Fundamental-I

BOOK NO:-

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1), Fundamentals:
Perhaps, Computer is the most powerful and versatile tools created by human beings. In
Today’s scenario, computer plays a major role in almost every aspect of life and influences our lives
in one way or the other. Today’s, you can hardly find any area which is not influenced by Computer.

2) Computer:
The word Computer comes from the word “Compute” which means “to calculate”. Computer
is also meant for calculation but it is much more than just a calculating machine. Computer is an
electro-mechanical device which performs Three basic tasks- i) Input ii) Process iii) Output.
A computer accepts the input data through various input device. After receiving the input
data, computer performs different operations required by the user on these input, finally, computer
generates the resultant of the processed data as the output through various output devices. Hence, a
computer is a data processing machine.

3) Definition:
Computer is a fast and accurate electronic machine which accepts & store data, processes the
information based on instructions given to it & produces the desired results.

4) Characteristics of Computers:
The characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally useful are speed,
accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage capacity.
Speed: Computers work at an incredible speed. A powerful computers capable of performing
about 3-4 million instructions per second.
Accuracy: In addition to being fast, computers are also accurate. Errors that may occur can
almost always be attributed to human error (inaccurate data, poorly designed system or faulty
instructions/ programs written by the programmer)
Diligence: Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from
human traits of boredom and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration. Computers, therefore, are
better than human beings in performing voluminous and repetitive jobs.
Versatility: Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long
as it can be broken down into a series of logical steps. The presence of computers can be seen in
almost every sphere – Railway/Air reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.
Storage Capacity: Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information
once recorded (or stored) in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved almost
instantaneously.

5) Computer System: computer system consists of mainly Three basic units. Namely- input unit,
processing unit and output unit. Central Processing unit further includes Arithmetic logic unit, control
unit and Memory unit.
A computer performs five major operations or functions irrespective of its size and make.
 it accepts data or instructions as input,
 it stores data and instruction
 it processes data as per the instructions
 it controls all operations inside a computer, and
 it gives results in the form of output.

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6) Input-Process-Output Unit:
Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by the user for
processing.
Processing Unit: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the Memory unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is
then sent back to the Memory unit. CPU includes Arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit
(CU) and memory unit.
Arithmetic Logic Unit: All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions provided,
are carried out within the ALU. It performs arithmetic functions like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and also logical operations like greater than, less than and equal to etc.
Control Unit: Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by
control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.
Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after
processing.
Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the computer after
processing.

7) Memory: Computer’s memory can be classified into two types- Primary and Secondary memory.

A), Primary Memory: Its can be further classified as RAM and ROM
RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a
computer where the operating system, application programs and the data in current use are kept
temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since
its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on. The contents of RAM are no more
available once the computer is turned off.
ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents
of which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically contains manufacturer’s
instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’
whose function is to start the operation of computer system once the power is turned on.
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There are various types of ROM:

PROM: Programmable Read only Memory.
EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read only Memory.
EEPROM: Electricity Erasable Programmable Read only Memory.
EAPROM: Electricity Alternate Programmable Read only Memory.

B), Secondary Memory:

Ram is volatile memory having a limited storage capacity. Secondary/auxiliary memory is storage
other than the RAM. These include devices that are peripheral and are connected and controlled by
the computer to enable permanent storage of programs and data. Secondary storage devices are of
two types:- Magnetic and optical. Magnetic devices include hard disks and optical storage devices are
CDs, DVDs, Pen drive, Zip drive etc.
Hard Disk: Hard disks are made up of rigid material and are usually a stack of metal disks
sealed in a box. The hard disk and the hard disk drive exist together as a unit and is a permanent part
of the computer where data and programs are saved. These disks have storage capacities ranging
from 1GB to 1 TB and more. Hard disks are rewritable.
Compact Disk: Compact Disk (CD) is portable disk having data storage capacity between 650
MB to 700 MB. It can hold large amount of information such as music, full-motion videos, and text
etc. CDs can be either read only or read write type.
Digital Versatile Disk: Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) is similar to a CD but has larger storage
capacity and enormous clarity. Depending upon the disk type it can store several Gigabytes of data.
DVDs
are primarily used to store music or movies and can be played back on your television or the
computer too. These are not rewritable.

