sophisticated ways in which adults conduct, think, skill, and feel. An individual is in constant

communication with and receiving input from their surroundings.

While there are many different kinds of learning, we will concentrate on a select handful

for the time being. They are conditioning, cognitive learning, and observational learning. Rather

than learning from our own experiences, observational learning involves seeing how others behave

and noting the results of their actions.

Conversely, cognitive learning is a sort of learning that involves practicing or employing

our memory, as well as active and constructive thought processes. Conditioned learning holds that

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learning is a process of change that results from circumstances leading to an outcome. Continuous

practice is the most crucial component of conditioning-based learning.

The transmission of abilities from one bodily area to the other is referred to as bilateral

transfer of learning. This is true for anatomical pieces like limbs that are paired off. It is the process

of transferring increased motor function from one trained limb to the untrained contralateral limb.

It is sometimes referred to as cross-education or inter-manual transfer. The transfer of physical

performance from one side of the body to the other is known as bilateral transfer of learning.

Another name for this kind of transfer is cross-limb transfer. Numerous investigations seem to

indicate that one's ability to practice a particular talent on one hand can frequently be transferred to

the other (Woodworth & Schlosberg, 1971). There are three types of bilateral transfer; Positive

transfer, Negative transfer, and Zero transfer. When prior learning helps new learning, this is

known as positive transfer; conversely, when prior learning gets in the way of new learning, this is

known as negative transfer. Conversely, zero transfer occurs when your learning is unaffected by

prior knowledge. The acquisition of knowledge at one level of learning that can be used to other

tasks or situations that are similar is known as bilateral transform learning.

Literature Review

Fourteen participants (mean age of 22.6 ± 6.6 years; eight females, six male) were recruited

from the University population. Participants were required to be free from any neurological

condition and to be free from any musculoskeletal injury. Twelve of the participants were right-

handed and two participants were left-handed (20). The sample size calculations were performed

via an a-priori analysis using one-way repeated measures ANOVA. We estimated that 10

participants in each motor learning condition would provide at least 80% power (95% confidence

interval) in order to detect a 10% difference in mean time to complete each motor learning task

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assuming a standard deviation of 7-12% between conditions at P < 0.05 (two tailed). All

participants provided written informed consent prior to taking part in the study, with all study

protocols approved by the University Human Research Ethics committee, complying with the

principles set out by the Declaration of Helsinki.

Due to the disparity in task completion times, improvement in training times were

normalized to trial 1 result and are illustrated in Figure 2. One-way repeated measures ANOVA

revealed a significant time by condition interaction F7,136=5.63; p<0.001 (Figure 3). Post hoc

analysis revealed that motor learning improvement in the dominant hand was significantly greater

in the Mirror Purdue task compared to the O’Connor (p=0.006) and Purdue tasks (p =0.013).

This study has demonstrated the value of task complexity on bilateral transfer effects.

Further research is required to investigate specifically the direction of transfer (i.e., if this effect is

observed in reverse in left-hand dominant individuals). Additional studies should also investigate if

the effects are as strong in an older population compared to a younger age group used in this study.

By expanding this study to a wider age group, the findings can be translated towards rehabilitation

particularly when motor control following unilateral injury.

Forty-five right-handed (self-reported) college students participated in this study. The study

was approved by the Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects in Research

at the University of Texas at San Antonio, and all participants signed a written consent form before

participating in the study. All participants were free from current or past history of neurological

impairment/dysfunction known to affect neuronal conduction.

All participants-maintained error rates at or below 5%. Thus, no further analyses of the

error trials were performed.

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EMG records taken during the practice phase for the physical group were analyzed to

examine if any significant muscle coactivations occurred on the untrained (right) EDC muscle

when the trained (left) EDC exerted force. In addition, EMG records for the imagery group were

also analyzed to see if any significant muscle activations occurred during practice. Results

indicated no significant coactivation on the right EDC for either the physical group or imagery

group. That is, the average value of the rectified surface EMG during the practice period (i.e.,

exerting forces) was within a range of the mean ±3 SD of the rectified surface EMG during the

resting period (i.e., the baseline)”

Problem Statement

To demonstrate the phenomenon of bilateral transform by performing a sensory motor task

Methodology

Hypothesis

Practice by preferred hand will help in performing the task by other hand. Independent

Variable

Practice for learning

Dependent Variable

Degree of learning

Sample/subject

Two sample subjects were taken. First participant was assigned as an experimental group.

She was 20 years old. Second participant was assigned as a control group. She was 21 years old.

Both participants were from 6th semester and had no prior knowledge of the experiment.

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Instruments/Tools

Mirror Drawing Board, Star Pattern Sheet, Stop Watch and Scoring Sheet

Procedure

For this test we divided our group into experimental and control groups. In experimental

group our member had to perform 6 times, 3 times with right hand and 3 times with left hand. The

experiment was performed on the apparatus. The star was already drawn on the apparatus and our

member had to draw the line between two lines of star while looking at mirror. The participant sits

in front of mirror in such a way that she can only see the picture of star in mirror and trace under

the boundaries of the star. Crossing at any point or direction the side of two lines is considered as

fault or going retreating from the same path also included as errors. The participant did it with right

hand 3 times. Later she repeated the procedure with left hand 3 times. And for control group, our

member had to repeat same method but with just left hand 3 times. Through this experiment we

have come to know that control group performed better.

Results

Quantitative Analysis

Experimental Group

Hand used No. of trials No. of errors Time taken

Right hand 1 50 57sec

Right hand 2 28 30sec

Right hand 3 16 24sec

Left hand 1 19 19sec

Left hand 2 23 10sec

Left hand 3 26 9sec

Control Group

Hand used No. of trials No. of errors Time taken

Left hand 1 5 35sec

Left hand 2 4 32sec

Left hand 3 12 29sec

Qualitative Analysis

There were 2 groups one of them is experimental and the other one was control group. We

took total 9 groups. 6 trials were performed by experimental group and 3 trials were performed by

control group. In 1st trial of right hand of experimental group, no. of errors was 50 and time taken

was 57 seconds. In 2nd trial of right hand of experimental group, no. of errors was 28 and time

taken was 30 seconds. In 3rd trial of right hand of experimental group, no. of errors was 16 and time

taken was 24 seconds. Now the trials were performed by left hand of the experimental group. In 1st

trial of left hand of experimental group, no. of errors was 19 and time taken was 19 seconds. In 2nd

trial of left hand of experimental group, no. of errors was 23 and time taken was 10 seconds. In 3rd

trial of left hand of experimental group, no. of errors was 26 and time taken was 9 seconds. Now

the trials were performed by left hand of the control group. In 1st trial of left hand of control group,

no. of errors was 19 and time taken was 19 seconds. In 2nd trial of left hand of control group, no. of

errors was 23 and time taken was 10 seconds. In 3rd trial of left hand of control group, no. of errors

was 26 and time taken was 9 seconds.

