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Cambridge O Level Biology Your notes

14.1 Mammalian Nervous System

Contents
Mammalian Nervous System
Types of Neurones
The Reflex Arc
The Synapse

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Mammalian Nervous System

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Structure & Role of the Mammalian Nervous System
The human nervous system consists of the:
central nervous system (CNS) - the brain and the spinal cord
peripheral nervous system (PNS) - all of the nerves in the body
It allows us to
Make sense of our surroundings and respond to them
Coordinate and regulate body functions
Information is sent through the nervous system as nerve impulses - electrical signals that pass along
nerve cells known as neurones
A bundle of neurones is known as a nerve
Nervous System Diagram

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Your notes

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Your notes

The human nervous system

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Types of Neurones
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Neurone Diagrams
There are three main types of neurone: sensory, relay and motor
Sensory neurones carry impulses from sense organs to the CNS (brain or spinal cord)
Relay neurones are found inside the CNS and connect sensory and motor neurones
Motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)
Neurones have a long fibre (axon)
This means that less time is wasted transferring the impulse from one cell to another
The axon is insulated by a fatty sheath with small uninsulated sections along it (called nodes)
This means that the electrical impulse does not travel down the whole axon, but jumps from one
node to the next
Their cell body contains many extensions called dendrites
This means they can connect to many other neurones and receive impulses from them, forming a
network for easy communication
Identifying the Types of Neurone Diagram

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The three types of neurone

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Sensory neurones are long and have a cell body branching off the middle of the axon
Relay neurones are short and have a small cell body at one end with many dendrites branching off it
Motor neurones are long and have a large cell body at one end with long dendrites branching off it

Examiner Tip
A way to remember which neurone is which:
Sensory neurones connect a sense organ e.g. eye, nose, tastebuds to the CNS
Motor neurones result in a response, which is often movement; think of a moving motorbike

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The Reflex Arc

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The Reflex Arc
Voluntary Responses
A voluntary response is one where you make a conscious decision to carry out a particular action
therefore it starts with your brain
An example is reaching out to pick up a cup of coffee
An involuntary (or reflex) response does not involve the brain as the coordinator of the reaction and
you are not aware you have completed it until after you have carried it out
Involuntary actions are usually ones which are essential to basic survival and are rapid, whereas
voluntary responses often take longer as we consider what the consequences might be before doing
it

Reflex Responses
An involuntary (or reflex) response does not involve the brain as the coordinator of the reaction and
you are not aware you have completed it until after you have carried it out
This is an automatic and rapid response to a stimulus such as touching something sharp or hot
As it does not involve the brain, a reflex response is quicker than any other type of nervous response
This helps to minimise the damage to the body
Reflex Arc Diagram

The reflex arc consists of a specific pathway from stimulus to response through the three neurone types

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Reflex Arc Example

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A reflex
Example of a reflex arc
1. The pin (the stimulus) is detected by a pain/pressure/touch receptor in the skin
2. The sensory neurone sends electrical impulses to the spinal cord (the coordinator)
3. The electrical impulse is passed on to the relay neurone in the spinal cord
4. Relay neurones connect to motor neurones and pass the impulse on
5. The motor neurone carries impulse to a muscle in the leg (the effector)
Note that effectors can be either muscles or glands
6. The muscle will contract and pull the foot up and away from the sharp object (the response)

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Your notes

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The reflex pathway

Synapses
Where two neurons meet, they do so at a junction called a synapse
Synapses are junctions between neurones, so are important in the nervous system being a connected
network of neurones
Nerve impulses can transmit across synapses and be directed along the appropriate route by them
e.g. to the correct part of the brain
Think about the analogy of railway points that guide the trains onto the appropriate tracks based
on that train's destination.

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Reflex actions are:
1. Automatic
2. Fast
3. Protective
A common exam question is to be asked to draw arrows on the neurones in the reflex arc diagram to
show the direction of movement of the impulse. Make sure you read questions carefully – not all
questions have a line underneath them to write an answer, so they can be easy to miss!