8) Input / Output Devices: These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a
computer for storage or processing and to deliver the processed data to a user. Input/ Output
devices are required for users to communicate with the computer. In simple terms, input devices
bring information INTO the computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer
system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they surround the CPU and
memory of a computer system.
a) Input Devices: An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are many
input devices, but the two most common ones are a keyboard and mouse. Every key you press on
the keyboard and every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input signal to
the computer.
i) Keyboard: The most widely used input device on micro computers is the Keyboard. A
Normal Keyboard may contain 104 keys. The basic QWERTY layout of characters is maintained to
make it easy to use the system. The additional keys are included to perform certain special functions.
Generally a keyboard includes following set of keys:
1)/ Function Keys: 2) Alphanumeric Keys: 3) Numeric Keypad:
4)/ Cursor control Keys: 5) System Keys 6) Special Keys
7)/ Special symbol Keys:

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ii) Mouse: A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a
display screen. A mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard and flat surface.
Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a bit like a mouse. As you move the
mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in the same direction.
iii) Trackball: A trackball is an input device used to enter motion data into
computers or other electronic devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but
is designed with a moveable ball on the top, which can be rolled in any direction.
iv) Touchpad: A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input
positioning) on a computer display screen. It is an alternative to the mouse.
Originally incorporated in laptop computers, touch pads are also being made for
use with desktop computers. A touch pad works by sensing the user’s finger
movement and downward pressure.
v) Touch Screen: It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply
touching the display screen. A display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus.
Widely used on ATM machines, retail point-of-sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical
monitors and industrial control panels.

vi) Light Pen: Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-
sensitive detector to select objects on a display screen.

vii) Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): MICR can identify character
printed with a special ink that contains particles of magnetic material. This device
particularly finds applications in banking industry.

viii) Optical mark recognition (OMR): Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense reader
is a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil mark.
OMR is widely used in tests such as aptitude test.

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ix) Bar code reader: Bar-code readers are photoelectric scanners that read
the bar codes or vertical zebra stripes marks, printed on product containers. These
devices are generally used in super markets, bookshops etc.
x) Scanner: Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustration
printed on paper and translates the information into a form that the computer can use. A scanner
works by digitizing an image.

b), Output Devices:

Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desired from. The
processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit, which then
converts it into a form that can be understood by the user. The output is usually produced in one of
the two ways – on the display device, or on paper (hard copy).
i) Monitor: Monitor is often used synonymously with “computer screen” or “display.” Monitor is
an output device that resembles the television screen. It may use a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) or LCD
(Liquid Chrystal Display) or LED (Light emitting diode) to display information. The monitor is
associated with a keyboard for manual input of characters and displays the information as it is keyed
in. It also displays the program or application output. Like the television, monitors are also available
in different sizes.
ii) Printer: Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on
the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
1), Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the
paper through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this
category.
2) Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or
electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal printers fall under this
category of printers.
iii) Plotter: Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands
and makes line drawings on paper using multicolored automated pens. It is capable of producing
graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc.
iv) Speaker(s): Through speakers connected to the board, to record sound input from a
microphone connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.

9) COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software is the set of programs that makes the hardware perform a set of tasks in
particular order. Hardware and software are complimentary to each other. Both have to work
together to produce meaningful results. Computer software is classified into two broad categories;
system software and application software.
a), System Software: System software consists of a group of programs that control the
operations of a computer equipment including functions like managing memory, managing
peripherals, loading, storing, and is an interface between the application programs and the
computer. MS DOS (Microsoft’s Disk Operating System), UNIX are examples of system software.
b), Application software: Software that can perform a specific task for the user, such as word
processing, accounting, budgeting or payroll fall under the category of application software. Word
processors, spreadsheets, database management systems are all examples of general purpose
application software.

