THE PROCESSING

SOLUTIONS
Sarah Mae B. Zaragoza, RRT
November 2024
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Understand the concept of pH
2. Identify the different chemicals that make-up the solutions
3. Discuss the function of different chemicals that make up
the processing solutions.
4. Appreciate the different functions of each solution.
5. Recognize the safety requirement when mixing and using
the processing solutions.
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TOPIC CONTENT
• The concept of pH
• Developer Solution
• Fixer Solution
• Factors affecting the quality of the solutions
 The concept of pH 3

pH is a quantitative method of
measuring the degree of acidity or
alkalinity of a solution

Pure water was chosen as the basis of

the pH scale. H20 is slightly ionized
into H+ ions and OH- ions.
The concept of pH 4
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The concept of pH
Developers
• Most developers for automatic processing have a pH range
of 9.6-10.6
• To work to its optimum efficiency pH should be
maintained within +0.2 of the manufacturer’s
recommended value.
Fixers
• Fixers for automatic processing have a pH range of 4.2-4.9
• It should also be maintained at recommended value.
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DEVELOPER
Conversion - must be able to convert exposed crystals to black metallic
1 silvers.

Selectivity - must differentiate between exposed silver halide crystals

2 from unexposed silver halide crystals, changing only the exposed crystals
to metallic silvers.
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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Developing Agent (Reducing Agent)
• Agent
⚬ Phenidone - produces shades of gray very rapidly
⚬ Hyroquinone - produces black tones slowly
• Other Agent
⚬ Methol (instead of phenidone in manual processing)
• Function
⚬ Converts exposed silver halide crystals to black metallic silvers.
⚬ Provides electrons to the crystals to change positive silver ions to
black metallic neutral silver atoms.
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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Accelerator (Activator)
• Agent
⚬ Sodium Hydroxide or
⚬ Potassium Hydroxide
• Other Agent
⚬ Sodium Carbonate
• Function
⚬ Controls developer activity by ensuring correct pH value.
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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Buffer
• Is a solution in which the hydrogen concentration is practically
unchanged by dilution, and which resists change in pH on the addition
of acid or alkali.
• Agent
⚬ Boric Acid + Sodium Hydroxide
• Function
⚬ Buffer helps maintain pH and therefore activity by absorbing
harmful by-products of development action (products of
exhaustion)
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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Development process releases bromine ions from the silver
bromide complexes and hydrogen ions from developing
agent.

Bromine Ions + Hydrogen Ions = Hydrobromic Acid

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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Restrainer (Anti-foggant)
• Agent • Other Agent
⚬ Potassium bromide (inorganic), or ⚬ Potassium Iodide
⚬ Benzotriazole (organic)
• Function
⚬ Improves selectivity of developer, ensuring low fog and high image contrast.
⚬ It restricts the action of the developing agent only to those silver halide crystals that have been
exposed.
⚬ Its action is to increase the effective bromine barriers that exist around silver bromide crystals.
⚬ Prevents development of fog.
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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Preservative
• Agent • Other Agent
⚬ Potassium metabisulfite ⚬ Sodium Sulfite
• Function
⚬ Reduces aerial oxidation to minimum.
⚬ Aerial Oxidation - happens when developing agent particularly hydroquinone is
exposed to air during mixing, handling and storing of mixed solution.

developing agents + oxygen = oxidized dev. agents + OH- ions

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Methods of Reducing Aerial Oxidation

High preservative level in the Floating lid in the developer

developer. replenisher tank
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Methods of Reducing Aerial Oxidation

Closely fitting rollers

Deep narrow tanks

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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Sequestering Agent
• Agent - chelates such as:
⚬ EDTA Sodium Salt (Sodium salt of Ethylenediaminetetraacetic
Acid)
• Other Agent
⚬ Calgon (Sodium Hexametaphosphate)
⚬ Boric acids/salts
• Function
⚬ Softens hard water supplies, thus preventing precipitation of the
calcium and magnesium salts onto the surface of the film.
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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Solvent
• Agent
⚬ water

• Function
⚬ Acts as a solvent for all chemicals and by-products of developer
action.
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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Other Additions
• Hardening Agent
⚬ Glutaraldehyde
⚬ Reduces emulsion swelling and softening.
• Wetting Agent
⚬ detergent-based derivatives
⚬ Stimulates uniform development by reducing the surface tension
between the developing solution and film emulsion
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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Other Additions
• Anti-frothant (Anti-foaming)
⚬ Reduces foaming mainly due to the presence of wetting agent.

