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Basic Marketing Research, 3e (Burns)
Chapter 7 Measurement Scales

1) There are ________ basic question–response formats, and each one has ________ variations.,
so there are ________ format options:
A) two; five; ten
B) two; three; six
C) three; two; six
D) two; two; four
E) four; two; eight
Answer: C
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 153
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

2) What are the three basic question-response formats?

A) un-probed, probed, and neutral
B) open-ended, closed-ended and skip patterned
C) open-ended, categorical and metric
D) closed-ended, continuous and open-ended
E) open-probed, closed-probed, probed
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 154
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

3) The question: "What was your reaction to the Sony CD player advertisement you saw on
television last?" is an example of which response format?
A) unaided open-ended
B) un-probed closed-ended
C) scaled-response
D) ad reaction measurement
E) metric, open-ended
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 154
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

1
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
4) If a researcher wanted the respondent to simply answer a question with no additional
information, he or she would likely use a(an):
A) unaided open-ended format
B) aided open-ended format
C) response probed format
D) continuous response format
E) categorical, close-ended format
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 154
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

5) If a researcher uses a(n) ________ question format, there is a response probe in the form of a
follow-up question instructing the interviewer to ask for additional information.
A) unaided open-ended
B) aided open-ended
C) response probed
D) continuous response
E) categorical, close-ended
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 154
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

6) Which of the following formats provides response options to questions on the questionnaire?
A) co-existing response options format
B) categorical response format
C) categorical open-ended format
D) probed format
E) open-ended with response options format
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 154
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

7) Which of the following formats has only two response options?

A) the twins format
B) the two response format
C) the bi-dual format
D) the two choice format
E) dual-choice format
Answer: E
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 154
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

2
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
8) What type of question format is the following question?

When you purchased your most recent automobile, what features do you take into consideration?
(Check all that apply.)
_____Style (e.g., sedan, coupe, wagon, SUV)
_____Price
_____Quiet ride
_____Trunk space
_____EPA mileage rating

A) Multiple-choice category
B) Aided open-ended
C) Continuous response
D) Dual-choice
E) Metric response
Answer: D
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

9) Which of the following formats provides more than two possible choices?
A) the multivariate format
B) the tri-dual format
C) the multiple-choice category format
D) the n-way format
E) none of the above: no question has more than two possible choices
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 154
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

10) A question that lists several responses (i.e. style, price, comfort, fit, construction, etc.) and
asks the respondent to "check all that apply" appears to be a multiple-choice category question,
but it is actually:
A) an aided response category question
B) a categorical non-response question
C) a non-categorical non-response question
D) a dual-choice question
E) a single-minded question
Answer: D
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

3
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
11) "Metric" means:
A) an instrument used for measuring conceptual, non-objective properties
B) the answer to a question is a number that expresses some quantity of the property being
measured
C) the answer to a question is a number that does not express some quantity of the property being
measured
D) a property is not only measured but measured using the metric system
E) measurement of observables
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

12) "How many times have you visited the library in the last month?" is an example of:
A) a natural but non-metric response format
B) a natural metric response format
C) a natural synthetic response format
D) a synthetic metric format
E) a synthetic annual format
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

13) "Rate your satisfaction level on a scale from 1 to 10" is an example of:
A) a natural but non-metric response format
B) a natural metric response format
C) a natural synthetic response format
D) a synthetic metric format
E) a synthetic satisfaction format
Answer: D
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

14) A synthetic metric format uses:

A) no numbers to measure the property
B) numbers to measure the property
C) real properties to measure numbers
D) artificial numbers to measure properties
E) properties to measure synthetic numbers
Answer: D
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

4
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
15) A scale on which all of the scale descriptors (i.e. "poor," "fair," "good") are assigned
artificial numbers is called:
A) a descriptor scale format with real numbers
B) a "poor" to "good" scale
C) a numerical/descriptor format
D) a synthetic metric format
E) no such scale exists
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

16) Determining the description or amount of some element of interest to the researcher is
known as:
A) description determination
B) element determination
C) description/element determination
D) measurement
E) quantities of elements
Answer: D
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 2

17) Questionnaires are designed to collect information that is represented via measurement. This
information, once compiled, can help answer specific questions. In this process, we are really
measuring ________.
A) properties of objects
B) objects of properties
C) operations
D) definitions
E) elements
Answer: A
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 156
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 2

5
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
18) ________ are the specific features or characteristics of an object that can be used to
distinguish it from another object.
A) Properties
B) Objects and elements
C) Attributes or qualities
D) Quantities or qualities
E) Quartiles and qualities
Answer: C
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 156
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 2

19) The procedure of specifying the procedure to measure a property of an object is referred to
as:
A) procedural measurement
B) operational definition
C) measurement procedure
D) property measurement
E) attribute measurement
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 156
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 3

20) A scale's level of measurement may be:

A) open-ended, categorical, qualitative
B) whimsical, classical, scientific
C) open-ended, categorical, metric
D) metric, open-ended, scientific
E) element measurement
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 156-157
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 3

21) ________ measurement is difficult to work with and requires interpretation skills or even
special computer programs.
A) Scientific
B) Open-ended
C) Metric
D) Whimsical
E) Elemental
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 156
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 2

6
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
22) Which level of measurement is represented by answers on a scale, such as "yes," "no" or
"male," "female" represent which level of measurement?
A) scientific
B) open-ended
C) metric
D) categorical
E) elemental
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 157
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 3

23) Which level of measurement has order and distance?