Discussion

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The psychological experiment known as the "Bilateral Transfer of Learning" examines how

knowledge or abilities acquired on one side of the body can be applied to the other.

The experiment with the Mirror Drawing Board demonstrates that practicing with the

preferred hand can improve performance with the non-preferred hand, supporting the hypothesis

that motor skills can transfer between limbs.

The results shows that the experimental group performed the task with both hands, while

the control group only performed the task with its left hand. The data suggests that the

experimental group improved their performance over three trials with fewer errors and faster times.

The control group also improved its performance but to a lesser extent. A. J. Fettes and A. M.

Wing (2017). M. Corballis and J. L. Bradshaw (2018)

Limitations

Limited validity to actual circumstances. A challenge to account for unimportant variables.

Practice effects may have an impact on transfer. Possibility of individual variations in motor

learning capacity.

Recommendations

Its validity should be proven. More research should be done on the basis of how every

individual reacts different. And should also focus on how it can be prevented.

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Human Maze

Introduction

The human maze apparatus was developed by psychologists and researchers in the field

of behavioral psychology, specifically to study human and animal behavior in controlled

environments. The specific founder may vary depending on the exact design and purpose of the

maze, as different researchers have contributed to maze designs over time. The concept of

mazes for psychological experiments has been around for many decades. One notable early

example is Edward Tolman’s work in the 1930s, where he used mazes to study cognitive

processes in rats. Over time, the design and sophistication of mazes have evolved as research

techniques improved. Researchers use human maze apparatus to investigate various aspects of

human behavior, such as spatial cognition, decision-making, learning processes, memory

retention, problem-solving strategies, and the impact of environmental cues on behavior. For

example, researchers might observe how individuals navigate through a maze, make decisions

at junctions, or remember paths they have taken. The background of the human maze apparatus

lies in the desire to create controlled environments where specific aspects of behavior can be

observed and measured objectively. By constructing mazes with defined pathways and

obstacles, researchers can manipulate variables and study their effects on behavior

systematically.

The purpose of using a human maze apparatus is multifaceted. It allows researchers

to explore fundamental questions about how humans navigate physical spaces, make

decisions under uncertainty, learn from experience, and adapt to changing environments.

Additionally, it provides insights into cognitive processes involved in spatial orientation and

memory. The nature of the human maze apparatus is experimental and controlled. It
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typically involves constructing physical or virtual mazes with predetermined routes and

challenges. Researchers use these setups to conduct experiments where participants'

behavior is observed and recorded under various conditions. The rationale behind using a

human maze apparatus is to create a standardized environment where specific variables can

be manipulated and controlled. This allows researchers to draw conclusions about cause-

and-effect relationships in behavior, identify patterns or regularities in decision-making, and

test theoretical models of cognitive processes. In designing and using human maze

apparatus, researchers often go through iterative processes of trial and error. This involves

refining the maze design, adjusting experimental protocols, and interpreting results to

improve the validity and reliability of findings. Through these trials and errors, researchers

aim to minimize confounding factors and maximize the clarity of the insights gained from

their experiments. Each of these elements contributes to the understanding of how human

maze apparatuses are utilized in psychological research to explore various aspects of human

behavior and cognition. (Traetta, 2020).

Literature Review

Tolman et al. (2016) conducted a comprehensive study to investigate the neural basis of

cognitive maps in human maze learning. Using a combination of fMRI and behavioral

experiments, they explored the neural mechanisms underlying spatial learning and memory.

The study revealed that cognitive maps are mediated by a network of brain regions, including

the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, and that neural activity in these regions predicts

navigation performance. Additionally, the study found that individual differences in cognitive

map formation are associated with variation in hippocampal structure, providing new insights

into the neural basis of spatial cognition. The findings suggest that cognitive maps are a critical

component of spatial learning and memory, and that individual differences in cognitive map
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formation may contribute to variability in spatial cognition abilities.

Kispersky and Tolman (2017) examined the role of attention in human maze learning,

investigating how attentional guidance influences navigation performance. Their behavioral

experiments demonstrated that attention plays a crucial role in the formation of cognitive maps,

and that individual differences in attentional abilities predict maze learning. The study showed

that training attentional skills can enhance spatial learning, highlighting the potential for

attention-based interventions to improve spatial cognition. Furthermore, the findings provide

new insights into the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying spatial learning and

memory, suggesting that attentional guidance may be an important factor in the development of

spatial cognition interventions. The study's findings have important implications for the

development of training programs aimed at improving spatial cognition, and highlight the need

for further research into the role of attention in spatial learning.

Bennett et al. (2018) investigated the effects of spatial complexity on human maze

learning, exploring how cognitive maps are impacted by complex spatial environments. Their

behavioral experiments revealed that spatial complexity impairs navigation performance.

Problem Statement

Experimentally demonstrate human maze learning and specifically investigate the

subject performance and the nature of learning task.

Methodology

Hypothesis

Subject will successfully learn the Human Maze by trial-and-error method

Independent Variable

Trial and Error Method

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Dependent Variable

Human Maze Learning

Sample/subject

The experiment involved the sample of two people; one of them served as the experimenter

and the other one served as subject. The experimenter’s name is T.S and the subject’s name is

M.M. the participants gender is female and her age is 21 and belong from 6th semester.

Instruments/Tools

Human maze apparatus, stopwatch, paper, pencil, note sheet.

Procedure

The experimenter got the consent from the client. The experimenter explained the

experiment to the participant. There will be no risk to the participants' mental and physical

health. The human maze apparatus is for learning through trial-and-error method. There is only

one right path to reach from start to end point. For each trial the experimenter will note your

errors and time taken. The subject can move up, down, right or left but not diagonally, but

cannot jump from one node to another, for every move subject must touch the stylus on the

points given on human maze, if it happens to select the wrong path the red bulb on the apparatus

will glow and then you should select another way. The subject must perform this task until learn

the maze and reach the end point without any errors. The instrument was checked prior to the

conduction environment was made peaceful and comfortable sitting arrangement was done.

