CHAPTER-1

Coulomb's Law:

|𝑞1 ||𝑞2 |
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2

The electrostatic force depends on the dielectric constant of the intervening medium.
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
For vacuum 𝐹𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
For medium 𝐹𝑚 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟2
𝐹𝑉
= 𝜀𝑟 = 𝐾
𝐹𝑚
Electric Field Intensity: The electric field Intensity at a point is the force experienced by a unit
positive charge placed at that point. Electric field intensity at a point is given by
𝐹
𝐸⃗ = 𝑞 .Its S.I. unit is NC-1 or Vm-1.
0

𝑘𝑞
𝐸⃗ = 2 𝑟̂
𝑟

Electric field intensity due to electric dipole at a point on axial line:

2𝑃⃗
𝐸⃗ =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
Electric field intensity due to electric dipole at a point on equatorial line

−𝑝
For short dipole 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 3
0

Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field: Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment 𝑝
⃗⃗⃗ is
placed at an angle 𝜃 with uniform electric field 𝐸⃗ as shown in figure.

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Net force on dipole is 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ − 𝑞𝐸⃗ = 0 . Hence there is no translatory motion.
Magnitude of torque 𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 × 2𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃

𝜏 = 𝑝 × 𝐸⃗
Its direction is normal to the plane of the paper, coming out of it.

Electric Flux: 𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸⃗ . 𝑆 = 𝐸𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑞
Gauss’s Law: ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝜀 0

Electric field due to infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire:

𝜆
𝐸⃗ = 𝑛
̂
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Electric field due to a thin infinite plane charged sheet;

𝜎
𝐸⃗ = 𝑛̂
2𝜀0

2
At 𝑃1

At 𝑃2

Field due to uniformly charged thin spherical shell:

⃗⃗ = 𝑞 𝑟̂
𝑭𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒍 (𝒓 > 𝑹): 𝐸 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2 0

𝑭𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒍 (𝒓 < 𝑹): 𝑬=𝟎

WORK SHEET NO-1
1. A charge q is placed at the center of the line joining two equal charges Q. The system of three
charges will be in equilibrium if q is equal to
−𝑄 +𝑄 −𝑄 +𝑄
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 2 4 4

2. An electron falls from rest through a vertical distance ℎ in a uniform and vertically upward directed
electric field 𝐸. The direction of electric field is now reversed, keeping its magnitude the same. A
proton is allowed to fall from rest in it through the same vertical distance ℎ. The time of fall of the
electron, in comparison to the time of fall of the proton is

(a) smaller (b) 5 times bigger (c) 10 times bigger (d) equal

3
3. In figure two positive charges 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 q3 fixed along the y-axis, exert a net electric force in the +x-
direction on a charge 𝑞1 , fixed along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. If a positive charge 𝑄 is added at (𝑥, 0), the force
on 𝑞1

(a) shall increase along the positive 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

(b) shall decrease along the positive 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

(c) shall point along the negative 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

(d) shall increase but the direction changes because of the intersection of 𝑄 with 𝑞2 and 𝑞3

4. A point positive charge is brought near an isolated conducting sphere (figure). The electric field is
best given by

5. Figure shows electric field lines in which an electric dipole P is placed as shown. Which of the
following statements is correct?

(a) The dipole will not experience any force

(b)The dipole will experience a force towards right

4
(c)The dipole will experience a force towards left

(d)The dipole will experience a force upwards

Two statements are given –one labelled Assertion (A) and other labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the options as given below.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is correct explanation of Assertion.

(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation of
Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false.

(d) If both Assertion and Reason are false.