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The Synapse
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Structure of a Synapse
The junction between two neurones is known as a synapse
A synapse consists of:
The synaptic cleft, also known as the synaptic gap
The presynaptic knob; here vesicles are found which contain neurotransmitter molecules
The postsynaptic membrane, which contains receptor proteins

The junctions between neurones are known as synapses

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Synapses & Neurotransmitters

Neurones never touch each other Your notes
The junctions (gaps) in between neurones are called synapses
The electrical impulse travels along the first axon
This triggers the nerve-ending of the presynaptic neurone to release chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters from vesicles which fuse with the presynaptic membrane
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic gap (or cleft) and bind with receptor molecules on
the membrane of the second neurone (known as the postsynaptic membrane)
The vesicles stay in the presynaptic membrane
This stimulates the second neurone to generate an electrical impulse that travels down the second
axon
The neurotransmitters are then destroyed to prevent continued stimulation of the second neurone
which would cause repeated impulses to be sent
Synapses ensure that impulses only travel in one direction, avoiding confusion within the nervous
system if impulses were travelling in both directions
As this is the only part of the nervous system where messages are chemical as opposed to electrical, it
is the only place where drugs can act to affect the nervous system - e.g. this is where heroin works
Synapses and Neurotransmitters Diagram

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Your notes

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How an impulse is passed on at a synapse Your notes

Examiner Tip
For maximum marks you will need to be able to understand the structure and functioning of a synapse
and explain what happens at each step.

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Cambridge O Level Biology Your notes

14.2 Mammalian Sense Organs

Contents
Sense Organs
The Eye

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Sense Organs
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Sense Organs as Receptors
Receptors are groups of specialised cells
They detect a change in the environment and stimulate electrical impulses in response
Sense organs contain groups of receptors that respond to specific stimuli

Sense Organ What it is sensitive to Sense

Heat and cold, pressure, Touch (pressure) and
Skin
pain temperature

Tongue Chemicals in food and drink Taste

Nose Chemicals in the air Smell

Ear Sounds and movement Hearing and balance

Eye Light Sight

Once the receptor cell in the sense organ has been stimulated, it generates an electrical impulse
This is passed on to a sensory neurone which carries the impulse to the central nervous system
Here a response will be decided on and the impulse will be passed to a motor neurone (via a relay
neurone)
The motor neurone carries the impulse to the effector (muscle or gland)
The effector carries out the response

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The Eye
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Structure & Function of the Eye
The eye is a sense organ containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light (rod cells) and colour (cone
cells)
The eye diagram

The eye is adapted to detect light stimuli

Function of the eye table

Structure Function
Cornea Transparent lens that refracts (bends) light as it enters the eye

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Iris Controls how much light enters the pupil

Your notes
Transparent disc that can change shape to focus light onto the
Lens
retina
Ciliary muscles and
Control the shape of the lens
suspensory ligaments
Contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of different
Retina
colours

Fovea Contains the greatest density of light receptors

Optic nerve Sensory neurone that carries impulses to the brain

The blind spot

At the point where the optic nerve joins the retina, there are no light-sensitive rod and cone cells on
that part of the retina
Light falling onto that part of the retina will not result in an image being detected
the brain 'fills in' from surrounding light so we don't see a black hole where no light has fallen
This causes a blind spot, where we cannot detect an object in our peripheral vision even if it is there

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The Pupil Reflex - Antagonistic Muscle Action

The pupil reflex Your notes
This is a reflex action carried out to protect the retina from damage in bright light and to increase our
ability to see objects in dim light
In bright light the pupil constricts (narrows) in order to prevent too much light entering the eye and
damaging the retina
In dim light the pupil dilates (widens) in order to allow as much light into the eye as possible
Pupil reflex diagram

The pupil reflex protects the retina in bright light and maximises light reaching the retina in low light
Pupil reflex muscles diagram