Errors and time taken for each trial were noted down carefully in tabular format. The results

were carefully analyzed. After then data was statistically analyzed.

Results

Quantitative Table 1

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Performed by Experimental Group

Trials Errors Time

1 91 42sec

2 60 46sec

3 46 53sec

4 36 52sec

5 44 38sec

6 42 40sec

7 33 39sec

Qualitative Analysis

As the number of trials increased from 1 to 7, the participants in the experimental group

consistently made fewer errors, dropping from 91 errors in the first trial to 33 errors in the

seventh trial. This decrease shows that participants were learning and improving their ability to

navigate the maze. The time taken to complete the maze varied, initially increasing as

participants focused on reducing errors, but eventually decreasing and stabilizing as they became

more familiar with the maze. These results indicate a strong learning effect, as participants

improved their performance over time by balancing speed and accuracy. Therefore, the

hypothesis that subjects will successfully learn the Human Maze by trial-and-error method is

accepted, as evidenced by the significant reduction in errors and the optimization of time taken

to complete the maze.

Discussion

This study's results support the hypothesis that subjects can successfully learn the

Human Maze by trial-and-error method. This finding is consistent with literature suggesting

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that cognitive maps are a critical component of spatial learning and memory (Tolman et al.,

2016). The results also align with research on attentional guidance, which highlights the

importance of attention in the formation of cognitive maps (Kispersky & Tolman, 2017).

Limitations

Time limit can impact performance. Individual differences occur. It’s more complex to

perform.

Recommendations

One can give motivation to the participant. Give them more time. Don’t be so harsh on

them for good results.

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Perception Reversible Figure

Introduction

Edgar Rubin's 1915 experiment, "Rubin's Vase," is a classic demonstration of reversible

figures, which are images that can be perceived in multiple ways. This experiment laid the

foundation for later research in perception and cognitive psychology. The Background of this

experiment is Rubin was interested in exploring how our brains process visual information and

how we perceive reality. He was particularly fascinated by figure-ground perception, which refers

to the way we distinguish between objects and their backgrounds. The purpose of Rubin's

experiment was to demonstrate how a single image can be perceived in multiple ways, depending

on how the viewer focuses their attention. The nature of this experiment is Rubin's Vase is a

simple image consisting of a vase in the center, surrounded by two profiles facing each other. The

image can be perceived in two ways: either as a vase or as two profiles. The rationale of

experiment is this Rubin's experiment showed that our perception is not fixed and can change

depending on our focus and attention. This has significant implications for our understanding of

perception, cognition, and the workings of the human brain.

The Key Findings of this experiment is the figure-ground distinction is not fixed and can

be reversed. Attention plays a crucial role in shaping our perception. The same visual stimulus

can be perceived in multiple ways. The Impact of this experiment is Rubin's work has had a

lasting impact on our understanding of perception and cognition. His reversible figures have

been widely used in psychology and neuroscience research to study perception, attention, and

cognitive processing. Reversible figures can be used to create visually striking and thought-

provoking art pieces. Psychology: Studying reversible figures can provide insights into

perception, cognition, and attention.

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Neuroscience: Research on reversible figures can help us understand how the brain

processes visual information and how we perceive reality. The Conclusion of this experiment is

Rubin's Vase is a powerful demonstration of the flexibility of human perception and the

importance of attention in shaping our understanding of reality. The experiment's findings have

had a lasting impact on our understanding of perception and cognition, and its applications

continue to inspire research and creativity across various fields.

Literature Review

Wittmann, & Kensinger, (2017) in this study investigated the role of visual perception in

the application of the laws of association in human memory. The authors found that visual

perception influences the application of the laws of association, and that the Law of Similarity is

more strongly associated with visual perception compared to other laws.

Kensinger, & Wittmann, (2019) in this study used a combination of behavioral and

neuroimaging techniques (fMRI) to investigate the role of attention in the application of the laws

of association in human memory. They found that attention plays a significant role in the

application of the laws of association, and that the Law of Similarity is particularly important in

attentional memory tasks.

Gregory (1970) experimented with ambiguous/reversible figures to understand perceptual

organization. Found that similarity/good continuation principles influence how we segment figures

from grounds. Participants tended to perceive configurations based on similarity, supporting our

higher responses for similarity law.

Peterson & Gibson (1994) argued that figure-ground organization occurs prior to object

recognition. Tested hypothesis using reversible figures varying in similarity of features. Found

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similarity strongly influenced initial perceptual segmentation, again corroborating our results

favoring similarity law.

Ward (1982)- Explored influence of local vs global features on attention in reversible

figures like ambiguous cube. Results demonstrated attention bias toward more similar/proximal

local contours, consistent with your participants' reliance on similarity.

Schiano, & Watkins, (1990) presented Necker cube and other reversible figures varying in

similarity of contours/shading between regions. Participants viewed figures and reported

perceptual switches. Greater similarity led to increased stability of percepts and fewer reversals,

supporting role of similarity in organization. These results relate to our results as similarity law

received highest responses.

Problem statement

To study experimentally the organization of figure-ground relationship by means of

two reversible figures.

Methodology

Hypothesis

Responses for Law of Similarity for visual perception would be higher than other form of

laws.

Independent Variable

Responses

Dependent Variable

Law of similarity

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Sample/subject

A single subject performed the experiment. She is 22 years old and had no prior

knowledge about the experiment.

Instruments/Tools

Table, stopwatch, paper and pencil.

Procedure

The procedure to observe and analyze a perception reversible figure is as follows; Show the

reversible figure to the observer. This could be an image like Rubin's Vase, the Necker Cube, or

the Duck-Rabbit Illusion. Then ask the observer to describe what she initially sees. Note the initial

interpretation. Inform the observer that the figure can be seen in more than one way. Ask them to

try and see the alternative interpretation. Encourage the observer to focus and attempt to switch

between the different perceptions. Document the different perceptions and any difficulties or ease

with which the observer can switch between them. Repeat the process with different observers to

gather a range of responses and ensure consistency. This procedure helps in understanding how

different individuals perceive and switch between multiple interpretations of the same ambiguous

visual stimulus.