6. Assertion (A): We may have a Gaussian surface in which a smaller number of field lines
enter and more field lines come out.
Reason(R): The electric field 𝐸 in the Gauss’s law is only due to the enclosed charges.
7. Assertion(A): A metallic shield in form of a hollow shell may be built to block an electric
field.
Reason(R): In a hollow spherical shield, the electric field inside it is zero at every point.
8. Assertion (A): Three equal charges are situated on a circle of radius 𝑟 such that they form
on equilateral triangle, then the electric field intensity at the centre is zero.
Reason (R): The force on unit positive charge at the centre, due to the three equal charges
are represented by the three sides of a triangle taken in the same order. Therefore, electric
field intensity at centre is zero.
9. Assertion (A): In a non-uniform electric field, a dipole will have translatory as well as
rotatory motion,
Reason(R): In a nonuniform electric field, a dipole experiences a force as well as torque.
10. Assertion (A): The surface charge densities of two spherical conductors of different radii
are equal. Then the electric field intensities near their surface are also equal.
Reason(R): Surface charge density is equal to charge per unit area.
11.The sum of two-point charges is 7μC. They repel each other with a force of 1 𝑁 when kept 30 𝑐𝑚
apart in free space. Calculate the value of each charge.
12.A hollow cylindrical box of length 1 𝑚 and area of cross-section 25 𝑐𝑚 2 is placed in a three-
dimensional coordinate system as shown in the figure. The electric field in the region is given by 𝐸 =
50𝑥𝑖̂, where 𝐸 is in 𝑁𝐶 −1 and 𝑥 is in metres. Find (𝑖) Net Flux through the cylinder. (𝑖𝑖) Charge
enclosed by the cylinder.

5
13. Spherical conducting shell of inner radius 𝑅1 and outer radius 𝑅2 has a charges 𝑄. A charge
𝑞 is placed at the center of the shell. What is the surface charge density on the Inner surface
and outer surface of the shell?
14. Two small electrical dipoles 𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐷, each of dipole moment p are kept at an angle of
120° as shown in figure. What is the resultant dipole moment of this combination? If this
system is subjected to electric field E directed along +𝑋 direction, what will be the magnitude
and direction of the torque acting on this?

15. An early model for an atom considered it to have a positively charged point nucleus of
charge 𝑍𝑒, surrounded by a uniform density of negative charge up to a radius 𝑅. The atom as
a whole is neutral. Find the electric field at a distance 𝑟 from the nucleus if (𝑖) 𝑟 >
𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖) 𝑟 < 𝑅.
16. Two identical Conducting spheres having unequal opposite charges attract each other
with a force of 3.15 𝑁 when separated by 0.2 𝑚. The sphere experiences a force of repulsion
of 0.625 N when they are made to touch for moment and then placed at a distance 0.3 𝑚
apart. Find the initial charge on each sphere.
17. A charge 𝑄 is located at point 𝑟 is in equilibrium under the combined electric field of three
charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞3 .If the charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 are located at points 𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 respectively, find
the direction of the force on Q due to 𝑞3 in terms of𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 𝑎𝑛𝑑⃗⃗𝑟 .
18. Three-point charges +q each are kept at vertices of an equilateral triangle of side a.
Determine the magnitude and sign of the charge to be kept at centroid of the triangle so that
the charges at the vertices remain in equilibrium.
19. Two charges q and -3q are placed fixed on x-axis separated by a distance d. Where should
a third charge 2q be placed such that, it will not experience any force?
20. Two identical charged spheres are suspended in air by strings of equal lengths and make
an angle of 30 o with each other. When suspended in a liquid of density 800 kg/m 3, the angle
remains the same. What is the dielectric constant of the liquid? (Density of the material of the
sphere = 1600 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . (𝐾 = 2)

6
 Chapter - 2
Electrostatic Potential & Capacitance
Electrostatic Potential Difference:
𝑊𝐴𝐵
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞
Electric potential at a point due to a point charge:

Electric potential at a point due to an electric dipole:

7
Relation between electric field and potential
−𝑑𝑉
𝐸 =
𝑑𝑥
The change of potential with distance is known as potential gradient, hence the electric field
is equal to the negative gradient of potential.
The negative sign indicates that the potential decreases in the direction of electric field. The
unit of electric intensity can also be expressed as 𝑉𝑚−1 .
Electric potential Energy: The electric potential energy of two-point charges is equal to the
work done to assemble the charges or work done in bringing each charge or work done in
bringing a charge from infinite distance.

For a system containing more than two charges (Fig 1.14b), the potential energy (U) is
given by

Equipotential Surface: If all the points of a surface are at the same electric potential, then
the surface is called an equipotential surface.