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Your notes

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Pupil reflex table

Stimulus Radial muscles Circular Pupil size Light entering eye

muscles
Bright light Relaxed Contracted Narrow Less

Dim light Contracted Relaxed Wide More

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Accommodation
Accommodation: the function of the eye in focusing on near and distant objects Your notes
The way in which the lens brings about fine focusing is called accommodation
The lens is elastic and its shape can be changed when the suspensory ligaments attached to it
become tight or loose
The changes are brought about by the contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles
When an object is close up:
The ciliary muscles contract (the ring of muscle decreases in diameter)
This causes the suspensory ligaments to loosen
This stops the suspensory ligaments from pulling on the lens, which allows the lens to become
fatter
Light is refracted more
Focusing on a near object diagram

The ciliary muscles contact and the suspensory ligaments loosen to allow the eye to focus on a near
object
When an object is far away:
The ciliary muscles relax (the ring of muscle increases in diameter)
This causes the suspensory ligaments to tighten

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The suspensory ligaments pull on the lens, causing it to become thinner

Light is refracted less
Your notes
Focusing on a distant object diagram

The ciliary muscles relax and the suspensory ligaments tighten to focus on objects that are far away
Focusing on distant and near objects table

Near objects Distant objects

Ciliary muscles Contracted Relaxed

Suspensory ligaments Loose Tight

Lens Fatter Thinner

Light refraction More Less

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
The focusing of the eye on distant and near objects is complex and it can be hard to remember what is
happening. This is something you can work out in an exam if you have forgotten – staring at your hand
right in front of your eye will make your eyes feel tight and tired after a few seconds. This is because the
ciliary muscles are contracted. Staring at an object far away feels relaxing and comfortable because
the ciliary muscles are relaxed.

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Cambridge O Level Biology Your notes

14.3 Mammalian Hormones

Contents
Hormones in Humans
The Hormone Adrenaline

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Hormones in Humans
Your notes
Hormones & Their Associated Glands
What is a Hormone?
A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland and carried by the blood
The hormone alters the activity of one or more specific target organs i.e. they are chemicals which
transmit information from one part of the organism to another and bring about a change
The glands that produce hormones in animals are known collectively as the endocrine system
The endocrine system diagram

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Your notes

The endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood

Important hormones in the human body table

Hormone Source Effect

Increases heart and breathing
Adrenaline Adrenal glands
rate, dilates pupils

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Insulin Pancreas Lowers blood glucose levels

Your notes
Glucagon Pancreas Raises blood glucose levels

Male sex hormone that develops

Testosterone Testes secondary male sexual
characteristics
Female sex hormone that
Oestrogen Ovaries develops secondary female
sexual characteristics
Female sex hormone that plays a
Progesterone Ovaries
role in the menstrual cycle
Female sex hormone that plays a
LH The pituitary gland
role in the menstrual cycle
Female sex hormone that plays a
FSH The pituitary gland
role in the menstrual cycle

Transport around the body

Endocrine glands have a good blood supply as when they make hormones they need to get them into
the bloodstream (specifically the blood plasma) as soon as possible so they can travel around the
body to the target organs to bring about the response
Hormones only affect cells with target receptors that the hormone can bind to. These are either found
on the cell membrane, or inside cells. Receptors have to be complementary to hormones for there to
be an effect.
The liver regulates levels of hormones in the blood; transforming or breaking down any that are in
excess.

