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Foundation Engineering-I

Chapter Three
Design of shallow Foundations

3.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the economical and safe design of the
common types of shallow foundations. The main foundation types that
are considered here are: isolated or spread footings, combined
footings, strap or cantilever footings and mat or raft foundations.
Shallow foundations are structural members that are used to transfer
safely to the ground the dead load of the superstructure and all
external forces acting upon it. The type and magnitude of the loading
will usually be furnished by the engineer designing the
superstructure. It is up to the foundation engineer to collect all the
information regarding the purpose of the superstructure, the material
that will be used in its construction, its sensitivity to settlements in
general and to differential settlement in particular and all other
pertinent information that may influence the successful selection and
execution of the foundation design. The foundation engineer should
also select the soil stratum that is most suitable for the support of the
superstructure.
The design of shallow foundations is based on the assumption that
they are rigid so that the variation of pressure under the foundations
will be linear. The distribution of pressure will be uniform if the
centroid of the foundation coincides with the resultant of the applied
loads. The requirements in design of foundations are:
1. The pressure on the soil should not exceed the bearing capacity of
the soil.
2. The settlement of the structure should be within the permissible
limits. Further there should be no differential settlement.

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In order to proportion shallow foundations one should either know the

presumptive allowable soil pressure as dictated by prevalent code or
know the appropriate strength parameters of the soil, i.e., the angle of
internal friction,φ , and cohesion, C.

3.1.1 Proportioning of shallow foundations using

presumptive allowable soil pressure
Through many years of practice, it has been possible to estimate the
allowable soil pressure for different types of soils for uncomplicated
soil conditions. Accordingly, different Building codes give allowable
average soil pressure. Here EBCS-7 is presented (Refer Table 6.3,
Page-72).
Table 3.1 Presumed Design Bearing resistance * under static
loading (EBCS 7)

Support Description Compactne Presumed Remarks

ing ss** Design
Ground or Bearing
Type Consistency Resistance
*** (kPa)
Massively crystalline
These
igneous and Hard and
5600 values are
metamorphic rock sound
based on
( granite, basalt, gneiss)
the
Medium assumptio
Foliated metamorphic
hard and 2800 ns that the
Rocks rock (slate, schist)
sound foundation
Sedimentary rock (hard Medium s
shale, siltstone, hard and 2800 are
sandstone, limestone) sound carried
Weathered or broken- down to
rock (soft limestone) Soft 1400 un

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weathered
Soft shale Soft 850 rock

Decomposed rock, to be
assessed as soil below

Dense 560 Width of

Medium foundation
Gravel, sand and gravel 420 (B) not
dense
less than
Loose 280 1m
420 Ground
Dense
water
Non-
Medium 280 level
cohesive
dense assumed
soils
to be
Sand depth not
less than B
Loose 140 below the
base of the
foundation
.
Cohesive Hard 280
Soils Stiff 200
Silt
Medium Stiff 140
Soft 70
Hard 420
Stiff 200
Clay Medium Stiff 140
Soft 70
Not
Very Soft
applicable
* The given design bearing values do not include the effect of the
depth of embedment of the foundation.
** Compactness: dense: N> 30
Medium dense: N is 10 to 30
Loose: N< 10, where N is standard penetration value
*** Consistency: hard: qU > 400kPa
Stiff: qU = 100 to 200kPa
Medium stiff qU = 50 to 100kPa

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Soft: qU = 25 to 50 kPa, where qU is unconfined

compressive strength.
3.1.2 Proportioning of shallow foundations using the soil
strength parameters φ and C

For cases where presumptive allowable soil pressures cannot be used,

one should determine the soil strength parameters φ and C. These
parameters may be approximated or determined from laboratory
tests. Using the value of φ and C thus obtained, one can easily
determine the area of the foundation in question using bearing
capacity equations.
In applying the bearing capacity equations one should differentiate
two states of loading, namely, the initial or instantaneous loading
condition and the final or long-term loading condition.