Electrostatic potential energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field:

8
The potential energy is maximum (unstable equilibrium) when the dipole is aligned anti-
parallel (θ = π) to the external electric field and minimum (stable equilibrium) when the dipole
is aligned parallel (θ = 0) to the external electric field.
Electric potential energy of a system of two- point charges in presence of uniform external
electric field:
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑊 = 𝑞1 𝑉 (𝑟1 ) + 𝑞2 𝑉 (𝑟2 ) +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12

Dielectric Materials: These are basically insulators and contain no free electrons. Dielectrics
can be easily polarized when an electric field is applied to it, and thus, their behaviour in an
electric field is entirely different from that of conductors.

Polar Molecules: A polar molecule is one in which the ‘centers of gravity’ of the positive
charges (i.e., protons) and negative charges (i.e., electrons) do not coincide. Such molecules
are called permanent electric dipoles, as they have permanent dipole moments. Some
common polar molecules are 𝐻𝐶𝑙, 𝐻2 𝑂, 𝑁2 𝑂, 𝑁𝐻3 , 𝐻2 𝑆, 𝐻2 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑂2 .
Non-polar Molecules: A non-polar molecule is one in which the centers of gravity of positive
charges (i.e., protons) and negative charges (i.e., electrons) coincide. These molecules, thus,
do not have any permanent dipole moment. Some common examples of non-polar molecules
are
𝐶𝑂2 , 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 , 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 (𝑂2 ), 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 (𝑁2 𝑁2), ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 (𝐻2 ), 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑒 (𝐶𝐻4 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑒 (𝐶2 𝐻6 ).

9
It is found that in most dielectrics, the polarization 𝑃⃗ is directly proportional to the resultant
electric field 𝐸⃗ in the dielectric. That is, 𝑃⃗ = 𝜒𝑒 𝜀0 𝐸⃗ .
Also 𝐾 = 1 + 𝜒𝑒
Capacitor and capacitance:

The potential difference 𝑉 between the conductors is proportional to the charge 𝑄.

𝑄𝛼𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
The proportionality constant C is called Capacitance of the capacitor. It depends on the size
and shape of the plates and the material between them.
Parallel plate capacitor:

𝑄 𝑄 𝐴𝜀0
Capacitance 𝐶= = 𝑄𝑑 =
𝑉 𝑑
𝐴𝜀0

Parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric slab(t<d):

Aε0
C=t
( )
κ+ d−t
The capacitance of the parallel-plate capacitor increases whether a dielectric slab or a metal
plate is inserted in the region between its plates. However, the mechanism involved in the
increase of capacitance in the two cases is not the same. In the case of the dielectric slab,

10
polarisation reduces the electric field in the region between the plates, whereas, in the case
of a metal plate, the electric field is zero within the region filled by the metal plate.
combination of capacitors:
Series combination

Parallels combination

𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
Energy stored in a capacitor:

Common potential: If 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are capacitors are charged to potentials 𝑉1 and 𝑉2

respectively. These capacitors are disconnected from their sources and connected in parallel
by a conducting wire, charges flow from higher potential to lower potential. This flow of
charge will continue till their potentials become equal. This potential is called common
potential.
𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
𝑉=
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
C1 C2 (V1 − V2 )2
Energy loss =
2(C1 + C2 )

11
 WORK SHEET-2
1. A positively charged particle is released from rest in an uniform electric field. The electric
potential energy of the charge
(a) remains a constant because the electric field is uniform
(b) increases because the charge moves along the electric field

(c) decreases because the charge moves along the electric field
(d) decreases because the charge moves opposite to the electric field
2. Figure shows some equipotential lines distributed in space. A charged object is moved
from point A to point B.
(a) The work done in Fig. (i) is the greatest.
(b) The work done in Fig. (ii) is least.

