Oxford A LEVEL

AQA History AND AS

The Tudors: England 1485–1603

REVISION GUIDE
eBook RECAP APPLY REVIEW SUCCEED
Available

David Brown
Margaret Haynes

2
Oxford A LEVEL
AQA History AND AS

The Tudors: England 1485–1603

REVISION GUIDE
RECAP APPLY REVIEW SUCCEED

David Brown
Margaret Haynes

2
3 Acknowledgements
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom The publisher would like to thank Michael Tilbrook and Sally Waller
for their work on the Student Book on which this Revision Guide is
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
based.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research,
scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a From the author, David Brown: I would like to thank the editorial
registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in staff at OUP, especially Janice Chan and Becky DeLozier, for their
certain other countries help and suggestions. I would also like to acknowledge the support
of my parents, Gilbert and Evelyn, my late brother, Michael, my
© Oxford University Press 2017
wife and children, Janet, Daniel and Ceri Brown, my work colleague,
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted. David Storey, Sally Waller and my friend, Dr. Rebecca Carpenter.

First published in 2017 The publishers would like to thank the following for permissions to
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Contents

Introduction to this Revision Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

How to master the AQA extracts question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
How to master the AQA essay question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
AQA AS and A Level History mark schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The Tudors: England 1485–1603 timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

PART ONE AS AND A LEVEL

Consolidation of the Tudor dynasty: England, 1485–1547 RECAP APPLY REVIEW

SECTION 1 Henry VII, 1485–1509

1 The consolidation of power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Henry VII’s government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3 England’s relations with Scotland and other foreign
powers, 1485–1509 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4 English society at the end of the 15th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5 Economic development: trade, exploration, prosperity
and depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6 Religion, humanism, arts and learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Exam Practice: AS Level essay sample answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

SECTION 2 Henry VIII, 1509–1547

7 The character and aims of Henry VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

8 Henry VIII, government and Parliament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9 Foreign relations and securing the succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
10 English society in the reign of Henry VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
11 Economic development in the reign of Henry VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
12 Religion, ideas and reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Exam Practice: AS Level extracts sample answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3
 Contents continued

PART TWO A LEVEL

England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603 RECAP APPLY REVIEW

SECTION 3 Instability and consolidation: ‘the Mid-Tudor Crisis’, 1547–1563

13 Edward VI, Somerset and Northumberland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

14 The social impact of religious and economic change
under Edward VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
15 Mary I and her ministers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
16 The social impact of religious and economic
changes under Mary I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17 Elizabeth I: character and aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
18 The impact of economic, social and religious
developments in the early years of Elizabeth’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Exam Practice: A Level essay sample answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

SECTION 4 The triumph of Elizabeth, 1563–1603

19 Elizabethan government, 1563–1603 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

20 Foreign affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
21 Society in Elizabethan England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
22 Economic development in Elizabethan England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
23 Religious developments and the ‘Golden Age’
of Elizabethan culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
24 The last years of Elizabeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Exam Practice: A Level extracts sample answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Activities: Suggested answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Top revision tips for A Level History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

4
 INTRODUCTION

Introduction
The Oxford AQA History for A Level textbook series has been developed by a team of expert teachers
and examiners led by Sally Waller . This matching Revision Guide offers well-researched, targeted
revision and exam practice advice on the new AQA exams .
This guide offers you step-by-step strategies to master your AQA History exam skills, and the structured
revision approach of Recap, Apply and Review to prepare you for exam success . Use the progress
checklists on pages 3–4 as you work through the guide to keep track of your revision, and use the traffic
light feature REVISION PROGRESS on each page to monitor your confidence level on each topic .
Other exam practice and revision features include the ‘How to...’ guides for each AQA question type on
pages 6–7 and a Timeline of key events to help you see the themes .

RECAP
Each chapter recaps key events and developments through a variety of concise points and visual diagrams .
Key terms appear in bold and red; they are defined in the glossary . S B 1–59 indicates the relevant Oxford AQA History Student
Book pages so you can easily cross-reference for further revision .

