HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

1. The discovery of blood circulation by William Harvey using experimental method.

2. health could be defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.
3. When the functioning of one or more organs or systems of the body is adversely affected,
characterised by various signs and symptoms, we say that we are not healthy, i.e., we have a disease.
4. Diseases can be broadly grouped into infectious and non-infectious.
5. Diseases which are easily transmitted from one person to another, are called infectious diseases.
6. Some of the infectious diseases like AIDS are fatal. Among non-infectious diseases, cancer is
the major cause of death.
7. disease- causing organisms are called pathogens.
8. Most parasites are therefore pathogens as they cause harm to the host by living in (or on) them.
9. Pathogens have to adapt to life within the environment of the host.
10. the pathogens that enter the gut must know a way of surviving in the stomach at low pH and
resisting the various digestive enzymes.
11. Salmonella typhi is a pathogenic bacterium which causes typhoid fever in human beings.
12. These pathogens generally enter the small intestine through food and water contaminated with
them and migrate to other organs through blood.
13. Sustained high fever (39° to 40°C), weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache and loss of
appetite are some of the common symptoms of this disease.
14. Intestinal perforation and death may occur in severe cases.
15. Typhoid fever could be confirmed by Widal test.
16. Bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae are responsible for the
disease pneumonia in humans which infects the alveoli (air filled sacs) of the lungs.
17. the alveoli get filled with fluid leading to severe problems in respiration.
18. A healthy person acquires the infection by inhaling the droplets/aerosols released by an
infected person
19. Dysentery, plague, diphtheria, etc., are some of the other bacterial diseases in man.
20. Rhino viruses represent one such group of viruses which cause one of the most infectious human
ailments – the common cold.
21. They infect the nose and respiratory passage but not the lungs.
22. Some of the human diseases are caused by protozoans too. You might have heard about malaria,
a disease man has been fighting since many years.
23. Plasmodium, a tiny protozoan is responsible for this disease.
24. Different species of Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. malaria and P. falciparum) are responsible for
different types of malaria.
25. Of these, malignant malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum is the most serious one and can
even be fatal.
26. Plasmodium enters the human body as sporozoites (infectious form) through the bite of
infected female Anopheles mosquito.
27. The parasites initially multiply within the liver cells and then attack the red blood cells (RBCs)
resulting in their rupture.
28. The rupture of RBCs is associated with release of a toxic substance, haemozoin, which is
responsible for the chill and high fever recurring every three to four days.
29. When a female Anopheles mosquito bites an infected person, these parasites enter the
mosquito’s body and undergo further development.
30. The parasites multiply within them to form sporozoites that are stored in their salivary glands.
31. When these mosquitoes bite a human, the sporozoites are introduced into his/ her body,
thereby initiating the events mentioned above.
32. It is interesting to note that the malarial parasite requires two hosts – human and mosquitoes –
to complete its life cycle :the female Anopheles mosquito is the vector (transmitting agent) too.
33. Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite in the large intestine of human which causes
amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery).
34. Symptoms of this disease include constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess
mucous and blood clots.
35. Houseflies act as mechanical carriers and serve to transmit the parasite from faeces of
infected person to food and food products, thereby contaminating them.
36. Drinking water and food contaminated by the faecal matter are the main source of infection.
37. the filarial worm, are some of the helminths which are known to be pathogenic to man.
38. Ascaris, an intestinal parasite causes ascariasis.
39. Symptoms of these disease include internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia and blockage
of the intestinal passage.
40. The eggs of the parasite are excreted along with the faeces of infected persons which
contaminate soil, water, plants, etc.
41. A healthy person acquires this infection through contaminated water, vegetables, fruits.
42. Wuchereria (W. bancrofti and W. malayi), the filarial worms cause a slowly developing chronic
inflammation of the organs in which they live for many years, usually the lymphatic vessels of the
lower limbs and the disease is called elephantiasis or filariasis .