A) scientific
B) open-ended
C) metric
D) categorical
E) elemental
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 157
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 3

24) Natural metric scales are inherently:

A) qualitative
B) quantitative
C) whimsical
D) scientific
E) open-ended
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 157
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 3

25) A question asks respondents to write in how many times they have visited an ATM in the last
week. This is an example of a:
A) synthetic metric scale
B) natural metric scale
C) natural categorical scale
D) closed-ended scale
E) synthetic open-ended scale
Answer: B
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 157
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 3

7
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
26) A question asks respondents to evaluate a travel agency on a scale from 1 to 5 where 1
means "very dissatisfied" and 5 means "very satisfied." This is an example of a:
A) synthetic metric scale
B) natural metric scale
C) natural categorical scale
D) closed-ended scale
E) synthetic natural scale
Answer: A
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 158
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 3

27) In order for a synthetic number scale to have meaning, you must know ________.
A) the standard deviation of the scale
B) the range of the scale
C) the mean of the scale
D) the mode of the scale
E) the standard error of the scale
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 158
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 3

28) What type of scale uses words to indicate different gradations or levels of the respondent's
opinion?
A) synthetic label metric scale
B) natural label metric scale
C) natural categorical scale
D) closed-ended scale
E) synthetic natural label scale
Answer: A
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 158
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 3

29) Wording a question so that it is either categorical or metric is important because:

A) it affects what analyses may be conducted on the question
B) it affects what may be said and not said about the property being measured
C) it affects how long it takes the respondent to answer the question
D) both a and b
E) none of the above; this is not an important issue when wording a question
Answer: D
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 158
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 4

8
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
30) Which of the following should a researcher do to summarize findings for categorical
measures?
A) not try to summarize findings for categorical measures; it is inappropriate
B) use a percentage distribution (sometimes called a frequency distribution)
C) compute an average such as a mean
D) compute a standard deviation
E) compute a range
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 4

31) To summarize findings for metric measures the researcher should:

A) not try to summarize findings to metric measures; it is inappropriate
B) use a percentage distribution (sometimes called a frequency distribution)
C) compute a frequency deviation
D) compute an average such as a mean
E) compute histograms
Answer: D
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 4

32) ________ are physically verifiable characteristics such as age, gender, number of bottles
purchased, etc.
A) Objective metric open-ended features
B) Subjective metric open-ended features
C) Objective properties
D) Subjective properties
E) Elemental properties
Answer: C
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

33) Mental constructs cannot be directly observed, such as:

A) objective metric open-ended features
B) subjective metric open-ended features
C) objective properties
D) subjective properties
E) elemental properties
Answer: D
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

9
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
34) The marketing researcher must develop response formats that are very clear and that are used
identically by the various respondents. This process is known as ________.
A) reliability
B) scale development
C) validity
D) objectivity
E) subjectivity
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

35) Scale development is primarily concerned with the creation or use of ________ measures.
A) synthetic metric
B) natural metric
C) natural categorical
D) closed-ended
E) synthetic open-ended
Answer: A
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

36) What are the two goals of scale development?

A) effectiveness and efficiency
B) effectiveness and validity
C) validity and efficiency
D) validity and reliability
E) validity and value
Answer: D
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

37) A ________ scale is one in which people will respond the same to an identical or similar
question. A ________ scale truly measures the construct under study.
A) reliable; valid
B) valid; reliable
C) valid; valid
D) valid, valued
E) none of the above
Answer: A
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

10
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
38) Which is true about the "neutral point" on symmetric synthetic scales?
A) there are no neutral points on these scales
B) the neutral points should be counted as zeroes
C) the neutral point is not considered an origin or zero
D) there cannot be a "neutral point" on a synthetic scale
E) none of the above
Answer: C
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

39) The ________ format asks respondents to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement
with a statement.
A) l-Lifestyle statement inventory
B) semantic differential
C) constant sum scale
D) Likert scale
E) the "hiking"
Answer: D
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 162
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

40) The ________ measures activities, interests and opinions (AIO's).

A) constant sum scale
B) life-style inventory
C) semantic differential scale
D) synthetic action/ information/ online format
E) origin scale
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 163
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

41) Which type of scaled-response format contains bi-polar words such as "hot-cold," "wet-dry,"
"convenient-inconvenient," and so on?
A) constant sum scale
B) life-style inventory
C) semantic differential scale
D) synthetic action/ information/ online format
E) none; these are not measured by scaled-response formats
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 163
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

11
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
42) The Halo Effect is best avoided by:
A) doing a couple of things wrong during the entire research project
B) mixing favorable and unfavorable endpoints on a scale
C) flipping "bad" scales to the back of the survey to encourage a good response before the
respondents get to the bad questions
D) substituting "good" measurements to replace those thought to be faulty
E) none of the above; the Halo Effect cannot be avoided
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 164
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

43) Which of the following scaled-response formats is good for measuring store, company or
brand images?
A) constant sum scale
B) life-style inventory
C) semantic differential scale
D) image analysis scales
E) store analysis
Answer: C
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 165
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

44) Which scale typically has numbers that range from a minus end (-3) to a corresponding plus
end (+3) and includes a 0 midpoint?
A) life-style inventory
B) Stapel scale
C) minus/plus scale
D) balanced pole scale
E) positive/negative scale
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 165
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