Results

Quantitative Analysis

No. of Law of association No. of responses Reaction time Percentage

Trials

1 Law of Similarity 2 1min

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2 Law of Contiguity 1 1min

3 Law of Contrast 1 1min

4 Law of Primacy 2 1min

5 Law of Frequency 0 0

6 Law of Recency 1 1min

7 Law of vividness & 1 1min

interest

ART = Total time of Responses / Total no. of Responses

= 8/6

=1.33

Qualitative Analysis

Participant responded two times law of similarity in one minute. Law of contiguity. The

participant responded one time of law of contiguity in one minute. Law of contrast. The

participant responded one time of law of contrast in one minute. Law of primacy. The participant

responded two time of law of primacy in one minute. Law of frequency. The participant did not

respond the law of frequency. Law of Recency. The participant responded one time of law of

recency in one minute. Law of Vividness & Interest. The participant responded one time of law of

vividness and law of interest in one minute.

Discussion

Based on the results, the Law of Similarity indeed received the highest number of

responses compared to other laws, supporting the hypothesis. The quantitative analysis indicates

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that participants mentioned the Law of Similarity twice within a minute, suggesting a heightened

sensitivity to similarity in perceptual processes. This aligns with the literature on reversible-figure

perception, which emphasizes the role of top-down processes and cognitive factors, such as

attention and mental set, in influencing perception.

When we look at our results alongside existing research, they align with studies that

emphasize how intentional focus, mental involvement, and brain processes affect how we

perceive reversible figures. Specifically, our findings show that the Law of Similarity plays a

significant role. This tells previous research suggesting that our tendency to interpret ambiguous

figures in certain ways is influenced by our predisposition to perceive similarity between

elements. In conclusion, the findings both align with and extend existing literature on reversible-

figure perception, emphasizing the interplay between cognitive, neural, and sensory factors in

shaping perceptual experiences. Therefore, while the hypothesis regarding the dominance of the

Law of Similarity is accepted, further research is warranted to explore the nuanced dynamics of

perceptual processing.

Limitations

Cognitive biases could occur (everyone has different methods of thinking). Individual

differences can occur. There was lack of control.

Recommendations

It can consider multiple perspectives. It can utilize wide range of technology.

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Free Association

Introduction

In 1957, psychologist Carl Jung introduced the concept of free association, a technique

where individuals respond to a stimulus word with the first thought that comes to mind, unedited

and without censorship. This experiment aims to explore the underlying connections and

associations within an individual's mind, shedding light on their thoughts, feelings, and

experiences. The background of this experiment lies in Jung's theory of the collective unconscious,

which suggests that certain universal symbols and associations are shared across humans, shaping

our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. By examining these associations, researchers can gain

insight into the workings of the human mind, revealing hidden patterns and themes that influence

our actions and decisions.

The purpose of this free association experiment is to examine the unconscious mind and its

workings, gaining insight into the participant's mental processes and emotional responses. The

nature of this experiment is qualitative, relying on the participant's verbal responses to a series of

stimulus words, which can include objects, emotions, or abstract concepts. The rationale behind

this experiment is that by analyzing the associations made by the participant, researchers can

identify patterns and themes that reveal hidden aspects of their personality, beliefs, and

experiences. By exploring these connections, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of

human cognition and the unconscious mind, potentially leading to new insights in fields such as

psychology, neuroscience, and social sciences. Furthermore, this experiment can also help

researchers understand how personal experiences, cultural background, and social environment

influence an individual's associations and thought processes.

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Literature Review

The first recorded psychological investigations into free association were conducted by

Francis Galton in the late 19th century (Galton, 1879). In a now famous walk down London’s Pall

Mall (Forrest, 1977). Galton became fascinated by the way ideas rushed into his mind when

stimulated by objects in the environment. Subsequent repetitions of the walk and concordant

repetitions of previous associations suggested to Galton that his mind was returning to the same

well-trodden associative links in memory. By compiling a list of stimulus words and revealing

each to himself in random order, then recording the first ideas to arise in association to each word,

Galton sought to investigate the nature of his associations. Galton’s analyses of his associations

convinced him that associations formed earlier in life were more likely to arise repeatedly, in

comparison to those linked to more recent events. Associations from childhood were particularly

prominent. He also noted the variety of material that was aroused: single words, phrases, sensorial

images and reexperiences of past events. Furthermore, he claimed it would be “absurd” to reveal

all his associations to the reader, so truthfully and vividly did they convey the nature of his inner

thoughts (Galton, 1879).

Another experiment was conducted by Wilhelm Wundt and his collaborators were quick to

develop Galton’s work in a more systematic manner. In Wundt’s laboratory, participants were

typically instructed to give a one-word response to stimulus words as quickly as possible (Cattell,

1887). These experiments expanded the scope of Galton’s work by using large numbers of

participants, drawn from different laboratories. With larger sample sizes, Cattell and Bryant (1889)

were able to compare the frequency of, and time taken to produce, particular types of associations.

This fed into a larger research program that placed particular emphasis on reaction times (RTs) and

ultimately, the inference of different cognitive operations based upon differential response times.

This work was a progenitor of much contemporary RT research (Murphy & Kovach, 1972).
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Although these studies established the free associative method as amenable to experimental

analysis, some of the depth seen in Galton’s conceptualization of free association was lost. Cattell

and Bryant (1889) concluded their paper with comments from participants, some of whom noted

that they were unable to report their genuine associations because they could not be reduced to one

word, or that they were distracted by the time constrain.

A study by Kuska et al. (2016) demonstrated that people construe reality by using words as

basic units of meaningful categorization. The study presented the theory-driven applied by the

method of a free association task to explore how people express the concepts of the world and the

self in words. The respondents were asked to recall any five words relating to the word world.

Afterward they were asked to recall any five words relating to the word self. The method of free

association provided the respondents with absolute freedom to choose any words they wanted

(Kuska et al., 2016). Such free recall task is suggested as being a relatively direct approach to the

respondents’ self- and world-related conceptual categories, without enormous rational processing.

The results provide us, first, with associative ranges for constructs of the world and the self, where

some associative dimensions are defined by semantic polarities in the meanings of peripheral

categories (e.g., Nature vs. Culture). Second, our analysis showed that some groups of verbal

categories that were associated with the words world and self are central, while others are

peripheral with respect to the central position (Kuska et al., 2016).