43. The genital organs are also often affected, resulting in gross deformities.
44. The pathogens are transmitted to a healthy person through the bite by the female mosquito
vectors.
45. Many fungi belonging to the genera Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton are
responsible for ringworms which is one of the most common infectious diseases in man.
46. Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various parts of the body such as skin, nails and scalp are
the main symptoms of the disease.
47. Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow, which makes them thrive in skin folds such as those
in the groin or between the toes.
48. introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae, eliminate the vectors
49. incidences of the vector-borne (Aedes mosquitoes) diseases like dengue and chikungunya in
many parts of India.
50. A large number of other infectious diseases like polio, diphtheria, pneumonia and tetanus have
been controlled to a large extent by the use of vaccines.
51. This overall ability of the host to fight the disease-causing organisms, conferred by the immune
system is called immunity.
52. Immunity is of two types: (i) Innate immunity and (ii) Acquired immunity.53. Innate immunity is
non-specific type of defence, that is present at the time of birth.
54. four types of barriers. These are
 1. Physical barriers : Skin on our body is the main barrier which prevents entry of the micro-
organisms.
2. Physiological barriers :Acid in the stomach,salivainthemouth, tears from eyes–all prevent
microbial growth.
3. Cellular barriers : Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body like polymorpho-nuclear
leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils) andmonocytes and natural killer (type of lymphocytes) in the blood
as well as macrophages in tissues can phagocytose and destroy microbes.
4. Cytokine barriers : Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which protect non-
infected cells from further viral infection.

55. Acquired immunity, on the other hand, is pathogen specific. It is characterised by memory.
56. This means that our body when it encounters a pathogen for the first time produces a response
called primary response which is of low intensity.
57. This is ascribed to the fact that our body appears to have memory of the first encounter.
58. The primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with the help of two special types
of lymphocytes present in our blood, i.e., B-lymphocytes and T- lymphocytes.The B-lymphocytes
produce an army of proteins in response to pathogens into our blood to fight with them.
59. These proteins are called antibodies.
60. The T-cells themselves do not secrete antibodies but help B cells produce them.
61. Each antibody molecule has four peptide chains, two small called light chains and two longer
called heavy chains. Hence, an antibody is represented as H2L2.
62. Different types of antibodies are produced in our body. IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG are some of them.
63. Because these antibodies are found in the blood, the response is also called as humoral immune
response.
64. This is one of the two types of our acquired immune response – antibody mediated.
65. The second type is called cell-mediated immune response or cell-mediated immunity (CMI).
66. The T-lymphocytes mediate CMI.
67. CMI is seen in organ transplantation. The body is able to differentiate ‘self ’ and ‘nonself’ and
the cell-mediated immune response is responsible for the graft rejection.
68. When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or dead microbes or
other proteins, antibodies are produced in the host body.
69. This type of immunity is called active immunity. Active immunity is slow and takes time to give
its full effective response.
70. When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign agents, it is
called passive immunity.
71. The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during the initial days of lactation has
abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant.
72. The foetus also receives some antibodies from their mother, through the placenta during
pregnancy.
73. The principle of immunisation or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’ of the immune
system.
74. In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated/weakened
pathogen (vaccine) are introduced into the body.
75. The vaccines also generate memory – B and T -cells that recognise the pathogen quickly on
subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with a massive production of antibodies.
76. In tetanus, we need to directly inject the preformed antibodies, or antitoxin (a preparation
containing antibodies to the toxin).
77. Even in cases of snakebites, the injection which is given to the patients, contain preformed
antibodies against the snake venom. This type of immunisation is called passive immunisation.
78. Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of antigenic polypeptides of pathogen
in bacteria or yeast e.g., hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.
79. The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment
is called allergy.
80. The substances to which such an immune response is produced are called allergens.
81. The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type.
82. The use of drugs like anti-histamine, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of
allergy.