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10) Command:
A command is a specific instruction given to a computer application to perform some kind of task or
function. It’s usually entered via a command line interpreter like Command prompt or recovery
console.
11) Data:
Data are the raw facts and may be the name anything. It is the name given to basic fact such as name
and number. Data may be Alphabetic, Numeric or Symbolic. Example: 0,1,2,3,4,5, a,b,c,d,e, @,#,$,^,>
12) Information:
A set of data when forms a meaning then it is known as Information. So information is a more useful
or intelligible form of data. Example: I’m a Student of itti institute.

13) COMPUTER LANGUAGE

Computer language or programming language
is a coded syntax used by computer
programmers to communicate with a
computer. Computer language establishes a
flow of communication between software
programs. The language enables a computer
user to dictate what commands the computer
must perform to process data. These
languages can be classified into following
categories.
1. Machine language
2. Assembly language
3. High level language

Machine Language: Machine language or machine code is the native language directly
understood by the computer’s central processing unit or CPU. This type of computer language is not
easy to understand, as it only uses a binary system, an element of notations containing only a series
of numbers consisting of one and zero, to produce commands.
Assembly Level Language: Assembly Level Language is a set of codes that can run directly on
the computer’s processor. This type of language is most appropriate in writing operating systems and
maintaining desktop applications. With the assembly level language, it is easier for a programmer to
define commands. It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine language.
High Level Language: High Level Languages are user-friendly languages which are similar to
English with vocabulary of words and symbols. These are easier to learn and require less time to
write. They are problem oriented rather than ‘machine’ based. Program written in a high-level
language can be translated into many machine languages and therefore can run on any computer for
which there exists an appropriate translator.

14) Compiler & Interpreter

These are the programs that execute instructions written in a high-level language. There are two
ways to run programs written in a high-level language. The most common is to compile the program;
the other method is to pass the program through an interpreter.

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a), Compiler: A compiler is a special program that processes statements written in a particular
programming language called as source code and converts them into machine language or “machine
code” that a computer’s processor uses. Compiler translates high level language programs directly
into machine language program. This process is called compilation.
b), Interpreter: An interpreter translates high-level instructions into an intermediate form,
which it then executes. Compiled programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The
advantage of an interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage
during which machine instructions are generated. This process can be time-consuming if the program
is long.
15) Open source software:
Open source refers to a program or software in which the source code (the form of the program
when a programmer writes a program in a particular programming language) is available to the
general public for use and/or modification from its original design free of charge. Open source code
is typically created as a collaborative effort in which programmers improve upon the code and share
the changes within the community. The rationale for this movement is that a larger group of
programmers not concerned with proprietary ownership or financial gain will produce a more useful
and bug-free product for everyone to use.

16) VIRUS: Virus is a program which has been written to interfere with the normal functioning of
the computer. It does this by clogging the memory of the system by making copies of itself or it may
destroy critical information used by other computer programs.
There are three main types of viruses: Boot sector viruses which infect the boot sector in the
hard disk and affect the partition table, File viruses attach with executable files. The commonly
infected files are those with COM or EXE extensions. The third, System viruses infect specific system
files such as command.com. Computer viruses can be grouped into Time Bomb, Trojan Horse, Worm
etc. Time Bomb will start on a particular date, at a particular time. The computer will loose its ability
to function properly.
17) Protecting computer system using antivirus software:
In case the virus is present, it becomes our duty to use some anti-virus software for preventing virus
attacks in future. Anti-virus software falls into two categories: Scanners and Integrity checkers.
A scanner is a program that will detect the virus by checking the files on the disk, the boot
sector of the disk and programs in the memory by looking for the signature of the virus. The
signature is a piece of program code that is unique to the virus. It is very necessary to update
regularly the virus scanner that you have bought. This is essential because new viruses are constantly
appearing. Integrity checkers work using simple checksums or complicated algorithms or
cryptographic checksums which check if a file has been modified. It may be boring for you to check
for virus every time you run the system. But you should not worry. Help is at hand with HomeGuard a
unique device which once fitted to the computer automatically scans in the background for viruses. If
there are viruses found in the system, HomeGuard will clean it up automatically without even having
to press a key.