(c) The work done is the same in Fig. (i), Fig.(ii) and Fig. (iii).
(d) The work done in Fig. (iii) is greater than Fig. (ii) but equal to that in Fig. (i)

3. Consider a uniform electric field in the z -direction. The potential is a constant

(a) in all space (b) for any x for a given z
(c) for any y for a given z (d) on the x-y plane for a given z

12
4. A capacitor of 2 𝜇𝐹 is charged as shown in the diagram. When the switch 𝑆 is turned to
position 2, the percentage of its stored energy dissipated is

(a) 75% (b) 80% (c) 0% (d) 20%

5. The electric potential V at any point 𝑂 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠) in space is given by 𝑉 = 4𝑥²
volt. The electric field at the point (1 𝑚, 0, 2 𝑚) in volt/metre is

(a) 8 along negative x-axis (b) 8 along positive x-axis

(c) 16 along negative x-axis (d) 16 along positive z-axis
6. A capacitor is charged by a battery. The battery is removed and another identical uncharged
capacitor is connected in parallel. The total electrostatic energy of resulting system
(a) increases by a factor of 4. (b) decreases by a factor of 2.
(c) remains the same. (d) increases by a factor of 2.
7. A parallel plate condenser is connected with the terminals of a battery. The distance
between the plates is 6mm. If a glass plate (dielectric constant K = 9) of 4.5 mm is introduced
between them, then the capacity will become
(a) 2 times. (b) the same.

(c) 3 times. (d) 4 times

Two statements are given –one labelled Assertion (A) and other labelled Reason (R). Select
the correct answer to these questions from the options as given below.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation of
Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false.

(d) If both Assertion and Reason are false.

8. Assertion(A): If the distance between parallel plates of a capacitor is halved and dielectric
constant is made three times, then the capacitance becomes 6 times.
Reason(R): Capacity of the capacitor depends upon the nature of the material between the
plates.
9.Assertion(A): The potential difference between any two points in an electric field depends
only on initial and final position.

13
 Reason(R): Electric field is a conservative field so the work done per unit positive charge
does not depend on path followed.
10.Assertion(A): Polar molecules have permanent dipole moment.
Reason(R): In polar molecules, the centers of positive and negative charges coincide even
when there is no external field.
11.Assertion(A): When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, the electric field with in the
dielectric as well as potential difference across the capacitor plates are reduced by a factor
𝐾 (battery is not connected).
Reason(R): The dielectric constant is the ratio of the permittivity of the dielectric to the to
the absolute permittivity of the free space.
12.Assertion (A): Two charges −𝑞 each are fixed at points 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵. When a third charge −𝑞
is moved from 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵, electrical potential energy first decreases, then increases.
Reason (R): Along the line joining A and B, the third charge is in stable equilibrium position
at Centre.
13. Assertion(A): The force with which one plate of a parallel plate capacitor is attracted
towards the other plate is equal to square of surface density per 𝜀 per unit area.
Reason (R): The electric field due to one charged plate of the capacitor at the location of
the other is equal to surface density per 𝜀.
14. Why must the electrostatic potential inside a hollow charged conductor be the same at
every point?
15.The graph in following figure shows the variation of charge 𝑞 versus potential difference
for two capacitors 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 . The two capacitors have same plate separation, but the plate
area of 𝐶2 is half that of 𝐶1 . Which of the lines in the graph correspond to 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 ? Give
reason.

16. A charged oil drop remain stationary when situated between two parallel plates 20 mm
apart and a p.d. of 500V is applied to the plates. Find the charge on the drop if it has mass of
2 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔.Take 𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠 −2
17. If the potential in the region of space around the point (−1𝑚, 2𝑚, 3𝑚) is given by 𝑉 =
(10𝑥 2 + 5𝑦 2 − 3𝑧 2 ) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡. Calculate the three components of electric field at this point.

18.Two identical capacitors of plate dimensions 𝑙 × 𝑏 and plate separation 𝑑 have dielectric
slabs filled In between the space of the plates as shown in the figures. Obtain the relation
between the dielectric constants 𝐾, 𝐾1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾2 .

14
19. A test charge ‘𝑞’ is moved without acceleration from 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐶 along the path from 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵
and then from 𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝐶 in electric field 𝐸 as shown in the figure.

(𝑖) Calculate the potential difference between A and C.

(𝑖𝑖) At which point (of the A and C) is the electric potential more and why?
20. Figure shows two identical capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 each of 1.5 µF capacitance, connected to a
battery of 2 𝑉. Initially switch ‘S’ is closed. After sometime ‘𝑆’ is left open and dielectric slabs
of dielectric constant 𝐾 = 2 are inserted to fill completely the space between the plates of
the two capacitors. How will the (i) charge and (ii) potential difference between the plates of
the capacitors be affected after the slabs are inserted?