45) Which scale is a good substitute for a semantic differential scale as it is easier to construct
because the researcher does not need to think of bipolar adjectives for each attribute?
A) life-style inventory
B) Stapel scale
C) minus/plus scale
D) balanced pole scale
E) positive/negative scale
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 165
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

12
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
46) A synthetic scale without balanced ends means the scale has unequal amounts of positive and
negative positions; it is called:
A) an unbalanced categorical scale
B) a balanced categorical scale
C) a nonsymmetrical synthetic scale
D) a symmetric synthetic scale
E) a halo effect scale
Answer: C
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 165
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

47) Which of the following scales might have an example that ranges from "Not Important" to
"Extremely Important"?
A) Likert scale
B) one-way labeled scale
C) importance scale
D) unimportance scale
E) semantic differential scale
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 165
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

48) Consider the question: "Rate the performance of your book bag from 1 to 5, where 1 means
‘poor' and 5 means ‘excellent.'" And, then you are given a number of performance factors such
as "appearance," "roominess" and so on to rate. This is an example of a(an):
A) n-point scale
B) anchored n-point scale
C) staple scale
D) unanchored n-point scale
E) anchored y-point scale
Answer: B
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 166
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 5

13
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
49) Which of the following is the following question an example of?
"On a scale of 1 to 5, how do you rate the friendliness of Olive Garden's wait staff?"
A) Likert scale
B) one-way labeled scale
C) importance scale
D) unimportance scale
E) un-anchored n-point scale
Answer: E
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 166
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

50) In making the decision to use a symmetric or non-symmetric scale, a good rule of thumb is
to:
A) use neither
B) use the symmetric scale unless the researcher is confident respondents will only use one side
of the scale
C) use the non-symmetric scale unless the researcher is confident that respondents will use both
sides of the scale
D) always use both to be certain that the respondent has a choice of how to best express his or
her attitude
E) none of the above
Answer: B
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 167
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

51) When you want to measure frequency of use, which of the following scales is recommended?
A) One-way labeled
B) Semantic differential
C) Stapel
D) Symmetric labeled
E) Likert
Answer: A
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 168
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 6

52) When the researcher uses an aided open-ended format, there is a response probe in the form
of a follow-up question instructing the interviewer to ask for additional information, saying, for
instance, "Can you think of anything else you felt was important when you purchased your last
automobile?"
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 154
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

14
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
53) There are three basic question format options and each has two options.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 153
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

54) The three basic question formats are: open-ended, categorical, and metric.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 153
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

55) In the unaided open-ended format, there is a response probe in the form of a follow-up
question, instructing the interviewer to ask for additional information.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 154
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

56) Dual-choice and multiple-choice questions are both options of the metric response format.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 154
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

57) "Check all that apply" questions are really dual-choice categorical response questions.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

58) When the answer is a number that expresses some quantity of the property being measured,
we have a metric response format question.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

59) Natural metric formats may include scale descriptors such as "poor," "fair," "good," "very
good," and "excellent."
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

15
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
60) "How much do you weigh?" is an example of a synthetic metric format question.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 1

61) "How satisfied are you with your textbook, measured on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being ‘not
satisfied at all' and 5 being ‘very satisfied'", is an example of a natural metric-response format
question.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 155
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 1

62) We are really measuring properties—sometimes called attributes or qualities—of objects.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 156
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 2

63) When a researcher specifies the procedure to measure a property of an object, the procedure
is referred to as a measurement level.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 156
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 2

64) Research objectives specify which properties are to be measured in any particular research
project.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 156
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 2

65) Levels of measurement of a scale are: open-ended, categorical, and metric.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 156
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 2

66) Categorical measures are the most difficult level of measurement to analyze.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 156
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 3

16
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
67) Asking how many dollars a consumer is willing to spend on a new product is an example of
a natural metric scale.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 157
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 2

68) Whether a question format is categorical or metric greatly impacts what he or she can or
cannot say about these concepts.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 158
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 4

69) When researchers wrestle with operational definitions of their scales, they are simultaneously
taking into account the data analysis as well as the presentation layout they will be using in the
final report.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 158
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 4

70) If you use a categorical measure, you can calculate an average.

Answer: FALSE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 4

71) If you use a metric measure, you can calculate an average.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 4

72) The appropriate way to summarize a metric measurement scale is through percentages
illustrated in charts, such as pie charts or in frequency distributions.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 4

73) Objective properties are physically verifiable.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

17
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
74) The process of developing response formats that are very clear and that are used identically
by the various respondents is called scale development.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

75) A valid scale is one in which a respondent responds in the same or in a very similar manner
to an identical or nearly identical question.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

76) Obviously, if a measure is unreliable and elicits wildly different answers from the same
person when that person is unchanged from administration to administration of the question,
there is something very wrong with the question.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

77) Since every research project is different, it is wise to develop a new and novel scale format to
suit the particular needs of the existing situation.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

78) Scales that have counter-balancing positive and negative degrees of intensity are called
symmetric scales.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 160
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

79) A scale which asks consumers the extent to which they agree or disagree with the statement
that Levi's 501 are good looking is a semantic differential scale.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 162
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

18
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
80) The life-style inventory is a special application of the Likert scale.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 163
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

81) A consumer likes the restaurant "Red Lobster" and so answers "Very Satisfied" to a survey
about many dimensions of the restaurant without really paying attention to each specific
dimension such as price, product quality, atmosphere, and so on. This is an example of what is
known as the "halo effect."
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 164
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 5