18) Types of Computer:

On the basis of working principle computer classified into Three Types:
a) Analog Computer: An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer
that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to
model the problem being solved.
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b) Digital Computer: A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system.
c) Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital): A combination of computers those are capable of inputting
and outputting in both digital and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost
effective method of performing complex simulations.
On the basis of Size Computer Classified into Four Types:
There are different computer types available depending on the number of users they can support
at any one time, their size, and power. In this hub, we are going to have a look at the difference
between Micro computers, Mini Computers, Mainframe Computer & Super Computer.
a) Micro Computers: The Micro Computer also called a personal Computer is a small computer
that is very economical in Cost. A typical Micro computer has a keyboard, mouse for input, a
printer for output. Micro computer can be used only one person at a time. Most Micro
computer are designed to sit on a desk, that are called “Desktop Computer”. However, today
Micro computer are being designed that can be easily carried around, that called Laptop,
palmtop etc. Example: Desktop, Laptop
b) Mini Computer: A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between
workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large
minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between
small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing
system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.
c) Mainframe Computer: A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds,
or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple
microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the
top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more
powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But
supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.
d) Super Computer: The fastest type of computer. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical
calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, and petroleum exploration.
19) DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER:
Actually speaking electronic data processing does not go back more than just half a century
i.e. they are in existence merely from early 1940’s. People today started following a set of procedure
to perform calculation with these stones, which later led to creation of a digital counting device,
which was the predecessor the first calculating device invented, was known as ABACUS.
THE ABACUS: Abacus is known to be the first mechanical calculating device. Which was used
to be performed addition and subtraction easily and speedily? This device was a first developed in
the 12th century A.D. by the Chinese educationists. Abacus is made up of wooden frame in which rod
where fitted across with rounds beads sliding on the rod. It dividing into two parts called ‘Heaven’
and ‘Earth’. Heaven was the upper part and Earth was the lower one. Thus any no. can be
represented by placing the beads at proper place.

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NAPIER’S BONES: As the necessity demanded, scientist started inventing better calculating
device. In thus process John Napier’s of Scotland invented a calculating device, in the year 1617
called the Napier Bones. In the device, Napier’s used the bone rods of the counting purpose where
some no. is printed on these rods. These rods that one can do addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division easily.
PASCAL’S CALCULATOR: In the year 1642, Blaise Pascal a French scientist invented an adding
machine called Pascal’s calculator, which represents the position of digit with the help of gears in it.
LEIBNZ CALCULATOR: In the year 1671, a German mathematics, Gottfried Leibniz modified
the Pascal calculator and he developed a machine which could perform various calculation based on
multiplication and division as well.
ANALYTICAL ENGINE: In the year 1833, a scientist form England knows to be Charles Babbage
invented such a machine. Which could keep our data safely? This device was called Analytical engine
and it deemed the first mechanical computer. It included such feature which is used in today’s
computer language. For this great invention of the computer, Sir Charles Babbage is also known as
the father of the computer.

20) History of Computer: As the time passed, the device of more suitable and reliable machine was
need which could perform our work more quickly. During this time, in the year 1946, the first
successful electronic computer called ENIAC was developed and it was the starting point of the
current generation of computer

FIRST GENRATION : Vacuum Tubes :(1940 to 1956): ENIAC was the world first successful
electronic computer which was develops by the two scientists namely J. P. Eckert and J. W. Mauchly.
It was the beginning of first generation computer. The full form of ENIAC is “Electronic Numeric
Integrated And Calculator” ENIAC was a very huge and big computer and its weight was 30 tones. It
could store only limited or small amount of information. Initially in the first generation computer the
concept of vacuum tubes was used. A vacuum tube was such an electronic component which had
very less work efficiency and so it could not work properly and it required a large cooling system.
Example:- ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC-I

SECOND GENERATION : Transistors : (1956 to 1963): As the development moved further, the
second generation computers knocked the door. In this generation, transistors were used as the
electronic component instead of vacuum tubes. A transistors is much smaller in the size than that of
a Vacuum tube. As the size of electrons components decreased from Vacuum tube of transistor, the
size of computer also decreased and it became much smaller than that of earlier computer.
Example: PDP-8, IBM1400, IBM1620