21. Draw a plot showing the variation of (i) electric field (E) and (ii) electric potential with
distance r due to a point charge Q.

22. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C is charged to a potential V. It is then connected

to another uncharged capacitor having the same capacitance. Find out the ratio of the energy
stored in the combined system to that stored initially in the single capacitor.
23.A parallel plate capacitor is charged by a battery. After sometime the battery is
disconnected and a dielectric slab with its thickness equal to the plate separation is inserted
between the plates. How will
(i) the capacitance of the capacitor,

(ii) electric field between the plates and

(iii) the energy stored in the capacitor be affected? Justify your answer in each case.
24. An electric dipole of length 4 𝑐𝑚, when placed with its axis making an angle of 60° with a
uniform electric field, experiences a torque of 4√3 𝑁𝑚. Calculate the magnitude of electric
field and potential energy of the dipole, if it has charge ± 8 𝑛𝐶.
25. The two plates of a parallel plate capacitor are 4 𝑚𝑚 apart. A slab of dielectric constant 3
and thickness 3 𝑚𝑚 is introduced between the plates with its faces parallel to them. The
2
distance between the plates is so adjusted that the capacitance of the capacitor becomes 3 𝑟𝑑
of its original value. What is the new distance between the plates?

15
 CHAPTER-3
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric Current: The time rate of flow of charge through any cross-section is called current.
Let ∆q be the net charge flowing across a cross section of a conductor during the time
interval ∆t .Then, the average electric current through that area is given by
∆𝒒
𝑰𝒂𝒗 = ∆𝒕
∆𝑞 𝑑𝑞
And instantaneous current 𝑖 = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Drift velocity:
−𝑒𝐸⃗
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏
𝑚

The electrons move with an average velocity which is independent of time, although electrons
are accelerated. This is the phenomenon of drift and the velocity 𝑣𝑑 is called the drift velocity.
Because of the drift, there will be net transport of charges across any area perpendicular to 𝐸⃗ .
Relation between electric current and drift velocity
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑
Current Density: In case of a steady current, flowing through a conductor, same current flows
through all the cross-sections of the conductor, even though the cross-sections may differ in
area.
𝑑𝐼
𝐽 = 𝑑𝐴

In case of non-uniform flow, current I through any cross-section is

S.I. Unit of current density is Am-2.

Relation between current density and electric field

𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 or 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸⃗ σ is known as conductivity.

Ohm’s Law using Drift Velocity

𝑉 𝑚𝑙
Resistance: 𝑅= = 𝑛𝜏𝐴𝑒 2
𝐼

16
 𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
The resistance of a conductor depends upon its material, temperature, length and area
of cross section.
Conductance is defined as the reciprocal of resistance.
1
𝐺=𝑅 SI unit of conductance is Siemen or ohm-1 or mho

Resistivity: The resistivity of a material is the resistance of a wire of that material of unit
length and unit cross-sectional area. It is the property of the material that opposes the
flow of charge or the flow of electric current. The unit of resistivity is ohm- meter.
𝑚
𝜌 = 𝑛𝜏𝑒 2

Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity, and determines the ability of a material to

conduct electric current.
1
𝜎=𝜌 SI units of Conductivity is "siemens per metre" (S/m) or Ω-1m-1.

Mobility: Mobility (µ) is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric
field.
|𝑣
⃗ 𝑑|
𝜇= .The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs.
𝐸
𝑒𝐸𝜏 𝑒𝜏
𝜇= =
𝑚𝐸 𝑚

OHM’S LAW: Ohm’s law gives a relationship between current (𝐼) and potential difference
(𝑉). According to ohm’s law: At constant temperature, the current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends. If 𝐼 is the
current flowing through a conductor and V is the p.d. across its ends, then according to
the ohm’s law
𝐼 ∝ 𝑉 𝑂𝑟 𝑉 ∝ 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 = 𝑅 𝐼

Limitations of Ohm’s law:

(a) V ceases to be proportional to I.