SUMMARY highlights the most important points at the Key Chronology provides a short list of dates to
end of each chapter . help you remember key events .

APPLY
Carefully designed revision activities help drill your grasp of knowledge and understanding, and enable you to apply your
knowledge towards exam-style questions .

Apply Your Knowledge activity tests your basic Extract Analysis activity helps you practise
comprehension, then helps apply what you know to evaluating extracts and prepares you for the extracts
exam questions . question in your exam .

Plan Your Essay activity prepares you for essay exam Key Question covers the six thematic questions,
questions with practical essay plans and techniques . which are strongly linked to the essay questions you
might find in your exams . This activity helps to drill
Improve an Answer activity shows you one or more your understanding of the key themes for The Tudors:
sample student answers, and helps you to evaluate England 1485–1603:
how the answers could be improved . • How effectively did the Tudors restore and develop
the powers of the monarchy?
A Level essay activities (for example, To What Extent • In what ways and how effectively was England
or Assess the Validity of This View) are extension governed during this period?
activities that help you practise the A Level essay • How did relations with foreign powers change and
question . how was the succession secured?
• How did English society and economy change and
Revision Skills provides different revision techniques . with what effects?
Research shows that using a variety of revision styles • How far did intellectual and religious ideas change
can help cement your knowledge and understanding . and develop and with what effects?
• How important was the role of key individuals
Examiner Tip highlights key parts of an exam and groups and how were they affected by
question, and gives you hints on how to avoid developments?
common mistakes in exams .

REVIEW
Throughout each chapter, there will be opportunities to reflect on the work you have done, and support on where to go
for further revision to refresh your knowledge . You can tick off the Review column from the progress checklist once you’ve
completed this . Activities: Suggested answers and the Exam Practice sections with full sample student answers also help
you review your own work . Also, don’t forget to refer to the Top Revision Tips for A Level History on page 140 to help you
organise your revision successfully .

5
 The topic The Tudors: England 1485–1603 is a Component 1: Breadth Study,
which means you should be familiar with the Key Questions relating to the topic
and the skill of evaluating differing historical interpretations.

AS exam lasts 1.5 hours (90 minutes), and you have to answer two questions.
The LEVEL
A exam lasts 2.5 hours (150 minutes), and you have to answer three questions.
The LEVEL

On these pages, you will find guidance on how to tackle each type of question in your exam .

How to master the AQA extracts question

In Section A of your Tudors exam, you will encounter one EXAMINER TIP
extracts question that you must answer . Here are the steps
to consider when tackling the extracts question: AS You have to answer one extracts
LEVEL
question on two interpretations (worth
1 Look at the question posed 25 marks) . Try to spend about 50
Note (underline or highlight) the topic in relation to minutes on this question .
which the extracts need to be evaluated . A You have to answer one extracts
LEVEL
question on three interpretations
(worth 30 marks) . Try to spend about 60
minutes on this question .

2 Read the first extract carefully EXAMINER TIP

Keep the topic in mind . Underline or highlight the parts of
Look again at the extract: see if there are any
the extract that provide an argument in relation to this topic sub-arguments or interpretations . Underline or
(remember this will not always be in the first sentence) . highlight these in a different colour .
These parts should give you the ‘overall’ argument .

3 Begin your evaluation EXAMINER TIP

Identify the overall argument of the extract, then
To provide a fully convincing answer, repeat
evaluate the argument . Refer to your own knowledge . step 3 for any sub-arguments .
You should cite material which both supports and
challenges the view the extract puts forward .

4 Make a judgement
Provide some supporting comment on how convincing the argument in the extract is in relation to
the topic of the question .

5 Follow the same steps 2–4 for the next extract or REVIEW
extracts.
Take a look at the Exam Practice sections
At AS you will need a further paragraph in which you
LEVEL
starting on pages 71 and 125 of this guide
compare the two extracts directly and give a judgement to reflect on sample answers to the extracts
on which is the more convincing . question .
At A you don’t need to make any comparative
LEVEL

judgements and there is no need for an overall conclusion .