• Fungicide
⚬ Prevents the growth of fungi
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DEVELOPER CONSTITUENTS
Starter Solution
• Added to machine tank developer, when starting the processor from
dry.
• Agent
⚬ Potassium Bromide + Acetic Acid
• Function
⚬ Depresses the pH of the developer, therefore reducing the
activity of the solution.
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DEVELOPER REPLENISHER
Replenisher replaces the exhausted developer
and maintains the concentration of other
active components at the correct level.

Average replenishment is 40-60ml for every

35cm film.
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DEVELOPER REPLENISHER
Factors Affecting Developer Replenishment
• area of film processed
• average density of the film
• maximum density required
• silver content of the film
• thickness of emulsion
• single or duplitized coating
• amount of aerial oxidation
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SAFETY
Developer chemicals, particularly the accelerator, are caustic.
Protective eyewear and apron should be work
when mixing chemicals.
If chemicals are splashed on eyes and skin,
rinse immediately.
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FIXER
Conversion - must be able to convert unexposed, undeveloped silver
1 halide crystals to soluble silver complexes.

Selectivity - must have no effect on either the metallic silver in the

2 developed image or the gelatin in which it is suspended.
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FIXER CONSTITUENTS
Fixing Agent (Clearing Agent)
• Agent
⚬ Amomonium Thiosulfate (10-13 sec. fixing time)
⚬ Sodium Thiosulfate (8-10 minutes fixing time)
• Function
⚬ Converts unexposed, undeveloped silver bromide into water
soluble silver complexes.
⚬ This renders the image permanent.
⚬ Also produces the transparent appearance of the film as the areas
of the film that received no exposure.
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FIXER CONSTITUENTS
Acid (Activator)
• Agent
⚬ Acetic Acid (w/ aluminum chloride as hardener)
⚬ Sulfuric Acid (w/ aluminum sulfate as hardener)
• Function
⚬ Stops development by neutralizing the alkali developer.
⚬ Provides the correct pH level for the hardening agent.
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FIXER CONSTITUENTS
Buffer
• Agent
⚬ Acetic Acid + Preservative

• Function
⚬ Maintains the pH of the fixing solution within fine tolerances.
⚬ pH in fixer increases because of the addition of small amount of
developer.
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FIXER CONSTITUENTS
Preservative
• Agent
⚬ Sodium Sulfite
⚬ Potassium Sulfite
• Function
⚬ Prevents or reduces to minimum the breakdown of fixing agent
into sulfur particles.

Thiosulfate + acid = sulfurization + sulfite ions = soluble complex

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FIXER CONSTITUENTS
Hardener
• Agent
⚬ Aluminum Chloride
⚬ Aluminum Sulfate
⚬ Potassium Alum
⚬ Chromium Alum
• Function
⚬ Controls the swelling and softening of the emulsion.
⚬ Aluminum ions causes cross-linking of gelatin polymer within the
emulsion.
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FIXER CONSTITUENTS
Solvent
• Agent
⚬ Water
• Function
⚬ Act as a solvent for fixer chemicals and by-products of fixation.
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FIXER REPLENISHER
Average replenishment is 80-100ml for every 35cm film.
Factors affecting fixer replenishment:
⚬ Area of film processed
⚬ Average density of the film
⚬ Silver content of the film
⚬ Thickness of emulsion
⚬ Single or duplitized coating
⚬ Silver level required
⚬ pH level required
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REFERENCES
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