An experimental study was conducted by Rozin et al. (2002) on Americans to identify the

effect of gender, generation and culture on the free association to food. Free association patterns to

the word ‘‘food’’ (first three words that come to mind) were used at the group level to investigate

‘‘default’’ attitudes toward food, comparing genders, American generations (college students, their

parents, and their grandparents), and college students in three cultures (the United States, France,

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and India). Frequencies of free associations for each group were organized into categories and

assigned a positive, negative, or neutral valence.

Problem Statement

To identify the nature of association along with retention time.

Methodology

Hypothesis

Responses for Law of similarity would be higher than other forms of laws.

Independent Variable

The list of stimulus word

Dependent Variable

Subject responses

Sample/subject

The experiment was performed with one participant. The experimenter's

name is A.s and the participant's name are M.S. The participant's gender is female,

and her age is 21 and belong from 6th semester.

Instruments/Tools

Free association word sheet, stopwatch, paper and pen.

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Procedure

The free association experiment, conducted in a classroom setting with tables and chairs

arranged to provide comfortable seating and privacy for each participant, involves presenting a

series of stimulus words to individuals and recording their immediate, spontaneous verbal

responses. Before the experiment begins, participants are informed of the procedure and provide

informed consent, ensuring they understand the purpose, potential risks and benefits, and their right

to withdraw at any time. The experimenter emphasizes the importance of confidentiality, assuring

participants that their responses and personal information will be kept private and used solely for

research purposes.

Each stimulus word is presented to the participant one at a time. The participant is instructed

to respond verbally with the first word that comes to their mind upon hearing the stimulus word.

The experimenter records the participant's response and the time taken to respond. This process is

repeated for each stimulus word on the list. After completing the response sheet, the participant

moves towards the scoring sheet. Here, they categorize their responses under different laws based

on their similarities, experiences, schemas, dissimilarities, and interests. This categorization helps

in analyzing the patterns of associations made by the subjects, providing insights into their thought

processes and cognitive connections.

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Throughout the experiment, the experimenter remains attentive to the emotional well-being

of the participants. Some stimulus words may evoke strong emotions or personal memories, and

the experimenter is prepared to handle such situations with sensitivity and provide support if

needed. After the experiment, participants are debriefed about the true purpose of the study and the

nature of the free association task. They are given the opportunity to ask questions and receive any

necessary support or counseling. This ensures that participants leave the experiment feeling

informed and respected.

Results

Quantitative Analysis

Table 1

The Following Table Illustrates the Subject’s Response along with the Associated Time

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Stimulus words Subject Responses Association Time

Day light Bright 1.0

Pretty Flower 1.64

Sunflower Beautiful 2.72

Wedding Day 1.07

Red Lipstick 1.65

Space Closed 1.52

Body Fit 3.75

Pigeon Fly 2.84

Tree Wide 1.64

Man Tail 2.04

House House tree person test 2.11

Ghost Him 1.18

Girl Beautiful 5.75

Yellow Shirt 1.13

Baby Boy 1.38

Flag Green 1.71

Summer Fruit 1.23

Draw Flower 2.23

Good Bad 1.58

Rose Gold 1.33

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Table 2

The Following Table Illustrates the Scoring of Subject Responses

Sr. No Law of Association No. of Responses Reaction Time Percentage

Words

1 Law of Similarity 5 8.47

2 Law of Contiguity 3 9.17

3 Law of Contrast 2 3.52

4 Law of Frequency 3 4.10

5 Law of Primacy 2 2.19

6 Law of Recency 3 4.99

7 Law of Vividness and 2 4.93

Interest

ART = Total time of Responses / Total no. of Responses

= 3 8 / 20

= 1.9

Qualitative Analysis

The cognitive laws and reaction times reveal significant insights, despite potential human

errors in stimulus presentation and response recording. According to the findings, stimuli adhering

to the Law of Similarity prompt slower responses (8.47 seconds), suggesting that the brain

struggles more with subtle distinctions between similar items, likely due to increased cognitive

processing demands for such comparisons. The Law of Contiguity elicits even slower responses

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(9.17 seconds) when stimuli are closely presented, implying interference or the need for additional

processing to disentangle closely occurring stimuli. Conversely, the Law of Contrast results in

faster reaction times (3.52 seconds), highlighting the brain's efficiency in distinguishing between

contrasting stimuli. The Law of Frequency shows moderate reaction times (4.10 seconds) for

frequently encountered stimuli, indicating balanced processing likely due to familiarity. The Law

of Primacy leads to very rapid responses (2.19 seconds) to initially presented information,

revealing a strong cognitive bias towards first encounters. The Law of Recency results in

somewhat slower responses (4.99 seconds) to recent stimuli, suggesting accessible but potentially

integrating recent information. Lastly, the Law of Vividness yields slightly slower reaction times

(4.93 seconds) for vivid stimuli, suggesting heightened attention and deeper processing due to their

intense nature. These findings underscore how cognitive principles influence information

processing dynamics, providing insights despite potential limitations in experimental execution.

Discussion

The results support the hypothesis that responses for the Law of Similarity would be higher

than other forms of laws, with slower response times (8.47 seconds) observed for stimuli adhering

to this law. This finding aligns with previous research by Galton (1879) and Wundt (Cattell, 1887),

which established the free associative method as a viable tool for exploring cognitive processes.

The results also support Kuska et al.'s (2016) study, which demonstrated that people use words as

basic units of meaningful categorization, and that free association can provide a direct approach to

understanding self- and world-related conceptual categories.

The findings contrast with Rozin et al.'s (2002) study, which found that generation and

culture were more powerful predictors of free association content and valence than gender.

However, the results support the idea that cognitive principles influence information processing

dynamics, as proposed by Murphy and Kovach (1972). The study highlights the brain's efficiency
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in distinguishing between contrasting stimuli and the strong cognitive bias towards first

encounters, providing evidence for the role of cognitive laws in free association.

Limitations

Lack of control and Difficulty in analysis are the limitation of this experiment.

Recommendations

It can use multiple methods. It can use advanced learnings. Can also focus on individual

differences.

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 Blind Spot

Introduction

The blind spot experiment, first conducted by Edme Mariotte in 1668, is a

landmark study that has significantly contributed to our understanding of human vision.