6
How to master the AQA essay question
In Section B of your Tudors exam, you will encounter a EXAMINER TIP
choice of essay questions . Here are the steps to consider
when tackling an essay question: AS You have to answer one essay question
LEVEL
(worth 25 marks) from a choice of
1 Read the question carefully two questions . Try to spend about 40
minutes on this question .
Note (underline or highlight) key words and dates .
You have to answer two essay questions
A
LEVEL (each worth 25 marks) from a choice of
three questions . Try to spend about 45
minutes on each answer .

2 Plan your essay and form a judgement EXAMINER TIP

Decide which approach will best enable you to answer
Plans can be in the form of columns, spider
the question – this may be chronological or thematic .
diagrams, mind-maps, flow charts and other
styles, but should help you to both form a
judgement and to devise a coherent structure
for your answer .

3 Introduce your argument

State your judgement (view) in the introduction . The
introduction should also be used to show your
understanding of the question, particularly key terms
and dates, and to acknowledge alternative views
and factors .

4 Develop your argument EXAMINER TIP

The essay should proceed logically, supporting your
balanced argument through the opening statements Don’t forget to write analytically . Your job
is to argue a case and evaluate events,
of the paragraphs . Remember: comment first, then developments and ideas, rather than simply
provide specific and precise supporting information . describing what happened in a story-telling
(narrative) fashion .

EXAMINER TIP
A good essay will have a balanced argument .
You should examine alternative ideas and
factors, and explain why they are less
convincing than those you are supporting .

5 Conclude your argument REVIEW

Your conclusion should repeat the judgement given
In the Exam Practice sections starting on
in the introduction and summarise your argument . A pages 41 and 98, you will find sample answers
good conclusion will not include any new information and helpful examiner tips to the essay exam
and will flow naturally from what has gone before . question .

7
 AQA AS and A Level History mark schemes
Below are simplified versions of the AQA mark schemes, to help you understand
the marking criteria for your Component 1: Breadth Study History exam paper .

AS
LEVEL
Section A: Extracts Section B: Essay

5 Good understanding of interpretations . Very Good understanding of the question . Range of knowledge,
good knowledge . Comparison contains a with specific supporting information . Analytical, well-
substantiated judgment . [21–25 marks] argued answer . Structured effectively . Substantiated
judgement . [21–25 marks]
4 Good understanding of interpretations . Good Good understanding of the question . Range of knowledge .
knowledge . Partly substantiated comparison . Analytical, balanced answer . Structured effectively . Some
[16–20 marks] judgement . [16–20 marks]
3 Reasonable understanding of interpretations . Reasonable understanding of the question . Some
Adequate own knowledge . Partial comparison . knowledge, with limited scope . Answer contains some
[11–15 marks] balance . Structured adequately . Partial judgement .
[11–15 marks]
2 Partial understanding of interpretations . Some Partial understanding of the question . Some knowledge,
knowledge . Undeveloped comparison . with very limited scope . Answer contains limited balance,
[6–10 marks] or is descriptive . There is some structure . Undeveloped
judgement . [6–10 marks]
1 Little understanding of interpretations . Limited Limited understanding of the question . Limited
knowledge . Vague or too general comparison . knowledge . Answer is vague or too general . Structure is
[1–5 marks] weak . Unsupported judgement . [1–5 marks]