In the initial loading condition, the load is assumed to act

instantaneously. At this stage the pore water pressure in the soil does
not have time to dissipate. This situation corresponds to the quick or
undrained test condition of the triaxial test. The soil parameters are
designated by φU and CU - in most cases φU = 0.
In the final or long term loading condition, the load is assumed to act
gradually as construction progresses thus giving the pore water
pressure in the soil ample time to dissipate. Here the situation
corresponds to the slow or drained test condition of the triaxial test.
The soil parameters in this case are designated by φ’ and C’.
The ultimate load that may be applied on a foundation with sides a
and b may be determined from the following equation:
'
V ult = A ∗σ f ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.1)
Where A’= a′ b′= effective area (Fig. 4.1)

a′ = a-2ea= effective length

b′ = b-2eb= effective width

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σf = ultimate bearing capacity of the footing

ea and eb = Eccentricities in the long and short directions,

respectively.
The actual sustained load on the footing may be related to the
ultimate load by:

V ult =FS∗P------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.2)

Where: FS = factor of safety

P = actual sustained load on the foundation

Fig.4.1 Effective width and length of a foundation.

One may then express Eqn. (4.1) as:

V ult =FS∗P= A ' σ ult ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
(3.3)
From which it follows:

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FS∗P
A '= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
σ ult
(3.4)
From Eqn. (4.4) one easily determines the required area since all the
quantities on the right hand side of the equation are known.
The ultimate bearing capacity, σult, may be determined from the
following equation:
1
q ult =C N C S C d C i C + ∗γbN γ S γ d γ i γ +q N q Sq d q i q---------------------------------- (3.5)
2
Where:
qult = Ultimate bearing capacity of footing
C = Cohesion
q = Effective surcharge at the base level of the footing
γ= effective unit weight of soil
NC, Nq, Nγ = Bearing capacity factor
SC , Sq , Sγ = Shape factors
dC , dq , dγ = Depth factors
iC , iq , iγ = Inclination factors

For initial loading conditions, where φU = 0, the failure surface of the

soil consist of straight lines and an arc of a circle.
The bearing capacity coefficient would have the values NC =5.1, Nq =
1.0, Nγ=0. Eqn. (3.5) may be written as:
1
q ult =C N C S C d C i C + ∗γbN γ S γ d γ i γ +q N q Sq d q i q----------------------------------- (3.6)
2

3.1.3 Structural Considerations

Before going into the structural design, one should check if the
settlement of the selected foundation is within the prescribed safe
limits. If the settlement exceeds the safe limits, one should increase
the dimensions of the foundations until the danger of settlement is
eliminated.

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The last stage in the design of foundations is the structural design.

One should check the adequacy of the thickness of the footing and
provide the necessary reinforcement to withstand punching shear,
diagonal tension (wide beam shear), bending moment and bond
stress.
Shear resistance according to EBCS-2:
i. Punching Shear Resistance
V up=0 . 25 f ctd k 1 k 2 ud (MN)----------------------------------------------------(3.7)
Where: k 1=( 1+50 ρe ) ≤ 2.0,
k 2=1.6−d ≥ 1.0(d∈meters). For members where more than 50% of
the bottom reinforcement is curtailed, k2=1.
(d x +d y )
d= , d is the average effective height in the x and y
2
directions
ρe = √ ρex + ρey ≤ 0.015
ii. Diagonal Tension ( Wide beam) Shear resistance
V ud =0 .25 f ctd k 1 k 2 bw d (MN)----------------------------------------------------
(3.8)
Where: k 1=( 1+ 50 ρ ) ≤ 2.0
k 2=1.6−d ≥ 1.0(d∈meters). For members where more than 50% of
the bottom reinforcement is curtailed, k2=1.
As
ρ=
bw d

iii. Development length

 All reinforcements shall be properly anchored at each end with
due consideration for the effects of arch action and shear
cracks.
 To prevent bond failure, the tension and compression in any bar
at any section due to ultimate loads shall be developed on each
side of the section by an appropriate embedment length and end