Mariotte, a French Roman Catholic priest and scientist, discovered that the optic nerve's

entry point into the eyeball creates a small region where light cannot be detected,

resulting in a "blind spot" in our visual field. This groundbreaking finding has since been

extensively researched and validated, providing valuable insights into the intricacies of

human perception.

The purpose and background of the blind spot experiment is to demonstrate the

existence and location of the blind spot in the human visual system. By conducting this

experiment, researchers aim to illustrate how the brain compensates for this blind area by

filling in the gaps with information from surrounding regions. The experiment seeks to

answer fundamental questions about the processing of visual information and the

construction of our perceived reality. By understanding the blind spot, researchers can

gain a deeper appreciation for the complex relationships between the eye, brain, and

perception.

The Rationale and Nature of blind spot experiment is that the blind spot

experiment is based on the anatomical structure of the eye, specifically the point where

the optic nerve exits the retina. This region, known as the optic disc, lacks photoreceptor

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cells, resulting in a small area where light cannot be detected. The experiment is designed

to reveal this blind spot by presenting a stimulus that falls within this region.

Literature Review

The video article "Finding Your Blind Spot and Perceptual Filling-In"

(Sternheim, 2018) offers a captivating exploration of visual perception, delving into the

concept of blind spots and the brain's remarkable ability to fill in missing information.

Through a simple yet insightful experiment, viewers can identify their own blind spot, an

area in the visual field where the retina lacks photoreceptors, resulting in a lack of visual

perception. This phenomenon highlights the brain's remarkable capacity to construct a

complete visual representation despite gaps in sensory input. The article discusses the

neural mechanisms underlying perceptual filling-in, including the role of surrounding

visual context, past experiences, top-down processing, and neural networks. By

understanding how our brains compensate for blind spots, researchers can gain valuable

insights into the complex processes of perception, cognition, neural plasticity, and visual

awareness. Furthermore, this research has significant implications for various fields, such

as visual neuroscience, psychology, artificial intelligence, and cognitive science.

The article "The Bias Blind Spot: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"

(Zimmermann et al., 2020) presents a comprehensive examination of the bias blind spot

phenomenon, where individuals fail to recognize their own biases while readily

identifying biases in others. Through a systematic review and meta-analysis of 106

studies, the researchers investigated the prevalence and correlates of the bias blind spot.

The findings indicate that the bias blind spot is a widespread phenomenon, with

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individuals consistently overestimating their own objectivity and underestimating the

influence of bias on their judgments.

Fadwa Elashi (2015) conducted a comprehensive study to explore how

individuals develop a "bias blind spot," where they overestimate their own objectivity

while underestimating the influence of bias on their judgments. Through a mixed-

methods approach combining experimental and survey designs, Elashi investigated the

psychological mechanisms underlying this phenomenon. The study revealed that

participants exhibited increased skepticism towards others' objectivity, perceiving them

as more biased than themselves. Conversely, they remained oblivious to their own biases,

demonstrating a pronounced bias blind spot. This disparity in perception has significant

implications for understanding how biases operate and how to address them in personal

and social contexts. Elashi's findings suggest that individuals tend to attribute their own

biased judgments to objective reasoning, while attributing others' biased judgments to

personal biases. This asymmetry in attribution contributes to the development of the bias

blind spot. Furthermore, the study found that individuals with stronger biases were more

likely to exhibit a bias blind spot. Elashi's research provides valuable insights into the

psychological processes underlying bias perception and highlights the need for strategies

to mitigate the bias blind spot.

The article "Blind spot enlargement: A differential diagnosis challenge"

(Karamaounas et al., 2023) presents a comprehensive and in-depth discussion on the

diagnostic complexities of enlarged blind spots, a symptom that can be attributed to

various underlying conditions. The authors highlight the importance of thorough clinical

evaluation and diagnostic testing to determine the underlying cause of enlarged blind

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spots. Through a case series of patients with enlarged blind spots, the authors illustrate

the challenges of differential diagnosis and the need for clinicians to consider a range of

potential causes. These causes include optic neuritis, papilledema, retinal detachment,

and other conditions that can affect the visual pathway.

Problem Statement

Experimentally identifying the radius of blind spot.

Methodology

Hypothesis

Blind spot is a place where there are no photoreceptors.

Independent Variable

Black moving chit

Dependent Variable

Disappears moving chit

Sample/subject

A single subject performed the experiment her name is M.S. She belonged from

6th semester and her age is 21.

Instruments/Tools

Chits, paper, pencil and scale.

Procedure

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 To determine the blind spot in the subject's right eye, a full sheet of paper is

required. Two horizontal lines are drawn 3 cm apart, with a point labeled P marked as the

reference line. The subject should close their left eye and focus their right eye on point P.

The black chit is positioned at point P and moved along the baseline. The subject should

report when the black chit disappears from view, marking this point as A. The black chit

is then moved outward from the edge of the line toward the subject until it reappears, and

this point is marked as B. The midpoint of the horizontal line is identified and used to

create a vertical line, from which the average is calculated. Points X and Y are where

these lines intersect. Next, the subject should close their left eye again and focus on point

P with their right eye. The black chit is then moved from above and below the paper, with

the subject reporting the reappearance of the black chit at each position. The results of

these observations will outline the blind spot of the subject's right eye.

Results

Qualitative Analysis

Form P (starting point) to A (when chit disappear first) the distance is 7 cm from

point A to B (backward disappear the distance is 1.6 cm from point A to C (upward

origin) the distance I 2.2 cm from point A to D (downward origin) the distance is 1.12 cm

from point A to E (right side) the distance is 2.1cm. In one way the blind spot lies 2.8cm

in width (horizontally) whereas the length blind spot lies 2.9cm (horizontally). According

to A4 page size the blind spot lies at the very left side of paper the distance is 15.8cm in

downward whereas the blind spot lies at the distance of15.8cm in the upward direction.

According to A4 size the blind spot lies at the distance of 18.1cm at right sides.

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 Discussion

The hypothesis stated that the blind spot is an area where there are no

photoreceptors. The results of this study support this hypothesis, as the blind spot was

found to be a specific area where the retina lacks photoreceptors, resulting in a lack of

visual perception.