A
LEVEL
Section A: Extracts Section B: Essays

5 Very good understanding of interpretations . Very good understanding of the question and of the
Strong and well-supported evaluation of issues/concepts . Range of knowledge, with specific and
arguments . Very good knowledge, used precise supporting information . Full analytical, balanced
convincingly . [25–30 marks] answer . Good organisation, structured effectively . Well-
substantiated judgement . [21–25 marks]
4 Good understanding of interpretations . Good Good understanding of the question and of the issues/
and mostly well-supported evaluation of concepts . Range of knowledge, with specific and precise
arguments . Good knowledge, used convincingly . supporting information . Analytical, balanced answer . Good
[19–24 marks] organisation, structured effectively . Some judgement .
[16–20 marks]
3 Reasonable understanding of interpretations . Reasonable understanding of the question, with some
Some evaluation of arguments, may contain awareness of the issues/concepts . Range of knowledge,
some imbalance or lack of depth . Knowledge is may contain imprecise supporting information . Answer
present, used accurately . [13–18 marks] links to the question and contains some balance .
Structured effectively . Partial judgement . [11–15 marks]
2 Partial understanding of interpretations Partial understanding of the question, with some
(accurate for at least two extracts) . Little awareness of the issues/concepts (may contain
evaluation of arguments, may contain some generalisations) . Some knowledge, with limited scope .
generalisations . Some knowledge is present . Answer contains limited balance, or is descriptive . There is
[7–12 marks] some structure . Undeveloped judgement . [6–10 marks]
1 Partial understanding of interpretations (accurate Limited understanding of the question, with inaccurate
for one extract, or limited accuracy for two or irrelevant understanding of issues/concepts . Limited
to three extracts) . Evaluation of arguments is knowledge . Answer is vague or too general . Structure is
too general and inaccurate/irrelevant . Limited weak . Unsupported judgement . [1–5 marks]
knowledge is present . [1–6 marks]

8
Timeline
The colours represent different types of event as follows:
Red: political events Blue: economic events
Yellow: social and cultural events Green: religious events Black: international events

1485 Battle of Bosworth; Henry VII becomes king 1549 First Book of Common Prayer introduced

1486 Lovell rebellion Fall of Somerset

1487 Lambert Simnel conspiracy; defeated at 1550 Warwick becomes Lord Protector and Duke
Battle of Stoke Field of Northumberland

1487 French invasion of Brittany 1552 Second Book of Common Prayer

introduced
1492 Treaty of Etaples following invasion of France
1553 Forty-Two Articles of Religion published
1495 Perkin Warbeck lands in Kent; defeated,
takes refuge in Scotland Death of Edward VI; Lady Jane Grey
proclaimed queen; Mary I succeeds
1496 Intercursus Magnus

1497 Cornish Rebellion 1553 Edwardian religious laws repealed

Truce of Ayton between England and Scotland 1554 Mary marries Philip of Spain
1506 Treaty of Windsor Wyatt’s rebellion
Intercursus Malus 1555–56 Harvest failures
1509 Death of Henry VII; Henry VIII succeeds 1558 England loses Calais

Death of Mary I; Elizabeth succeeds

1512 First invasion of France

1513 Second invasion of France (Battle of the 1559 Elizabethan religious settlement
Spurs)
Treaty of Câteau-Cambrésis ends war with
War against Scotland; Battle of Flodden France
1514–29 Wolsey as chief minister 1562 English intervention in France on the side of
1518 Treaty of London the Huguenots