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anchorage or a combination thereof. Hooks may be used in

developing bars in tension.
 The basic anchorage (development) length required to develop
the full design strength of a straight reinforcement bar.
φ f yd
ld = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.9)
4 f bd
f yk 0.35 √ f ck
Where: f yd = ; f bd=f ctd ; f yd =
γs γc
Where: as= area of tension reinforcement (m2)
bw= width of web or rib of a member (m)
d = effective depth, the distance between extreme
compression to centroid of tension reinforcement (m)
fbd= design bond strength (MPa)
fck = characteristics compressive strength of concrete
(MPa)
fctd = design tensile strength of concrete (MPa)
fyd = design yield strength of reinforcement (MPa)
fyk = characteristics yield strength of concrete (MPa)
u = periphery of critical section (m)
γc = partial safety factor for concrete = 1.5
γs = partial safety factor for steel = 1.15
ρ = geometrical ratio of reinforcement
ρe =effective geometrical ratio of reinforcement
ρex = geometrical ratio of reinforcement in the x-direction
ρey= geometrical ratio of reinforcement in the y-direction
Φ,φ=diameter of the reinforcement bar
AS =is the area of the tensile reinforcement anchored
beyond the intersection of the steel and the line of a possible 45 0
crack starting from the edge of the section.

3.2 Isolated or Spread Footings

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I. Depth of footing
The depth of embedment must be at least large enough to
accommodate the required footing thickness. This depth is measured
from the lowest adjacent ground surface to the bottom of the footing.
Footings should be carried below:

a. zone of high volume change due to moisture fluctuation

b. top (organic) soil
c. peat and muck
d. unconsolidated (or fill) material
According to EBCS-7,
 minimum depth of footing should be 50cm
 for footings on sloping sites, minimum depth of footing
should be 60cm and
90cm below ground surface on rocky and soil formations,
respectively.
Footing at different elevations: When adjacent footings are to
be placed at different levels, the distance between the edges of
footings shall be such as to prevent undesirable overlapping of
stresses in soils and disturbance of the soil under the higher footing
due to excavation for the lower footing. A minimum clear distance of
half the width of the footing is recommended.
II. Proportioning of footing
The required area of the footing and subsequently the proportions will
be determined using presumptive allowable soil pressure and/or the
soil strength parameters φ and C as discussed previously.
III. Structural Design
 The ultimate limit state in shear is characterized by
either diagonal compression failure of the concrete or
failure of the web reinforcement due to diagonal tension.

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 Resistance to diagonal tension is obtained as the sum of

the resistances of the web reinforcement and of
concrete section.
 Critical section for shear is at a distance d from the face
of supports. Sections closer than d shall be designed for
the shear at d.
i. Punching shear: This factor generally controls the depth of
footings. It is the normal practice to provide adequate depth to
sustain the shear stress developed without reinforcement. The
critical section that is to be considered is indicated in Fig. 3.2.

b’+3d

b’+3d

1.5d 1.5d

Fig. 3.2 Critical section for punching

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From the figure it is apparent that the concrete shear resistance along
the perimeter would be:
2( a’ +3d + b’+ 3d) dVup ……………………………………………

(3.10)
Where Vup = punching shear resistance
The net force on the perimeter due to the soil pressure would be:
{a* b −[(a'+3d)(b'+3d )]}σult ………………………………………

(3.11)
From equilibrium consideration, Eqn. (3.10) and Eqn. (3.11) should be
equal:

2( a’ +3d + b’+3d) dVup = {a *b − [(a'+3d) (b'+3d)]}σult

2 a' d V up +6 d2 V up +2 b' d V up +6 d 2 V up=( ab−a ' b' −3 a' d −3 b' d−9 d 2 ) σ ult
' 2 ' 2 ' ' 2 ' '
2 a d V up +6 d V up +2 b d V up +6 d V up+3 a d σ ult +3 b d σ ult +9 d σ ult =(ab−a b )σ ult
' ' 2 2 ' ' ' '
2 a d V up +2 b d V up+12 d V up++ 9 d σ ult +3 a d σ ult +3 b d σ ult =(ab−a b )σ ult

d ( 2 a' V up+ 2b ' V up +3 a' σ ult +3 b' σ ult ) + d 2 ( 12 V up+ 9 σ ult )=( ab−a' b' ) σ ult
2
d ( 12V up +9 σ ult ) +d ¿
2
d ( 12V up +9 σ ult ) +d ¿
2
d ( 12V up +9 σ ult ) +d ¿

d ( 12V up +9 σ ult ) +d ¿------- (3.12)