82) The basis of the Stapel scale format is numerical rather than verbal or visual.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 165
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

83) Scales having 5 points, 7 points, or 10 points are known as n-point scales.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 166
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

84) "Anchored" means that the scale has a very high score on one end.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 1 Page Ref: 166
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

85) "On a scale of 1 to 5, how do you rate the friendliness of Olive Garden's wait staff?" is an
example of an anchored n-point scale.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2 Page Ref: 166
AACSB: Analytic Skills
Objective: LO 5

86) If a researcher is confident that few, if any, respondents will use the negative side of a
symmetric scale, he/she may opt for a non-symmetric scale. If in doubt, the researcher should
pretest the scale.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 167
AACSB: Reflective Thinking Skills
Objective: LO 5

19
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
87) Our authors recommend some scales to measure constructs often measured in marketing
research studies. For example, they recommend a semantic differential or a Stapel scale to
measure the construct's brand image. They recommend a one-way labeled scale to measure the
construct's importance.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3 Page Ref: 167-168
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Objective: LO 6

88) A symmetric labeled scale is recommended to measure lifestyle or opinion.

Answer: FALSE
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20
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 THE LIAS.
“Lias” is an English provincial name adopted in geology, and applied
to a formation of limestone, marl, and petrified clay, which forms the
base of the oolite, or immediately underlies that division of secondary
rocks. The lias has been traced throughout a great part of Europe,
forming beds of a thickness varying from 500 to 1000 feet of the
above-mentioned substances, which have been gradually deposited
from a sea of corresponding extent and direction. The lias abounds
with marine shells of extinct species, and with remains of fishes that
were clad with large and hard shining scales. Of the higher or air-
breathing animals of that period, the most characteristic were the

Enaliosauria.

The creatures called Enaliosauria or Sea-lizards (from the Greek

enalios, of the sea, and sauros, lizard), were vertebrate animals, or
had back bones, breathed the air like land quadrupeds, but were
cold-blooded, or of a low temperature, like crocodiles and other
reptiles. The proof that the Enaliosaurs respired atmospheric air
immediately, and did not breathe water by means of gills like fishes,
is afforded by the absence of the bony framework of the gill
apparatus, and by the presence, position, and structure of the air
passages leading from the nostrils, and also by the bony mechanism
of the capacious chest or thoracic-abdominal cavity: all of which
characters have been demonstrated by their fossil skeletons. With
these characters the Sea-lizards combined the presence of two pairs
of limbs shaped like fins, and adapted for swimming.

The Enaliosauria offer two principal modifications of their anatomical,

and especially their bony, structure, of which the two kinds grouped
together under the respective names of Ichthyosaurus and
Plesiosaurus are the examples.

The Ichthyosaurus.

The genus Ichthyosaurus includes many species: of which three of

the best known and most remarkable have been selected for 26
restoration to illustrate this most singular of the extinct forms
of animal life.

The name (from the Greek ichthys, a fish, and sauros, a lizard)
indicates the closer affinity of the Ichthyosaur, as compared with the
Plesiosaur, to the class of fishes. The Ichthyosaurs are remarkable for
the shortness of the neck and the equality of the width of the back of
the head with the front of the chest, impressing the observer of the
fossil skeleton with a conviction that the ancient animal must have
resembled the whale tribe and the fishes in the absence of any
intervening constriction or “neck.”

This close approximation in the Ichthyosaurs to the form of the most

strictly aquatic back-boned (vertebrate) animals of the existing
creation is accompanied by an important modification of the surfaces
forming the joints of the back-bone, each of which surfaces is hollow,
leading to the inference that they were originally connected together
by an elastic bag, or “capsule,” filled with fluid—a structure which
prevails in the class of fishes, but not in any of the whale or porpoise
tribe, nor in any, save a few of the very lowest and most fish-like, of
the existing reptiles.

With the above modifications of the head, trunk, and limbs, in

relation to swimming, there co-exist corresponding modifications of
the tail. The bones of this part are much more numerous than in the
Plesiosaurs, and the entire tail is consequently longer; but it does not
show any of those modifications that characterise the bony support of
the tail in fishes. The numerous “caudal vertebræ” of the
Ichthyosaurus gradually decrease in size to the end of the tail, where
they assume a compressed form, or are flattened from side to side,
and thus the tail instead of being short and broad, as in fishes, is
lengthened out as in crocodiles.

The very frequent occurrence of a fracture of the tail, about one

fourth of the way from its extremity, in well-preserved and entire
fossil skeletons, is owing to that proportion of the end of the tail
having supported a tail-fin. The only evidence which the fossil
skeleton of a whale would yield of the powerful horizontal tail-fin
characteristic of the living animal, is the depressed or horizontally
flattened form of the bones supporting such fin. It is inferred,
therefore, from the corresponding bones of the Ichthyosaurus 27
being flattened from side to side, that it possessed a
tegumentary tail-fin expanded in the vertical direction. The shape of
a fin composed of such perishable material is of course conjectural,
but from analogies, not necessary here to further enlarge upon, it
was probably like, or nearly like, that which the able artist engaged in
the restoration of the entire form of the animal has given to it. Thus,
in the construction of the principal swimming-organ of the
Ichthyosaurus we may trace, as in other parts of its structure, a
combination of mammalian (beast-like), saurian (lizard-like), and
piscine (fish-like) peculiarities. In its great length and gradual
diminution we perceive its saurian character; the tegumentary nature
of the fin, unsustained by bony fin-rays, bespeaks its affinity to the
same part in the mammalian whales and porpoises; whilst its vertical
position makes it closely resemble the tail-fin of the fish.