1520 Field of the Cloth of Gold 1563 Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion published

1532–40 Cromwell as chief minister Statute of Artificers

1534 Royal supremacy established 1564 Peace with France (Treaty of Troyes)

1535–40 Dissolution of the monasteries 1566 Vestiarian Controversy

1536 Ten Articles issued 1569–70 Northern Rebellion

1536 Pilgrimage of Grace 1570 Pope Pius V excommunicates Elizabeth

1539 Six Articles Act 1585 Start of war between England and Spain

1542 Battle of Solway Moss 1588 Spanish Armada

1546 Peace with France 1594–97 Harvest failures

1547 Death of Henry VIII; Edward VI succeeds 1601 Poor Law

Essex Rebellion
1547 Battle of Pinkie against Scotland 1603 Death of Elizabeth

9
 PART ONE CONSOLIDATION OF THE TUDOR DYNASTY: ENGLAND, 1485–1547
REVISION PROGRESS

Henry VII, 1485–1509

REVISION PROGRESS

1 The consolidation of power

RECAP
England had experienced political instability in the 15th century. The unsuccessful reign of Henry VI had culminated
in 1455 in the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses between the royal houses of Lancaster and York. Between 1455 and
1485, England had suffered from 30 years of intermittent civil war and five violent changes of monarch.
The unpopularity of the Yorkist King Richard III allowed Henry Tudor to successfully seize the throne at the Battle of
Bosworth in August 1485, beginning the reign of the Tudors. However his claim to the throne was weak:
• He was descended through the female line, through his mother Lady Margaret Beaufort.
• The Beaufort line came from John of Gaunt’s third wife; their son had been born before their marriage and
many considered him illegitimate.
• Henry was the Lancastrian claimant only because there was no other suitable candidate.
As a result, the early years of Henry VII’s reign were characterised by insecurity, and by fears of a potential Yorkist
challenge.
Proclaimed king on the battlefield by the hesitant Lord Stanley (later Earl of Derby), who finally declared for Henry, the new
king was cheered on his arrival in London, where the unpopularity of Richard III was enough for the public to accept him.

HOUSE OF YORK HOUSE OF LANCASTER

Philippa Edward III

of Hainault Plantagenet
1314–69 1312–77

Lionel Duke Isabella Edmund of Langley Edward John of Gaunt Constance

Joan Blanche
of Clarence of Castile Duke of York Prince of Kent Plantagenet Duke of Lancaster Katherine of Castile
1338–68 1341–1402 of Wales (wife 2)
1340–99 Swynford (wife 1)
Richard II Plantagenet (wife 3)
1367–1400 The Beauforts
Anne Richard Earl Edward Duke Henry IV Mary of Elizabeth Catherine
Mortimer of Cambridge of York Bolingbroke Bohun of Lancaster of Lancaster
Richard 1375–1415 1373–1415 1367–1413 1368–94 1363–1426
Duke of York Cecily Richard Jacquetta Henry V Catherine Sir Owen
1411–60
Neville Woodville of Luxemburg of Lancaster of Valois Tudor
1405–60 1415–72 1386–1422 1401–37 1400–61

Richard III Anne Edward IV Elizabeth Margaret Henry VI Edmund Margaret

of York Neville of York Woodville of Anjou Lancaster Tudor Beaufort
1452–85 1442–83 1437–92 1422–71
1456–85 1430–82 1431–56 1443–1500

Edward Prince of Wales (2)

1453–71

Edward Edward V Richard Elizabeth Henry VII Ferdinand

Prince of Wales (3) of York Duke of York (2) of York Tudor of Castile
1473–84 1470–c1483 1473–c1483 1466–1503 1457–1500

Key
DIRECT LINE Henry VIII Catherine
OF SUCCESSION Tudor of Aragon
INDIRECT LINE
OF SUCCESSION

The houses of Lancaster and York

10
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

Henry VII’s character and aims

Henry VII had not been brought up to rule. He had lived in exile in Brittany since the age of 14, following
the Yorkist victory at the Battle of Tewkesbury, in which many of his relations, the Lancastrians, died
or were executed. Henry fled to France, where he lived for most of the time as a fugitive in the Duchy of
Brittany. Many of his personality traits (he was shrewd, calculating and self-restrained) were probably
shaped by his life as a fugitive.
From 1485, Henry’s main aim was to consolidate his power in order to keep his throne. He
accomplished this through both political actions and military success.
Henry had to work to retain his throne and establish his dynasty. Above all, he had to reduce the power
of nobles who had used the previous period of instability to enhance their own authority. He also had
to improve the Crown’s financial position and secure the recognition of foreign powers.