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(b) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V.

(c) The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of V for
the same current I. A material exhibiting such behaviour is GaAs.

Dependance of Resistivity of materials on temeperature:The resistivity of a material is

found to be dependent on the temperature. Over a limited range of temperatures, that is
not too large, the resistivity of a metallic conductor is approximately given by

Fig(i)(conductors) Fig(ii)(alloys) Fig(iii)(semiconductor)

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Electromagnetic Force and Potential Difference:Emf of a cell is defined as the work done
by the cell in moving a unit positive charge in the whole circuit including the cell once.
𝑊
𝑒𝑚𝑓(𝜀) = S.I unit of emf is Volt.
𝑞

Potential difference – Potential difference is the voltage across the terminals of the battery
when the current is being drawn from it to an externalload .
Internal Resistance of a Cell:
The resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell when the electric current passes
through it is known as the internal resistance of the cell. It is denoted by r.

𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟 (discharging of cell) 𝑉 < 𝜀

Note: During the charging of cell, the positive electrode of the cell is connected to positive
terminal of battery charger and negative to negative one.When the cell is charging current
inside the cell is from anode(+) to cathode(-).

𝑉 = 𝜀 + 𝐼𝑟 i.e. 𝑉>𝜀

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Series combination of cells

εeq = ε1 + ε2 and req = r1 + r2

Parallel combination of cells:

𝜀1 𝑟2 +𝜀2 𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = and 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟 2+𝑟2
𝑟1 +𝑟2 1 2

Electrical Energy, Power: In an actual conductor, an amount of energy dissipated as heat

in the conductor during the time interval ∆t is,
∆W = I V∆t
The energy dissipated per unit time is the power is the power dissipated.
∆𝑊 𝐼𝑉∆𝑡
𝑃= = = 𝑉𝐼
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅 = 𝑅

Kirchhoff's Rules:
1. Junction rule: At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal
to thesum of currents leaving the junction. This law is based on charge conservation.

2.Loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving
resistors and cells in the loop is zero. This law is based on conservation of energy.
Wheatstone bridge:The Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances. In this
bridge, four resistances are connected on four arms of a quadrilateral. Across one
diagonal, a battery and key are connected. Across second diagonal, a galvanometer is
connected as shown in figure. Consider P, Q, R and S are four resistances connected on
the sides AB, BC, AD and DC of the quadrilateral respectively. Galvanometer G is

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connected between points B and D and a battery B is connected between A and C. Now in
the balance condition, the deflection in the galvanometer is zero

𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆

WORK SHEET-3
1. A metal rod of length 10 cm and a rectangular cross-section of 1 cm x 1/2 cm is
connected to a battery across opposite faces. The resistance will be
(a) maximum when the battery is connected across 1 cm x 1/2 cm faces
(b) maximum when the battery is connected across 10 cm x 1 cm faces
(c) maximum when the battery is connected across 10 cm x 1/2 cm faces
(d) same irrespective of the three faces
2. Which of the following characteristics of electrons determines the current in a
conductor?
(a) Drift velocity alone (b) Thermal velocity alone
(c) Both drift velocity and thermal velocity (d) Neither drift nor thermal velocity
3. Kirchhoff’s junction rule is a reflection of
(a) conservation of current density vector.
(b) conservation of mass.
(c) the fact that the momentum with which a charged particle approaches a junction is
unchanged (as a vector) as the charged particle leaves the junction.
(d) the fact that there is no accumulation of charges at a junction.
4. Temperature dependence of resistivity ρ(T) of semiconductors, insulators and metals
is significantly based on the following factor:

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 (a) number of charge carriers is constant with temperature T.
(b) time interval between two successive collisions can depend on T.
(c) length of material can be a function of T.
(d) mass of carriers is a function of T.
5. The electromotive force of a battery is defined as
(a) the potential difference across its terminals.
(b) Its ability to move electrons around the circuit.
(c) The work done to move a unit positive charge around the closed circuit.
(d) all the above
Two statements are given –one labelled Assertion (A) and other labelled Reason
(R). Select the correct answer to these questions from the options as given below.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is correct explanation of
Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation
of Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(d) If both Assertion and Reason are false.
6. Assertion (A): A current flows in a conductor only when there is an electric field
within the conductor.
Reason(R): The drift velocity of electron in presence of electric field decreases.
7. Assertion (A): Though the same current flows through the line wires and the
filament of the bulb but heat produced in the filament is much higher than that in
line wires.
Reason(R): The filament of bulbs is made of a material of high resistance and high
melting point.
8. Assertion (A): Potential measured by a voltmeter across a wire is always less than
actual potential difference across it.
Reason(R): Finite resistance of voltmeter changes current flowing through the
resistance across which potential difference is to be measured.
9. Assertion (A): In a balanced Wheatstone bridge, if galvanometer and battery are
interchanged, the balancing condition is not disturbed.
Reason(R): The balancing condition of a Wheatstone bridge does not depend on
resistances.

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10. Assertion (A): Kirchhoff's junction rule can be applied to a junction of several
lines or a point in a line.
Reason(R): When steady current is flowing, there is no accumulation of charges at
any junction or at any point in a line.
11. Assertion (A): Terminal voltage of a cell is greater than emf of the cell, during
charging of the cell.
Reason(R): The emf of a cell is always greater than its terminal voltage.
12. For wiring in the home, one uses Cu wires or Al wires. What considerations are
involved in this?
13. Two conducting wires X and Y of same diameter but different materials are joined in series
across a battery. If the number density of electrons in X is twice that in Y, find the ratio of
drift velocity of electrons in two wires.
14. A steady current flow in a metallic conductor of non-uniform cross-section. Which of the
following quantities is constant along the conductor: electric current, current density, drift
speed?
15. Plot graphs to show variations of (i)E with R (ii) Terminal P.D. of the cell (V) with R.
16. A battery of emf E internal resistance r is connected across a variable resistor R. Find the
value of R such that (i) the current in the circuit is maximum (ii) the potential difference
across the terminals is maximum & (iii) the power delivered to the load is maximum.
17. Define relaxation time of electrons in a conductor. Explain how it vary with increase in
temperature of a conductor. State the relation between mobility and relaxation time.
18. A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal resistance 1.5Ω is being charged by a 120 V
D.C. supply using a series resistance of 14.5Ω.

(i) Find charging current in the circuit.

(ii) What is the terminal voltage of the battery during charging?
(iii) What is the energy dissipation in the resistor?
19. At room temperature 27.0°𝐶, the resistance of heating element is 100Ω.At what
temperature does the resistance of the element changes to 117Ω? Given that
temperature coefficient of the material of the resistance is 1.70 × 10−4 per degree
Celsius.
20. Draw a graph showing the variation of current density (𝑗) versus the electric field (𝐸) for
two conductors 𝐴 and 𝐵 of different materials. What information from this plot regarding
the properties of the conducting material, can be obtained which can be used to select
suitable materials for use in making (𝑖) standard resistance and (𝑖𝑖) connecting wires in
electric circuits?
21. A potential difference 𝑉 is applied across a conductor of length 𝐿 and diameter 𝐷. How
are the electric field (𝐸) and resistance (𝑅) affected when (𝑖) 𝐿 is doubled and (𝑖𝑖) 𝐷 is
haved? Justify your answer in each case.
22. Using Kirchhoff’s rules determine the value of unknown resistance R in the circuit so that
no current flows through 4Ω resistance. Also find the potential difference between A and
D.

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23. Four cells of identical emf E, internal resistance r are connected in series to a variable
resistor. The following graph shows the variation of terminal voltage of the combination
with the current output.
(i) What is the emf of each cell used?
(ii) For what current from the cells, does maximum power dissipation occur in the circuit?
(iii) Calculate the internal resistance of each cell.

.
24. The current in a circuit containing a battery connected to 2Ω resistance is 0.9 A. When a
resistance of 7Ω connected to the same battery, the current observed in the circuit is 0.3A.
Find the internal resistance of the battery.
25. Two conductors are made of the same material and have the same length. Conductor A
is a solid wire of diameter 1 mm. Conductor B is a hollow tube of outer diameter 2 mm
and inner diameter 1 mm. Find the ratio of resistance 𝑅𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝑅𝐵 .

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