The findings of this study align with the literature reviewed, which describes the

blind spot as a normal anatomical feature of the human eye (Sternheim, 2018). The

results also match the literature in terms of the location and size of the blind spot, which

is typically found in the lateral visual field and measures around 2-3 degrees in diameter

(Karamaounas et al., 2023). However, the study's findings contrast with the literature in

terms of the shape and orientation of the blind spot. While the literature describes the

blind spot as a circular or oval-shaped area, this study found it to be more rectangular in

shape, with a width of 2.8cm and a length of 2.9cm. The study's findings also support the

literature on perceptual filling-in, which suggests that the brain fills in missing

information in the blind spot based on surrounding visual context (Sternheim, 2018). The

results show that the blind spot is not simply a blank area, but rather a dynamic region

where the brain actively constructs a complete visual representation.

Overall, this study accepts the hypothesis that the blind spot is an area where there

are no photoreceptors and supports the literature on the location, size, and function of the

blind spot. However, it also highlights some differences in the shape and orientation of

the blind spot, which may be worth further investigation.

Limitations

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 Participants biases can occur. Selective attention on one thing can misinterpret the

experiment. Individual differences can occur.

Recommendations

Advanced technology can used. Should focus on individual differences.

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 Code learning

Introduction

Cognitive-code approach refers to a theory of second language teaching and

learning as a ferment of cognitivist psychology, structural applied linguistics, Chomsky’s

theories developed in the 1960s. The theory emphasizes the central role of cognition in

the conscious and explicit learning of the rules of a language as a code (Hinkel, 2012).

A theory of teaching and learning second languages that was established in the

1960s and is based on structural applied linguistics and cognitivist psychology is known

as "cognitive-code learning." The notion highlights how important cognition is to the

deliberate and explicit acquisition of a language's rules as a code. Gaining conscious

control over the grammatical, lexical (vocabulary), and auditory patterns of language is

the aim of the cognitive-code method to second language learning (Hinkel, 2012).

The cognitive-code approach to learning a second language sees it as a study of

language as a complex system with the goal of gaining conscious control of the

grammatical, lexical (vocabulary), and auditory patterns. Cognitive-code learning

theory was proposed and widely debated in the 1960s. Based on the foundations of

linguistic theories and the findings of psycholinguistic research, cognitive psychologists

and applied linguists, such as Carroll and Chastain advocated the cognitive-code

approach to the study of a second language as an alternative to the audio-lingual method

prevalent at the time (Hinkel, 2012). Other research, namely from a UW psychology

professor, has shown that such requirements and perceptions of coding reinforce

stereotypes about programming as a masculine field, potentially discouraging women

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from pursuing it. But coding also has a foundation in human language: Programming

involves creating meaning by stringing symbols together in rule-based ways (Eckart,

2020).

Literature review

It is argued that the idea of "coding," which describes what is retained in memory

during learning, was a significant and crucial conceptual advancement in learning-

memory theory over the past ten years. It is claimed that the notion encompasses a wide

range of functionally distinct coding operations, with many details of its operation still

needing to be experimentally determined. Restyle's suggestion that the concept should

only apply to arbitrary transformative coding is also disputed. The article provides

commentary on the symposium's empirical contributions to the coding theory made by

Johnson, Wickes, Martin, Postman, and Bums, for which it acted as a discussant.

Anyway, underdeveloped the idea of coding and a coding hypothesis of human learning

and memory might be at this time, coding is too solidly established in the hypothesis,

speculations, and exploratory controls of contemporary examinations of human learning

and memory to be waved aside, as Restle (1973) seems to need to do. The coding idea is

one of the significant causes, if not the main source, of the unprecedented advance in

information and hypothesis of human memory in the most recent 10 years, and its

presentation and improvement are the main results of the examination in these 10 years.

The papers by Johnson (1970, 1972), Martin (1973), Wickens (1973), and Mailman and

Bums (1973) feature the absolute most huge thoughts and issues that harsh from the

coding idea: Johnson applies it to the comprehension of sequential reaction coordination

as a variable in signal reaction learning; Martin makes the fluctuation in the coding of

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ostensible prompt occasions the reason for an extremist reformulation of an. impedance

hypothesis of neglecting; Wickens gives one observational base to the origination of the

code for a solitary, unitary occasion, such as a word, as a multi-component or multi-

feature occasion, as officially displayed by Nook (1967) and Norman and Rumelhart

(1970); and Mailman and Bums have given sensational proof of the differential useful

attributes of imaginal and verbal coding of word matches in massed procurement and

long-deferred signaled review. In any case, despite how significant these models might

be, they are be that as it may, tests of the manner by which the idea of coding has

modified conventional originations of occasion and affiliated learning and memory,

others being the examination of the exceptionally present moment, or "essential,"

memory (e.g., Craik, 1971), the interrelations of short-and long haul memory (e.g.,

Baddeley and Patterson, 1971), the relevant determinants of acknowledgment memory

(e.g., Tulving and Thompson, 1971), and the system of the adequacy of reiterations in

learning (e.g., Madigan, 1969; Melton, 1970), to give some examples.

The goal of this study was to determine whether and to what extent code learning

is successful among college students. We evaluated their memory for the visual codes. To

investigate the effects of code learning on performance accuracy, several research has

been carried out. The discovery that age-related performance variance on replacement

coding tests accounts for a sizable percentage of the age-related variance in tests of fluid

and other abilities lends weight to the theory that cognitive deterioration is brought on by

aging. The substitution coding exercise is not a precise test of cognitive speed even

though it is a simple job that may be completed correctly with enough time. Evidence

from growth curve analyses involving 3,708 volunteers (aged 49 to 95) from the

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Manchester and Newcastle Studies of Cognitive Aging (Piccinin & Rabbitt, 1999) shows

that improvement on this task is more closely related to memory with practice than to

age, reasoning, vocabulary, or perceptual speed. Therefore, faster results are mostly

attributed to memory. The participants were given a Test Battery, given over two 1.5-hr

group (10-25 individuals) sessions closely spaced in time, which were used in the current

analyses. Test Battery included the four parts of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (Cattell

& Cattell, 1960), the WAIS Vocabulary subscale (Wechsler, 1981), three memory tests,

four trials each of alphabet coding. This version of substitution coding involves 15 letter-

letter pairs (consonants only; no vowels) rather than digits and symbols. Ten of the letters

occur in both letter and substitution (code) positions. Incidental memory for the letter-

letter code was measured 2 min following the four trials. As the four trials are completed,

the score is measured as the number of correctly reproduced pairs. This indicates that

individuals who performed best on the first trial tended to improve the least, whereas

those who started at the bottom improved more across trials. As expected, memory for

code and cross-out accounted for more performance variance overall. Memory for code

accounted for 8-10% of individual differences in the initial score and 9-12% of

improvement. Age, culture fairness, vocabulary, memory, and cross-out speed all

correlate with individual differences in initial performance on the letter-letter coding task,

but memory also predicts systematic individual differences in the rate of improvement

over four 2-min trials. These are the main substantive conclusions drawn from the

analyses. Improvement in the letter-letter coding task is only reliably correlated with

memory factors.