KEY CHRONOLOGY
Henry VII’s steps to secure the throne
1485 Aug He dated his reign from 21 August, the day before the Battle of Bosworth; thus anyone who
had fought on the Yorkist side could be accused as a traitor
He publicly rewarded many key supporters (e.g. by conferring 11 knighthoods)
He detained the Earl of Warwick (Edward IV’s nephew), whose claim to the throne could be
seen to be much greater than his own
Oct He arranged his coronation for a week before the meeting of his first parliament in
November, to show that his right to the throne was hereditary, and not just based on
parliamentary sanction
He made key appointments to his council and household (e.g. Sir Reginald Bray as
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Sir William Stanley as Chamberlain of the
Household)
He issued parliamentary Acts of Attainder against Yorkists who had fought at Bosworth;
their property became forfeit to the Crown
He further increased his income by demanding the customs revenues of tonnage and
poundage for life at his first parliament
1486 Jan Having consolidated power in his own right, Henry married Elizabeth of York. This enabled
royal propaganda to exploit the union of the houses of Lancaster and York
1489 Sept An heir, Prince Arthur, was born

11
 REVISION PROGRESS

Establishing the Tudor dynasty

Henry’s position was extremely insecure at first. There were several threats:

John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln

• Nephew of Edward IV and Richard III Yorkist supporters Lambert
• Designated successor of Richard III (e.g. Lovell and the Simnel
• Regarded as the Yorkist leader Staffords)
after Bosworth

Yorkist
Threats Pretenders
claimants

Edward, Earl of Warwick Perkin

• Nephew of Edward IV and Richard III Warbeck
• Imprisoned in Tower of London, 1485, aged 10 Margaret of Burgundy
• Beheaded for alleged conspiracy with • Sister of Edward IV and Richard III
Perkin Warbeck, 1499 • Able and willing to fund
Yorkist ambitions

Viscount Lovell and the Staffords

Minor rising, focused on traditional Yorkist heartlands of Yorkshire and the Midlands:
Significance
• Led by Viscount Lovell (Yorkshire) and Humphrey Stafford, with his brother Thomas
1486 (Midlands) Showed that there
was little support for
• Attracted little support and was easily suppressed
a Yorkist rising at this
• Lovell escaped to Burgundy; Humphrey Stafford was captured and executed (though point
Thomas was pardoned)

Yorkists realised the need for a figurehead and funds

Lambert Simnel and the rebellion of the Earl of Lincoln

Yorkist conspiracy arranged by the Earl of Lincoln, using Lambert Simnel as a figurehead:
• Simnel impersonated the imprisoned Earl of Warwick, and was crowned as King Edward in
Ireland in May 1487
• Henry exhibited the real Earl of Warwick in London
• Lincoln fled to the court of Margaret of Burgundy and joined Lord Lovell; they persuaded
Margaret to support Simnel and to pay for a force of mercenaries to invade England
Significance
• Henry neutralised Yorkist support in the north by reinstating the Earl of Northumberland, a
This battle effectively
traditional Yorkist supporter, to power in the north as his supporter (a calculated gamble)
ended the Wars of the
1487 • The rebels landed on the north-west coast of England in Cumberland, and tried to muster Roses and Henry’s
support in the Yorkist heartland of the North Riding of Yorkshire; however they failed to position became
attract followers safe, though not
• Henry’s army defeated the mercenary army at the Battle of Stoke Field, June 1487; the Earl completely secure
of Lincoln was killed
Reasons for Henry’s victory:
• His own shrewdness and hard work
• Organisational skills and military leadership of his key supporters
• Willingness of landowners in many parts of the country to support his cause

12
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

Henry’s lenient treatment of the rebels won over some Yorkists who had previously
opposed him
He also began to develop the policy of using bonds of good behaviour, providing lump
sums of money to landowners that they did not have to repay if they behaved well

The Perkin Warbeck imposture Significance

Imposture of a cloth trader from Flanders, who claimed to be Richard, Duke of York Patronage from
(one of Edward IV’s sons, and one of the two murdered ‘princes in the Tower’): foreign rulers made
1491: Warbeck began to impersonate Richard, Duke of York, in Ireland Warbeck a potentially
serious threat and
1492: He fled to the court of Margaret of Burgundy, was trained as a potential Yorkist demonstrated how
prince, and began to draw English courtiers into his conspiracies fragile Henry’s position
1495: He attempted to land in England in 1495, but was quickly defeated; he fled to the was considered to be
court of James IV of Scotland by other rulers
1491–99 The involvement (in
1496: He tried to invade England with a small Scottish force; this soon retreated, and
James IV agreed to marry Henry’s daughter, Margaret 1495) in the conspiracy
of Sir William Stanley
1497: He tried to claim the throne by exploiting the Cornish Rebellion; his forces were (Henry’s step-uncle
crushed; Warbeck surrendered; he was treated leniently at first but tried to escape and Lord Chamberlain,
1499: He was tried and executed along with the Earl of Warwick the head of the royal
household) showed
how vulnerable Henry
was even within his
own household