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Your notes

Hormones travel in the blood to target organs

Examiner Tip
You do need to be able to identify the following glands on a diagram:
The adrenal glands
The pancreas
The pituitary gland
The testes
The ovaries

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Comparison of Nervous & Hormonal Control

Your notes
Nervous system Endocrine system

Nerves (bundles of
Made up of Glands
neurones), brain, spinal cord

Type of message Electrical Chemical hormone

Speed of action Very fast Slower

Short - until the nerve Long - until the hormone is

Duration of effect
impulse stops broken down in the body

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The Hormone Adrenaline

Your notes
The Hormone Adrenaline
Adrenaline is known as the 'fight or flight' hormone as it is produced in situations where the body may
be in danger
Flight = remove oneself rapidly from a dangerous situation eg. run away
Fight = if flight is not possible, resort to physical combat to overcome danger
It causes a range of different things to happen in the body, all designed to prepare it for movement (i.e.
fight or flight)
These include:
Increasing blood glucose concentration to deliver more important glucose to muscle cells for
increased respiration
Increasing pulse rate and breathing rate so glucose and oxygen can be delivered to muscle cells,
and carbon dioxide taken away, from muscles cells more quickly
Diverting blood flow towards muscles and away from non-essential parts of the body such as the
alimentary canal; again to ensure the reactants of respiration are as available as possible
Dilating pupils to allow as much light as possible to reach the retina so more information can be
sent to the brain
Examples of situations where these effects may occur are:
Being faced with danger
An adventurous activity e.g. riding a roller coaster
Extreme sport e.g. skydiving or bungee jumping
Risky behaviour/activity e.g. parkour
A scary incident e.g. a car accident

Examiner Tip
It is worth learning this list of effects of adrenaline as it is a fairly common exam question and can be
worth several easy marks.

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Cambridge O Level Biology Your notes

14.4 Homeostasis
Contents
Homeostasis

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Homeostasis
Your notes
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment
Homeostasis means that internal conditions within the body (such as temperature, blood pressure,
water concentration, glucose concentration etc) need to be kept within set limits in order to ensure
that reactions in body cells can function and therefore the organism as a whole can live
When one of these conditions deviates far away from the normal if not brought back within set limits
the body will not function properly and the eventual consequence without medical intervention will
be death

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The Concept of Negative Feedback

Negative feedback occurs when conditions change from the ideal or set point and returns conditions Your notes
to this set point
It works in the following way:
if the level of something rises, control systems are switched on to reduce it again
if the level of something falls, control systems are switched on to raise it again
Negative feedback mechanisms are usually a continuous cycle of bringing levels down and then
bringing them back up so that overall, they stay within a narrow range of what is considered ‘normal’
Negative Feedback Diagram

The negative feedback cycle

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Cambridge O Level Biology Your notes

14.5 Temperature Control

Contents
Homeostasis: Temperature Control

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Homeostasis: Temperature Control

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The Skin & Homeostasis
Control of body temperature is a homeostatic mechanism
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment
This means that internal conditions within your body (such as temperature, blood pressure, water
concentration, glucose concentration etc) need to be kept within set limits in order to ensure that
reactions in body cells can function and therefore the organism as a whole can live
The human body maintains the temperature at which enzymes work best, around 37°C
If body temperature increases over this temperature, enzymes will denature and become less
effective at catalysing reactions such as respiration
The brain is responsible for regulating body temperature through responses in specialist structures
within the skin
Fatty tissue under the dermis acts as a layer of insulation to prevent too much body heat being lost
through the skin
The Structure of the Skin

A cross-section of human skin

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Your notes

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Maintaining a Constant Internal Temperature

Temperature Regulation & the Hypothalamus Your notes
Regulation is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain which contains receptors sensitive to the
temperature of the blood
The skin also has temperature receptors and sends nervous impulses to the brain via sensory
neurones
The brain responds to this information by sending nerve impulses to effectors in the skin to maintain
the temperature within a narrow range of the optimum, 37°C
Fatty tissue under the dermis acts as a layer of insulation to prevent too much body heat being lost
through the skin
Negative feedback loop for thermoregulation

Homeostatic responses to changes in body temperature

Responses to changes in temperature
When we are hot When we are cold

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Sweat is secreted by sweat glands, this cools the Skeletal muscles contract rapidly and we shiver.
skin by evaporation. These involuntary muscle contractions need energy
from respiration and some of this is released as Your notes
Heat energy from the body is lost when liquid heat
water in sweat becomes water vapour (a state
change)

Hairs lie flat against the skin allowing air to freely Erect hairs trap a layer of air around the skin which
circulate, this increases heat transfer to the acts as an insulator, preventing heat loss by
environment by radiation. radiation.