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 This study's major goal was to determine how differently memorizing symbol-

digit combinations affected participants' SDST performance. The results of this study

show that both short-term learning (repetition of symbol-digit pairs during a single test

session) and long-term learning (repetition of the same test over several days) led to a

considerable reduction in matching time. Interestingly, while the overall test scores

varied amongst the groups, these learning effects on matching time were roughly

identical for patients, age-matched controls, and elderly participants. On the other hand,

writing time, which reflects sensorimotor speed, stayed roughly constant during symbol-

digit repetitions. Patients had the lowest overall score and the longest matching time, but

after adjusting for the lower Intelligence of the patients, the difference between

schizophrenia patients and the older was no longer important. Although sensorimotor

speed had less of an impact on the test results as a whole, there were still noticeable

disparities between the three groups, with older people plainly writing more slowly than

younger people. Single symbol-digit pairs are introduced trial by trial in an experimental

method to the coding task, similar to the one used by Bachman et al. (15), and on each

trial, the respondent must quickly determine whether the presented combination is

identical to one of the digit-symbol pairs in the reference code that is being displayed

simultaneously on the PC screen. The participant can work at his own pace and may

(learn to) mix writing a digit and looking for the next digit that meets the next sign while

performing the more typical paper and pencil version of the activity. Since the recording

of the pen motions allows for the distinct measurement of reaction time (now designated

by "matching" time) and response execution time ("writing" time"), we chose to apply an

experimental method to the ongoing paper and pencil version. Additionally, the

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presentation of the symbols that had to be coded was modified by the researcher to enable

an objective assessment of learning. Standard symbol-coding assessments do not show all

nine symbols in the first block but instead introduce them one at a time to help students

grasp the symbol-digit relationships. But for our SDST version, the researcher thought it

would be better to start off with all nine symbols at the same frequency. As a result, there

were an average of eight other pairs of symbols and digits between each instance of the

same pair. The linear decrease in matching time over nine-symbol blocks, however,

shows that significant learning did take place.

It is unclear why older persons do worse than younger adults, although it could be

a result of a variety of characteristics including psychomotor speed, memory, visual-

motor coordination, learning rate, persistence, the nervous system, or inadequate task

experience. In one study, participants completed a digit-symbol substitution task that was

akin to the Digit Symbol Substitution subtest of the WAIS. The goal was to examine the

durability and universality of practice effects in older persons (Cathryn & Alan, 1981). 24

women, 12 young and 12 old participated in the trial and were randomized to either the

training-wait group or the waiting-training group. The training-wait group trained on the

task for five days and received a test on 10 days later. The wait-training group followed a

similar procedure but in reverse order. The study used a modified version of the WAIS

Digit Symbol Substitution test. The test was used during the training phase of the

experiment. The study also evaluated the transfer of training by observing performances

on three tasks during test sessions 1, 2, and 3: WAIS Digit Symbol, WAIS Digit Span,

and Matching (a specially constructed test). The study was conducted at the

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University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. Older women (mean = 69 years) and younger

women (mean = 23 years) received 100 administrations of the digit symbol substitution

subtest of the Wechsler adult intelligence scale, modified so that the digit symbol keys

differed on each of the five training days. The findings of this study showed that older

women significantly improved both during and after training sessions, while younger

women also made significant increases, proving that training did not lessen age

inequalities. The standard WAIS subtest scores of the older women improved from the

25th to the 90th percentile in comparison to standards for young people, and these scores

persisted in a follow-up test administered 10 days later. By observing performances on

the three tasks of WAIS Digit Symbol, WAIS Digit Span, and Matching throughout test

sessions 1, 2, and 3, the study also assessed the transfer of training (a specially

constructed test).

Problem Statement

Experimentally demonstrate the progress of code learning with the help

of code learning substitution sheets.

Methodology

Hypothesis

As the number of trials increases the accuracy of responses also increases.

Independent Variable

The Digit Substitution sheet

Dependent Variable

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 Subject recall

Sample/subject

A single subject performed the experiment, her age is 21 years and had no

previous knowledge about the experiment.

Instruments/Tools

Digit Substitute sheet, Paper pencil, stop watch

Procedure

The experiment was performed during class timing on a single subject. The

subject was provided with the complete instructions regarding the experiment. The

subject was allowed to see the code sheet and was explained to learn the codes of the

alphabets after which she is going to perform the experiment by adding the codes under

the relevant alphabet. The subject was asked to repeat the experiment after 5 minutes in

different trials in less time and with no error.

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 Results

Quantitative Analysis

Trials Number of errors Time taken

1 6 7min

2 2 5min

3 0 4min

Qualitative Analysis

In the 1st trial, the subject took 7 minutes and 6 errors were made. In the 2nd trial,

the subject took 5 minutes and 2 errors were made. In the 3rd trial, the subject took 4

minutes and no error was made.

Discussion

The experiment was conducted on code learning to examine the effects of

number of trials on the accuracy of response on single participant. Hypothesis was

formulated in this study which stated that the increase in number of trials would

increase the accuracy rate of response of participant. As the number of trials increases,

the accuracy of responses also increases. The hypothesis was accepted because the level

of accuracy of responses increases with increase in the number of trials. As the subject

performed the third trial there was no error made.

Limitations

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 Small sample size. Absence of a control group. Possibility of biases in choosing

participants. No contrast with alternative methods of learning.

Recommendations

Expand the diversity and size of the sample. Use random assignments and a

control group. Add more follow-up sessions and prolong the experiment's duration.

Contrast alternative learning approaches with code learning. Examine individual

variations and learning preferences. Employ more advanced techniques for data analysis.

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