The horizontality of the tail-fin of the whale tribe is essentially

connected with their necessities as warm-blooded animals breathing
atmospheric air; without this means of displacing a mass of water in
the vertical direction, the head of the whale could not be brought
with the required rapidity to the surface to respire; but the
Ichthyosaurs, not being warm-blooded, or quick breathers, would not
need to bring their head to the surface so frequently, or so rapidly, as
the whale; and, moreover, a compensation for the want of
horizontality of their tail-fin was provided by the addition of a pair of
hind-paddles, which are not present in the whale tribe. The vertical
fin was a more efficient organ in the rapid cleaving of the liquid
element, when the Ichthyosaurs were in pursuit of their prey, or
escaping from an enemy.

That the Ichthyosaurs occasionally sought the shores, crawled on the

strand, and basked in the sunshine, may be inferred from the bony
structure connected with their fore-fins, which does not exist in any
porpoise, dolphin, grampus, or whale; and for want of which, chiefly,
those warm-blooded, air-breathing, marine animals are so helpless
when left high and dry on the sands: the structure in question in the
Ichthyosaur is a strong osseous arch, inverted and spanning across
beneath the chest from one shoulder-joint to the other; and what is
most remarkable in the structure of this “scapular” arch, as it is
called, is, that it closely resembles, in the number, shape, and 28
disposition of its bones, the same part in the singular aquatic
mammalian quadruped of Australia, called Ornithorhynchus, Platypus,
and Duck-mole. The Ichthyosaurs, when so visiting the shore, either
for sleep, or procreation, would lie, or crawl prostrate, or with the
belly resting or dragging on the ground.

The most extraordinary feature of the head was the enormous

magnitude of the eye; and from the quantity of light admitted by the
expanded pupil it must have possessed great powers of vision,
especially in the dusk. It is not uncommon to find in front of the orbit
(cavity for the eye), in fossil skulls, a circular series of petrified thin
bony plates, ranged round a central aperture, where the pupil of the
eye was placed. The eyes of many fishes are defended by a bony
covering consisting of two pieces; but a compound circle of
overlapping plates is now found only in the eyes of turtles, tortoises,
lizards, and birds. This curious apparatus of bony plates would aid in
protecting the eyeball from the waves of the sea when the
Ichthyosaurus rose to the surface, and from the pressure of the
dense element when it dived to great depths; and they show, writes
[4]
Dr. Buckland, “that the enormous eye, of which they formed the
front, was an optical instrument of varied and prodigious power,
enabling the Ichthyosaurus to descry its prey at great or little
distances, in the obscurity of night, and in the depths of the sea.”

Of no extinct reptile are the materials for a complete and exact

restoration more abundant and satisfactory than of the
Ichthyosaurus; they plainly show that its general external figure must
have been that of a huge predatory abdominal fish, with a longer tail,
and a smaller tail-fin: scale-less, moreover, and covered by a smooth,
or finely wrinkled skin analogous to that of the whale tribe.

The mouth was wide, and the jaws long, and armed with numerous
pointed teeth, indicative of a predatory and carnivorous nature in all
the species; but these differed from one another in regard to the
relative strength of the jaws, and the relative size and length of the
teeth.

Masses of masticated bones and scales of extinct fishes, that lived in

the same seas and at the same period as the Ichthyosaurus, 29
have been found under the ribs of fossil specimens, in the
situation where the stomach of the animal was placed; smaller,
harder, and more digested masses, containing also fish-bones and
scales have been found, bearing the impression of the structure of
the internal surface of the intestine of the great predatory sea-lizard.
These digested masses are called “coprolites.”

In tracing the evidences of creative power from the earlier to the

later formations of the earth’s crust, remains of the Ichthyosaurus are
first found in the lower lias, and occur, more or less abundantly,
through all the superincumbent secondary strata up to, and inclusive
of, the chalk formations. They are most numerous in the lias and
oolite, and the largest and most characteristic species have been
found in these formations.

No. 12.—Ichthyosaurus platyodon.

This most gigantic species, so called on account of the crown of the
tooth being more flattened than in other species, and having sharp
edges, as well as a sharp point, was first discovered in the lias of
Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire. Fossil remains now in the British Museum,
and in the museum of the Geological Society, fully bear out the
dimensions exhibited by the restoration of the animal as seen basking
on the shore between the two specimens of Long-necked Plesiosaurs.
The head of this species is relatively larger in proportion to the trunk,
than in the Ichthyosaurus communis or Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris:
the lower jaw is remarkably massive and powerful, and projects
backwards beyond the joint, as far as it does in the crocodile. In the
skull of an individual of this species, preserved in the apartments of
the Geological Society of London, the cavity for the eye, or orbit,
measures, in its long diameter, fourteen inches. The fore and hind
paddles are large and of equal size.

The lias of the valley of Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire, is the chief grave-
yard of the Ichthyosaurus platyodon; but its remains are pretty widely
distributed. They have been found in the lias of Glastonbury, of
Bristol, of Scarborough and Whitby, and of Bitton, in Gloucestershire;
some vertebræ, apparently of this species, have likewise been found
in the lias at Ohmden, in Germany.