2

For square columns a’=b’ and round columns with diameters a’, Eqn
(4.12) would be:
2
d ( 12V up +9 σ ult ) +d ¿-------------- (3.13)
In the above equations, all quantities with the exception of d are
known. By solving one of the equations the effective depth necessary
to sustain the punching shear may be determined.
ii. Diagonal Tension (wide-beam shear)
The selected depth using the punching shear criterion may not be
adequate to withstand the diagonal tension developed. Hence one
should also check the safety against diagonal tension.

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The critical sections that should be considered are given in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Critical section for diagonal tension

The shear forces are calculated along the plane C-C and D-D

The shear forces are calculated along the plane C-C and D-D

V C-C = (b/2 –d - b’/2) ault ………………….. (3.14)

V D-D = (a/2 –d - a’/2) bult ………………….. (3.15)

The actual shear stress is then calculated from

V C−C
v C-C = ad ……………………………… (3.16)

V D −D
v D-D = bd ………………………………………. (3.17)

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These calculated actual shear stresses should be compared with

allowable stress.

iii ) Bending Moment

The external moment on any section of a footing shall be determined
by passing a vertical plane through the footing, and computing the
moment of the forces acting over the entire area of the footing on one
side of that vertical plane. The critical sections for the bending
moment vary according to the type of columns.
According to EBCS 2-1995, the critical section for moment shall be
taken as follows:
a. At the face of column, pedestal or wall for footings supporting a
concrete pedestal or wall
b. Halfway between middle and edge of wall, for footings supporting
a masonry wall
c. Halfway between face of column and edge of steel base for footings
supporting a column with base plates.

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Fig. 3.4 Critical sections for moments

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Flexural Reinforcement

1. Distribution: In one-way footings and two-way square footings,

reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of
footing.
2. In two-way rectangular footings, reinforcement shall be distributed
as follows:
a) Reinforcement in long direction shall be distributed uniformly
across the entire width of footing
b) For reinforcement in the short direction, a portion of the total
reinforcement given by Eqn. (3.18) shall be distributed uniformly over
a band width (centered on center line of column or pedestal) equal to
the length of the short side of footing. The reminder of the
reinforcement required in the short direction shall be distributed
uniformly outside the center band width of the footing.

Reinforcement in band width 2

=
Total reinforcement in short direction β + 1 …………………………………………………
(3.18)

Where β is the ratio of long side to short side of footing (a/b).

IV. Development length

The reinforcement bars must extend a sufficient distance into the
concrete to develop proper anchorage. This distance is called the
development length.
The necessary development length may be calculated using the
following equation.

Concrete cover to reinforcement (According to EBCS2-1995)

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 Concrete cast directly against the earth, the minimum cover should
be greater than 75mm
 Concrete cast against prepared ground (including blinding) the
minimum cover should be greater than 40mm.

Spacing of reinforcement

The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at

least equal to the largest of the following values: (EBCS2-1995)
a. 20mm
b. the diameter of the largest bar
c. the maximum size of the aggregate plus 5mm
The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller
of 2h or 350mm the spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed
400mm
Examples
4.1 Determine the dimensions of a square footing necessary to sustain
an axial column load of 850kN as shown in Fig. below, if
a. an allowable presumptive bearing pressure of 150kN/m2 is
used.
b. Cu = 40 kN/m2 ; C’ = 7.5 kN/m2 ; φ’ =22.5

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Solution
a) Using presumptive value

The dimension of the footing would be 2.40m X 2.40m

b) Using the bearing capacity formula
i) Initial loading condition

Shape factors
Sc = 1.2, Sq = 1
Depth factors
dc = (1+0.4(2/B)) , dq = 1
Load inclination factors
ic = 1 , iq = 1

Hence

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Solution

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by trial and error b= 1.96 m

Take b= 2m

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Thickness of footing

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Bending Moment

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Calculation of reinforcement
Long direction

Use φ16

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Short direction

Since there is no much difference between a and b, distribute these

reinforcement uniformly.