Vasodilation occurs Vasoconstriction occurs

Vasoconstriction & Vasodilation

When we are cold blood flow in capillaries slows down because arterioles leading to the skin capillaries
get narrower - this is known as vasoconstriction
This reduces the amount of heat lost from blood by radiation as less blood flows through the surface
of the skin
When we are hot blood flow in capillaries increases because blood vessels to the skin capillaries get
wider - this is known as vasodilation
This cools the body as blood (which carries heat around the body) is flowing at a faster rate through the
skin’s surface and so more heat is lost by radiation
Vasodilation diagram

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Your notes

Responses in the skin when hot

Vasoconstriction diagram

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Your notes

Responses in the skin when cold

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Cambridge O Level Biology Your notes

14.6 Blood Glucose Control

Contents
Controlling Blood Glucose Concentration

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Controlling Blood Glucose Concentration

Your notes
Blood Glucose Control
The importance of blood glucose regulation
Blood glucose concentration must be kept within a narrow range, so it’s another example of
homeostasis
Eating foods containing carbohydrate leads to an increase in blood glucose; in this situation blood
glucose levels must be brought back down to normal levels
Excess glucose in the blood can lower blood water potential, causing water to move out of body
cells into the blood by osmosis
Periods of fasting, or intense exercise, can lead to a decrease in blood glucose; here the blood
glucose levels must be increased back to normal levels
Glucose is an essential reactant in respiration, so must be available to body cells at all times

Hormones and blood glucose regulation

Blood glucose concentration is monitored and controlled by the pancreas
The pancreas is an endocrine gland that makes and secretes hormones
The pancreas has a separate role in the production of digestive enzymes
Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback mechanism involving the production of
two hormones; insulin and glucagon
A negative feedback mechanism works to reverse any changes, bringing levels back to within
normal limits, e.g.
Reversing any changes in body temperature to bring core temperature back to normal
Reversing changes in blood glucose to maintain normal blood glucose concentrations
Any changes in blood glucose are detected by the pancreas, which then secretes either the hormones
insulin or glucagon in response to any changes:
Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises
Insulin stimulates liver cells and muscle cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen
Glycogen can be stored inside cells
Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls
Glucagon stimulates liver cells and muscle cells to convert stored glycogen into glucose
Glucose can be released into the blood
Blood glucose regulation diagram

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Your notes

Blood glucose levels are regulated by the pancreas by the actions of the hormones insulin and
glucagon. Adrenaline may also be involved when blood glucose levels drop too far

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
The terms 'glucagon' and 'glycogen' are very often mixed up by students; remember that:
Glucagon is a hormone
Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide
Learn the differences between these terms so you do not get confused in the exam!
A silly tip to help you remember some key facts about insulin and glucagon is:
Glucagon is produced when "glucose is gone"
Insulin helps get glucose "In to the liver" (as glycogen)

Type 1 Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes is a condition in which blood glucose levels cannot be regulated; this is because the
insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas are not able to produce insulin
This is the result of an autoimmune condition in which the body's immune system attacks and
destroys cells in the pancreas
Signs of type 1 diabetes include
High blood glucose levels
Glucose in the urine
Treating type 1 diabetes involves injecting insulin
Insulin causes the liver to convert glucose into glycogen, which reduces blood glucose levels
People with type 1 diabetes need to monitor their blood glucose levels throughout the day as their
levels of physical activity and their diet affect the volume of insulin that should be injected
A carefully regulated diet, and regulated exercise, can also help to control blood glucose levels

Examiner Tip
Type 2 diabetes is not in the specification, so you don't need to learn about it; you only need to know
the symptoms and treatment of type 1 diabetes.

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