30

No. 13.—Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris.

Behind the Ichthyosaurus platyodon, is placed the restoration of the

Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris, or Slender-snouted Fish-lizard. The most
striking peculiarity of this species is the great length and slenderness
of the jaw-bones, which, in combination with the large eye-sockets
and flattened cranium, give to the entire skull a form which
resembles that of a gigantic snipe or woodcock, with the bill armed
with teeth. These weapons, in the present species, are relatively
more numerous, smaller, and more sharply pointed than in the
foregoing, and indicate that the Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris preyed on
a smaller kind of fish. The fore-paddles are larger than the hind ones.
In the museum of the Philosophical Institution, at Bristol, there is an
almost entire skeleton of the present species which measures thirteen
feet in length. It was discovered in the lias of Lyme Regis. Portions of
jaws and other parts of the skeletons of larger individuals have been
found fossil in the lias near Bristol, at Barrow-on-Soar, in
Leicestershire, and at Stratford-on-Avon. The Ichthyosaurus
tenuirostris has also left its remains in the lias formation at Boll and
Amburg, in Wirtemberg, Germany.

No. 14.—Ichthyosaurus communis.

Of this species, which was the most “common,” when first discovered
in 1824, but which has since been surpassed by other species in
regard to the known number of individuals, the head is restored, as
protruded from the water, to the right of the foregoing species.

The Ichthyosaurus communis is characterised by its relatively large

teeth, with expanded, deeply-grooved bases, and round conical
furrowed crowns; the upper jaw contains, on each side, from forty to
fifty of such teeth. The fore-paddles are three times larger than the
hind ones. With respect to the size which it attained, the
Ichthyosaurus communis seems only to be second to the
Ichthyosaurus platyodon. In the museum of the Earl of Enniskillen,
there is a fossil skull of the Ichthyosaurus communis which measures,
in length, two feet nine inches, indicating an animal of at least twenty
feet in length.

31

Plesiosaurus.

The discovery of this genus forms one of the most important

additions that geology has made to comparative anatomy. Baron
Cuvier deemed “its structure to have been the most singular, and its
characters the most monstrous, that had been yet discovered amid
the ruins of a former world.” To the head of a lizard it united the
teeth of a crocodile, a neck of enormous length, resembling the body
of a serpent, a trunk and tail having the proportions of an ordinary
quadruped, the ribs of a chameleon, and the paddles of a whale.
“Such,” writes Dr. Buckland, “are the strange combinations of form
and structure in the Plesiosaurus, a genus, the remains of which,
after interment for thousands of years amidst the wreck of millions of
extinct inhabitants of the ancient earth, are at length recalled to light
by the researches of the geologist, and submitted to our examination,
in nearly as perfect a state as the bones of species that are now
existing upon the earth.” (Op. cit., vol. v. p. 203).

The first remains of this animal were discovered in the lias of Lyme
Regis, about the year 1823, and formed the subject of the paper by
the Rev. Mr. Conybeare (now Dean of Llandaff), and Mr. (now Sir
Henry) De la Beche, in which the genus was established and named
Plesiosaurus (from the Greek words, plesios and sauros, signifying
“near” or “allied to,” and “lizard”), because the authors saw that it
was more nearly allied to the lizard than was the Ichthyosaurus from
the same formation.

The entire and undisturbed skeletons of several individuals, of

different species, have since been discovered, fully confirming the
sagacious restorations by the original discoverers of the Plesiosaurus.
Of these species three have been selected as the subjects of Mr.
Waterhouse Hawkins’s reconstructions and representations of the
living form of the strange reptiles.

No. 15.—Plesiosaurus macrocephalus.

The first of these has been called, from the relatively larger size of
the head, the Plesiosaurus macrocephalus (No. 15), (Gr. macros,
long, cephale, head). The entire length of the animal, as indicated by
the largest remains, and as given in the restoration, is eighteen 32
feet, the length of the head being two feet, that of the neck six
feet; the greatest girth of the body yields seven feet.
 No. 15. Plesiosaurus macrocephalus.

Although Baron Cuvier and Dr. Buckland both rightly allude to the
resemblance of the fins or paddles of the Plesiosaur to those of the
whale, yet this most remarkable difference must be borne in mind,
that, whereas the whale tribe have never more than one pair of fins,
the Plesiosaurs have always two pairs, answering to the fore and hind
limbs of land quadrupeds; and the fore-pair of fins, corresponding to
those in the whale, differed by being more firmly articulated, through
the medium of collar-bones (clavicles), and of two other very broad
and strong bones (called coracoids), to the trunk (thorax), whereby
they were the better enabled to move the animal upon dry land.

Remains of the Plesiosaurus macrocephalus have been discovered in

the lias of Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire, and of Weston, in
Somersetshire.
 No. 16.—Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus.

Further to the left, on the shore of the Secondary Island, is a

restoration of the Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus, or Long-necked
Plesiosaurus (No. 16). The head in this remarkable species is smaller,
and the neck proportionally longer than in the Plesiosaurus 33
macrocephalus. The remains of the Long-necked Plesiosaur
have been found chiefly at Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire. The well
known specimen of an almost entire skeleton, formerly in the
possession of His Grace the Duke of Buckingham, is now in the
British Museum.

No. 17.—Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii.