83. higher vertebrates can distinguish foreign molecules as well as foreign organisms or sometimes,
due to genetic and other unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cells. This results in damage to
the body and is called auto-immune disease.
84. Rheumatoid arthritis which affects many people in our society is an auto-immune disease.
85. The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble molecules like
antibodies.
86. The immune system also plays an important role in allergic reactions, auto-immune diseases and
organ transplantation.
87. Lymphoid organs: These are the organs where origin and/or maturation and proliferation of
lymphocytes occur.
88. The primary lymphoid organs are bone marrow and thymus where immature lymphocytes
differentiate into antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
89. After maturation the lymphocytes migrate to secondary lymphoid organs like spleen, lymph
nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of small intestine and appendix.
90. The secondary lymphoid organs provide the sites for interaction of lymphocytes with the
antigen, which then proliferate to become effector cells.
91. The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including lymphocytes are
produced
92. Both bone-marrow and thymus provide micro-environments for the development and maturation
of T-lymphocytes.
93. Both bone-marrow and thymus provide micro- environments for the development and maturation
of T-lymphocytes.
94. The spleen is a large bean- shaped organ. It mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes. It
acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne micro- organisms.
95. Spleen also has a large reservoir of erythrocytes.
96. Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes present
there and cause the immune response.
97. There is lymphoid tissue also located within the lining of the major tracts (respiratory,
digestive and urogenital tracts) called mucosa- associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). It constitutes
about 50 per cent of the lymphoid tissue in human body.
98. The word AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome and was first reported in
1981 and in the last twenty-five years or so, it has spread all over the world killing more than 25
million persons.
99. AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a group of viruses
called retrovirus, which have an envelope enclosing the RNA genome.
100. Transmission of HIV-infection generally occurs by (a) sexual contact with infected person, (b)
by transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products,
101. the virus enters into macrophages where RNA genome of the virus replicates to form viral DNA
with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
102. This viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell’s DNA and directs the infected cells to produce
virus particles.
103. The macrophages continue to produce virus and in this way acts like a HIV factory.
104. Simultaneously, HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes (TH), replicates and produce progeny
viruses. The progeny viruses released in the blood attack other helper T-lymphocytes.
105. This is repeated leading to a progressive decrease in the number of helper T- lymphocytes in
the body of the infected person.
106. Due to decrease in the number of helper T lymphocytes, the person starts suffering from
infections that could have been otherwise overcome such as those due to bacteria especially
Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma.
107. A widely used diagnostic test for AIDS is enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA).
108. Treatment of AIDS with anti-retroviral drugs is only partially effective.
109. They can only prolong the life of the patient but cannot prevent death, which is inevitable.
110. Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases of human beings and is a major cause of death all
over the globe.
111. In cancer cells, there is breakdown of these regulatory mechanisms.
112. Normal cells show a property called contact inhibition by virtue of which contact with other
cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth. Cancer cells appears to have lost this property.
113. As a result of this, cancerous cells just continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called
tumors.
114. Tumors are of two types: benign and malignant.
115. Benign tumors normally remain confined to their original location and do not spread to other
parts of the body and cause little damage.
116. The malignant tumors, on the other hand are a mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or
tumor cells.
117. As these cells actively divide and grow they also starve the normal cells by competing for vital
nutrients.
118. Cells sloughed from such tumors reach distant sites through blood, and wherever they get
lodged in the body, they start a new tumor there.
119. This property called metastasis is the most feared property of malignant tumors.
120. Transformation of normal cells into cancerous neoplastic cells may be induced by physical,
chemical or biological agents. These agents are called carcinogens.
121. Ionising radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like UV cause DNA
damage leading to neoplastic transformation.
122. Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic viruses have genes called viral oncogenes.
123. Furthermore, several genes called cellular oncogenes (c-onc) or proto oncogenes have been
identified in normal cells which, when activated under certain conditions, could lead to oncogenic
transformation of the cells.