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Development length

3.3 Combined Footing

A) Rectangular Combined footing
a) Area of use :- Used to carry two or more columns in one row
-used to carry two columns when X’ = L’/2,
X’= distance to center of gravity of column load

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b) Design Assumptions: - footing is infinitely rigid

Linear soil pressure distribution under footing
c) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam
In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing with
effective widths
at exterior and interior columns being a’ +d/2 and a’ +d respectively

d) Design procedure
i) Determine length of footing (L) in such a way that the center of
gravity (c.g.) of footing
Area coincides that of the c.g. of loads

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i.e., L = 2x’

ii) Determine the width of footing (B) such that the allowable soil
pressure is not exceeded

iii) Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams
along the length of the footing
iv) Calculate depth of footing
v) Calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement

B) Trapezoidal combined footing

Area of use:- used in case where exterior column carries largest load
and X’ < L’/2 but X’ >
L’/3

a. Design Assumptions: - footing is infinitely rigid

Linear soil pressure distribution under footing
b. Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous
beam

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In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing similar to

that of rectangular combined footing.
c. Design procedure
1) Determine the sizes of footing (L, B1, B2) from conditions that
i) The minimum required are

ii) The c.g. of footing are coincides that of column loads. The distance
to
The c.g. of trapezoidal footing x’ is calculated from

2) Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams

along the length of the footing. In this case, the shear force and
bending moment diagrams are 2nd degree and 3rd degree curves,
respectively.
3) Calculate depth of footing
4) Calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement

3.4 Strap or Cantilever Footing

Strap footings are used as alternatives to combined footings when the
cost of combined footings is relatively high.
Essentially a strap footing consists of a rigid beam connecting two
pads (footings) to transmit unbalanced shear and moment from the
statically unbalanced footing to the second footing.

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Design Assumptions
 Strap is infinitely rigid
 Strap is a pure flexural member and does not take soil reaction. (To
confirm with this, strap is constructed slightly above soil or soil
under strap is loosened).

a/2

1. a) Assume a1 and establish the eccentricity, e of the soil reaction

force R1.

b) Determine the magnitude of the soil reaction force by taking

moments about R2.

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In this equation the weight of the strap, Ws, may be neglected if the
strap is relatively short.
c) Determine the reaction R2 from equilibrium consideration

2. Determine sizes of footings using known values of R1, R2 and σall.

(For square footing For rectangular footing

assume some value of a2 and determine b2).

It should be noted that the actual bearing pressures under the

footings should not very different from each other in order to
minimize differential settlement.
2. Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams
along the length of the footings.
3. Select depths of footings for shear requirement.
4. Select steel reinforcement for bending requirement.
5. In short direction, the footings analyzed as spread footing subject
to uniform soil pressure.
6. Design strap as flexural member for the shear and moment
obtained above.

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III.5 Mat/Raft Foundation

Mat or raft foundation is a large concrete slab supporting several columns in two or more
rows. It is used where the supporting soil has low bearing capacity. The bearing capacity
increased by combining all individual footings in to one mat –since bearing capacity is
proportional to width and depth of foundations. In addition to increasing the bearing
capacity, mat foundations tend to bridge over irregularities of the soil and the average
settlement does not approach the extreme values of isolated footings. Thus mat
foundations are often used for supporting structures that are sensitive to differential
settlement.
Design of uniform mat
Design Assumptions
- mat is infinitely rigid
- planner soil pressure distribution under mat

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Design Procedure
i) Determine the line of action of the resultant of all the loads acting on the mat
ii) Determine the contact pressure distribution as under
a) If the resultant passes through the center of gravity of the mat, the contact
pressure is given by

Q
σ=
A
b) If the resultant has an eccentricity of ex and ey in the x and y direction

Q Qe x Qe y
σ= ± x± y
A Iyy Ixx

The maximum contact pressure should be less than the allowable soil pressure
c) Divide the slab mat into strips in x and y directions. Each strip is assumed
to act as independent beam subjected to the contact pressure and the
columns loads.
d) Determine the modified column loads
e) Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for each strip.
f) Select depth of mat for shear requirement
g) Select steel reinforcement for moment requirement

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