The most perfect skeletons of the Plesiosaurus are those that have
been wrought out of the lias at Street, near Glastonbury, by Mr.
Thomas Hawkins, F.G.S., and which have been purchased by the
trustees of the British Museum. A restoration is given by Mr.
Waterhouse Hawkins, at No. 17, of a species with characters
somewhat intermediate between the Large-headed and Long-necked
Plesiosaurs, and which has been called, after its discoverer,
Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii.

The Plesiosaurs breathed air like the existing crocodiles and the
whale tribe, and appear to have lived in shallow seas and estuaries.
That the Long-necked Sea-lizard was aquatic is evident from the form
of its paddles; and that it was marine is almost equally so, from the
remains with which its fossils are universally associated; that it may
have occasionally visited the shore, the resemblance of its extremities
to those of a turtle leads us to conjecture; its motion, however, must
have been very awkward on land; its long neck must have impeded
its progress through the water, presenting a striking contrast to the
organisation which so admirably adapted the Ichthyosaurus to cut its
swift course through the waves. “May it not, therefore, be concluded
that it swam upon, or near the surface,” asks its accomplished
discoverer, “arching back its long neck like a swan, and occasionally
darting it down at the fish that happened to float within its reach? It
may perhaps have lurked in shoal-water along the coast, concealed
among the sea-weed, and, raising its nostrils to a level with the
surface from a considerable depth, may have found a secure retreat
from the assaults of dangerous enemies; while the length and
flexibility of its neck may have compensated for the want of strength
in its jaws, and its incapacity for swift motion through the water, by
the suddenness and agility of the attack which enabled it to 34
make on every animal fitted for its prey which came within its
[5]
reach.”

For the Secondary Island three species of the Plesiosaurus have been
restored, the Plesiosaurus macrocephalus, the Plesiosaurus
dolichodeirus (Gr. dolichos, long, deire, neck), and the Plesiosaurus
Hawkinsii. The name “long-necked” was given to the second of these
species before it was known that many other species with long and
slender necks had existed in the seas of the same ancient period: the
third species is named after Mr. Thomas Hawkins, F.G.S., the
gentleman by whose patience, zeal, and skill, the British Museum has
been enriched with so many entire skeletons of these most
extraordinary extinct sea-lizards.

The remains of all these species occur in the lias at Lyme Regis, and
at Street, near Glastonbury; but the Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii is the
most abundant in the latter locality.
35
 NEW RED SANDSTONE.
“Trias” is an arbitrary term applied in geology to the upper division of
a vast series of red loams, shales, and sandstones, interposed
between the lias and the coal, in the midland and western counties of
England. This series is collectively called the “New Red Sandstone
formation,” to distinguish it from the “Old Red Sandstone formation,”
of similar or identical mineral character, which lies immediately
beneath the coal.

The animals which have been restored and placed on the lowest
formation of the Secondary Island, are peculiar to the “triassic,” or
upper division of the “New Red Sandstone” series, which division
consists, in England, of saliferous (salt-including) shales and
sandstones, from 1000 to 1500 feet thick in Lancashire and Cheshire,
answering to the formation called “Keuper-sandstone” by the German
geologists; and of sandstone and quartzose conglomerate of 600 feet
in thickness, answering to the German “Bunter-sandstone.”

The largest and most characteristic animals of the trias are reptiles of
the order

Batrachia.

The name of this order is from the Greek word batrachos, signifying a
frog: and the order is represented in the present animal-population of
England by a few diminutive species of frogs, toads, and newts, or
water-salamanders. But, at the period of the deposition of the new
red sandstone, in the present counties of Warwick and Cheshire, the
shores of the ancient sea, which were then formed by that sandy
deposit, were trodden by reptiles, having the essential bony
characters of the Batrachia, but combining these with other bony
characters of crocodiles and lizards; and exhibiting both under a bulk
which is made manifest by the restoration of the largest known
species, (No. 16), occupying the extreme promontory of the 36
Island, illustrative of the lowest and oldest deposits of the
secondary series of rocks. The species in question is called the—

No. 18.—Labyrinthodon Salamandroides.

or the Salamander-like Labyrinthodon; the latter term being from the

Greek, signifying the peculiar structure of the teeth, which differ from
all other reptiles in the huge Batrachia in question, by reason of the
complex labyrinthic interblending of the different substances
composing the teeth. The skull of the Labyrinthodon is attached to
the neck-bones by two joints or condyles, and the teeth are situated
both on the proper jaw-bones, and on the bone of the roof of the
mouth called “vomer:” both these characters are only found at the
present day in the frogs and salamanders. The hind-foot of the
Labyrinthodon was also, as in the toad and frog, much larger than
the fore-foot; and the innermost digit in both was short and turned
in, like a thumb.
 No. 18. Labyrinthodon Salamandroides.

Consecutive impressions of the prints of these feet have been traced

for many steps in succession (as is accurately represented in 37
the new red sandstone part of the Secondary Island) in
quarries of that formation in Warwickshire, Cheshire, and also in
Lancashire, more especially at a quarry of a whitish quartzose
sandstone at Storton Hill, a few miles from Liverpool. The foot-marks
are partly concave and partly in relief; the former are seen upon the
upper surface of the sandstone slabs, but those in relief are only
upon the lower surfaces, being, in fact, natural casts, formed on the
subjacent foot-prints as in moulds. The impressions of the hind-foot
are generally eight inches in length and five inches in width: near
each large footstep, and at a regular distance—about an inch and a
half—before it, a smaller print of the fore-foot, four inches long and
three inches wide, occurs. The footsteps follow each other in pairs,
each pair in the same line, at intervals of about fourteen inches from
pair to pair. The large as well as the small steps show the thumb-like
toe alternately on the right and left side, each step making a print of
five toes.