124. Cancer detection is based on biopsy and histopathological studies of the tissue and blood and
bone marrow tests for increased cell counts in the case of leukemias.
125. Techniques like radiography (use of X-rays), CT (computed tomography) and MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging) are very useful to detect cancers of the internal organs.
126. Computed tomography uses X-rays to generate a three-dimensional image of the internals of an
object.
127. MRI uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to accurately detect pathological
and physiological changes in the living tissue.
128. Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens are also used for detection of certain cancers.
129. Techniques of molecular biology can be applied to detect genes in individuals with inherited
susceptibility to certain cancers.
130. The common approaches for treatment of cancer are surgery, radiation therapy and
immunotherapy.
131. Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Tumor
cells have been shown to avoid detection and destruction by immune system.
132. the patients are given substances called biological response modifiers such as α-interferon
which activates their immune system and helps in destroying the tumor.
133. The drugs, which are commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids.
134. Majority of these are obtained from flowering plants. Some are obtained from fungi.
135. Opioids are the drugs, which bind to specific opioid receptors present in our central nervous
system and gastrointestinal tract.
136. Heroin commonly called smack is chemically diacetylmorphine which is a white, odourless, bitter
crystalline compound.
137. This is obtained by acetylation of morphine which is extracted from the latex of poppy plant
Papaver somniferum
138. Generally taken by snorting and injection, heroin is a depressant and slows down body
functions.
139. Cannabinoids are a group of chemicals which interact with cannabinoid receptors present
principally in the brain.
140. Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescences of the plant Cannabis sativa
141. The flower tops, leaves and the resin of cannabis plant are used in various combinations to
produce marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja.
142. Generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion, these are known for their effects on
cardiovascular system of the body.
143. Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca, native to South
America.
144. It interferes with the transport of the neuro-transmitter dopamine.
145. Cocaine, commonly called coke or crack is usually snorted.
146. It has a potent stimulating action on central nervous system, producing a sense of euphoria and
increased energy.
147. Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.
148. Other well-known plants with hallucinogenic properties are Atropa belladona and Datura.
149. These days cannabinoids are also being abused by some sportspersons.
150. Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, and other similar drugs, that are
normally used as medicines to help patients cope with mental illnesses like depression and insomnia,
are often abused.
151. Morphine is a very effective sedative and painkiller, and is very useful in patients who have
undergone surgery.
152. Tobacco contains a large number of chemical substances including nicotine, an alkaloid.
153. Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood
circulation, both of which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate.
154. Smoking is associated with increased incidence of cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat,
bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc. T
155. Tobacco chewing is associated with increased risk of cancer of the oral cavity.
156. Smoking increases carbon monoxide (CO) content in blood and reduces the concentration of
haembound oxygen.
157. The period between 12-18 years of age may be thought of as adolescence period. dolescence,
thus is a very vulnerable phase of mental and psychological development of an individual.
158. Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects – such as euphoria and a temporary
feeling of well-being – associated with drugs and alcohol.
159. Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant
withdrawal syndrome if regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued.
160. This is characterised by anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating, which may be relieved when
use is resumed again.
161. Those who take drugs intravenously (direct injection into the vein using a needle and syringe),
are much more likely to acquire serious infections like AIDS and Hepatitis B.
162. The chronic use of drugs and alcohol damages nervous system and liver (cirrhosis).
163. The side-effects of the use of anabolic steroids in females include masculinisation (features
like males), increased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, abnormal menstrual cycles,
excessive hair growth on the face and body, enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice.
164. In males it includes acne, increased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, reduction of size
of the testicles, decreased sperm production, potential for kidney and liver dysfunction, breast
enlargement, premature baldness, enlargement of the prostate gland.
165. Some of the measures mentioned here would be
1. Avoid undue peer pressure
2. Education and counselling
3. Seeking help from parents and peers
4. Looking for danger signs
5. Seeking professional and medical help

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