THIRD GENERATION : Integrated Circuit : (1964 to 1971): The third generation computers
were invented in the year 1964. In this generation of computer, IC (Integrated circuits) was used as
the electronic component for computers. The development of IC gave birth to a new field of
microelectronics. The main advantage of IC is not only its small size but its superior performance and
reliability than the previous circuits. It was first developed by T.S Kilby. This generation of computer
has huge storage capacity and higher calculating speed. Software use in this generation-
C,C++,Pascal, Basic, Cobol. Example: NCR395, IMB360, 370

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FOURTH GENERATION : Microprocessors : (1971 to Present): This is the generation where we

are working today. The computers which we see around us belong to the fourth generation
computers. ‘Micro processor’ is the main concept behind this generation of computer. A
microprocessor is a single chip (L.S.I circuit), which is used in a computer for any arithmetical or
logical functions to be performed in any program. The honour of developing microprocessor goes to
Ted Hoff of U.S.A. He developed first micro-processor, the Intel 4004, as he was working for Intel
Corporation, U.S.A with the use of microprocessor in the fourth generation computers, the size of
computer become very fast and efficient. Software use in this generation- Foxpro, Java, Oracle.
Example: Apple-II, Alter 8800

FIFTH GENERATION (Present to Beyond): Fifth generation computers, based on artificial

intelligence, are still in development, through there are some applications, such as voice recognition,
that are being used today. Artificial intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with
making computers behave like humans and allow the computer to take its own decision. The
greatest advance have occurred in the field of playing game. The best computer chess programs are
now capable of beating humans. Currently, no computer exhibit full artificial intelligence, but the
ending of 2017 one of computer/ Robot are lunch & become citizen of UAS, that is SOFIA. It’s the one
and only computer with little artificial intelligence.

******************

Some File name with Extension Name

1) .docx - Microsoft word document:
2) .pdf - Adobe Acrobat “Portable Document Format”
3) .rtf - Rich text format
4) .txt - Text file
5).bmp - Bit-Mapped Picture
6) .psd - Adobe Photoshop Image
7) .tif - Tagged Image File Format
8) .gif - Graphics Interchange Format
9) .jpg - Joint experts photographic group
10) .xlsx - Microsoft excel
11) .mdbx - Microsoft Access
12) .pptx - Microsoft powerpoint
13) .frm - Visual basic form design
14) .pmd - PageMaker document
15) .html - Hyper text markup language
16) .bak - backup file
17) .exe - executable file
18) .sys - System file
19) .sgn - instant artist file
20) .cmd - Command file.

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FULL FORM
ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit
AMD – Advanced Micro Devices
ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ATX – Advanced Technology Extended
BIOS – Basic Input Output System
COMPUTER – Common Operating Machine particularly used For Trade, Education and Research.
CD – Compact Disk
CDRW – Compact Disk ReWriter
CD-ROM – Compact Disk - Read Only Memory
CMOS – Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
CPU – Central Processing Unit
CRT- Cathode Ray Tube
DDR – Double Data Rate
DDR-SDRAM – Double Data Rate - Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
DRAM – Dynamic Random Access Memory
DPI – Dots Per Inch
DVD – Digital Versatile Disk
DVD-RAM – Digital Versatile Disk - Random Access Memory
EEPROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
E-mail- Electronic Mail
FDD – Floppy Disk Drive
FAT - File Allocation Table
GHz – GigaHertz
GUI- Graphics User Interface
HDD – Hard Disk Drive
HP – Hewlett-Packard Development Company
HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol
IBM – International Business Machines Corporation
IC – Integrated Circuit
Kbps – Kilobytes per second
LAN – Local Area Network
LCD – Liquid Crystal Display
LED – Light Emitting Diode
PCI – Peripheral Component Interconnect
PPPoE – Point to Point Protocol over Ethernet
RAM – Random Access Memory
ROM – Read Only Memory
USB – Universal Serial Bus
WAN – Wide Area Network
NTFS - New Technology File System
FAT - File Allocation Table
DNS- Domain Name System
WWW- World Wide Web Call us: Nabin Nath @9612491200

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