Foot-prints of corresponding form but of smaller size have been

discovered in the quarry at Storton Hill, imprinted on five thin beds of
clay, lying one upon another in the same quarry, and separated by
beds of sandstone. From the lower surface of the sandstone layers,
the solid casts of each impression project in high relief, and afford
models of the feet, toes, and claws of the animals which trod on the
clay.

Similar foot-prints were first observed in Saxony, at the village of

Hessberg, near Hillburghausen, in several quarries of a gray
quartzose sandstone, alternating with beds of red sandstone, and of
the same geological age as the sandstones of England that had been
trodden by the same strange animal. The German geologist, who first
described them, proposed the name of Cheirotherium (Gr. cheir, the
hand, therion, beast), for the great unknown animal that had left the
foot-prints, in consequence of the resemblance, both of the fore and
hind feet, to the impression of a human hand, and Dr. Kaup
conjectured that the animal might be a large species of the opossum-
kind. The discovery, however, of fossil skulls, jaws, teeth, and a few
other bones in the sandstones exhibiting the footprints in question,
has rendered it more probable that both the footprints and the fossils
are evidences of the same kind of huge extinct Batrachian reptiles.

An entire skull of the largest species discovered in the new red 38

sandstones of Wurtemberg; a lower jaw of the same species
found in the same formation in Warwickshire; some vertebræ, and a
few fragments of bones of the limbs, have served, with the
indications of size and shape of the trunk of the animal yielded by the
series of consecutive foot-prints, as the basis of the restoration of the
Labyrinthodon salamandroides, in the Secondary Island. It is to be
understood, however, that, with the exception of the head, the form
of the animal is necessarily more or less conjectural.
 Nos. 19 & 20.—Labyrinthodon pachygnathus.

This name, signifying the Thick-jawed Labyrinthodon, was given by

its discoverer to a species of these singular Batrachia, found in the
new red sandstone of Warwickshire, and which bears to the largest
species the proportion exhibited by the head and fore-part of the
body, as emerging from the water, for which parts alone the fossils
[6]
hitherto discovered justify the restoration.

Nos. 19 & 20. Section of Tooth of Labyrinthodon.

a Pulp-cavity: b b inflected folds of ossified capsule of tooth.

Nos. 21 & 22.—Dicynodon.

In 1844 Mr. Andrew G. Bain, who had been employed in the

construction of military roads in the colony of the Cape of Good
Hope, discovered, in the tract of country extending northwards from
the county of Albany, about 450 miles east of Cape Town, several
nodules or lumps of a kind of sandstone, which, when broken,
displayed, in most instances, evidences of fossil bones, and usually of
a skull with two large projecting teeth. Accordingly, these evidences
of ancient animal life in South Africa were first notified to English
geologists by Mr. Bain under the name of “Bidentals;” and the
specimens transmitted by him were submitted at his request to 39
Professor Owen for examination. The results of the
comparisons thereupon instituted went to show that there had
formerly existed in South Africa, and from geological evidence,
probably, in a great salt-water lake or inland sea, since converted into
dry land, a race of reptilian animals presenting in the construction of
their skull characters of the crocodile, the tortoise, and the lizard,
coupled with the presence of a pair of huge sharp-pointed tusks,
growing downwards, one from each side of the upper jaw, like the
tusks of the mammalian morse or walrus. No other kind of teeth were
developed in these singular animals: the lower jaw was armed, as in
the tortoise, by a trenchant sheath of horn. Some bones of the back,
or vertebræ, by the hollowness of the co-adapted articular surfaces,
indicate these reptiles to have been good swimmers, and probably to
have habitually existed in water; but the construction of the bony
passages of the nostrils proves that they must have come to the
surface to breathe air.

Some extinct plants allied to the Lepidodendron, with other fossils,

render it probable that the sandstones containing the Dicynodont
reptiles were of the same geological age as those that have revealed
the remains of the Labyrinthodonts in Europe.

The generic name Dicynodon is from the Greek words signifying “two
tusks or canine teeth.” Three species of this genus have been
demonstrated from the fossils transmitted by Mr. Bain.

The Dicynodon lacerticeps, or Lizard-headed Dicynodon, attained the

bulk of a walrus; the form of the head and tusks is correctly given in
the restoration (No. 21); the trunk has been added conjecturally, to
illustrate the strange combination of characters manifested in the
head.

A second species, with a head so formed as to have given the animal

somewhat of the physiognomy of an owl, has been partially restored
at No. 22.

40
No. 8. Dinornis.
 FOOTNOTES

[1]
Lyell, “Manual of Elementary Geology.”

[2]
“The first specimens of the teeth were found by Mrs. Mantell in the
coarse conglomerate of the Forest, in the spring of 1822.”—
Mantell, “Geology of the South-East of England,” 8vo, 1833, p.
268.

[3]
“Report of British Fossil Reptiles,” 1841, p. 110.

[4]
Op. cit., p. 174.

[5]
“Transactions of the Geological Society,” Second Series, vi. 503.
1841.

[6]
Conybeare, Geol. Trans., i. 388.

BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.

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