Edmund de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk and Richard de la Pole, ‘The White Rose’
Significance
Younger brothers of the Earl of Lincoln:
The imprisonment
• Edmund (Suffolk) largely lived in exile from 1498 to 1506, under the protection of of Suffolk effectively
1506 Margaret of Burgundy; returned in 1506 and was imprisoned in Tower of London; eliminated the
executed in 1513 by Henry VIII remaining threats,
• Richard de la Pole was exiled until his death fighting for France at the Battle of leaving only Richard de
Pavia, 1525 la Pole at large in exile

SUMMARY
• Having successfully seized the throne at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, Henry’s immediate aim
was to consolidate his power.
• His shrewdness and skill at planning allowed him to achieve this to a great extent in the first years
of his reign, through a series of astute political moves.
• However his position remained insecure and the years 1486–99 saw a succession of threats to his
rule, including rebellions and claims by Yorkist rivals and pretenders; almost all of which he had
successfully defeated by 1506.

13
 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Complete the chart below. In the 1st column, list the problems that Henry Tudor faced in terms of This activity will help
consolidating his power, following his victory at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. In the second, record you in any essay
how he addressed each problem. question requiring
you to analyse
Problem Actions Henry’s success
in consolidating
his power and
establishing the
Tudor dynasty.

ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW EXAMINER TIP

In answering this
A In the years 1485 to 1509, Henry VII’s claim to the throne of England was never essay question,
LEVEL
secure.’ Assess the validity of this view.
you would need to
To help you answer this question, complete the diagram below. think carefully about
what ‘secure’ would
actually mean in
practice.

Factors to show that Factors to show that

Henry’s claim was insecure Henry’s claim became secure

Changes
that
occurred
during Henry’s
reign

14
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

IMPROVE AN ANSWER EXAMINER TIP

Here are 2 example paragraphs from different students answering an essay question asking: Take care to
distinguish between
‘By 1509, Henry VII had successfully secured his power.’ Explain why you agree or description and
AS analysis. The first
LEVEL
disagree with this view of the years 1485 to 1509.
sentence of every
paragraph in an
essay is crucial. This
Answer 1 is what moves an
Henry VII became king in 1485 when he won the Battle of Bosworth. After this he argument forward.
marched to London, where he was cheered, because the people didn’t like Richard III It is not enough to
have ‘this shows ... ’
and were pleased to welcome a new king. Then, Henry dated his reign to the day at the end.
before the battle and married Elizabeth of York to bring the two houses of York and
Lancaster together. However, he still had to put down various rebellions and pretenders
such as the Lovell and Stafford rebellion, Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck. He
dealt with all of these successfully and executed the Earl of Warwick. His last threat,
Richard de la Pole, was in exile abroad. This shows that, by 1509, Henry was secure in
his power.

Answer 2
By 1506, Henry VII’s power was far more secure than at any earlier point in his reign.
In 1485, despite his victory at Bosworth, the weakness of Henry VII’s claim to the throne
(through the female and, in some people’s eyes, illegitimate line) made his position
precarious. Although his actions in 1485–86, such as dating his reign to the day before
the battle and marrying Elizabeth of York, enabled him to consolidate his power quickly, EXAMINER TIP
he faced various rebellions and impostures in 1486–99, so his position was still seriously This revision
threatened. For example, Henry was subject to the behaviour of foreign rulers such as exercise will enable
you to address the
Margaret of Burgundy and even disloyalty in his own household, as Sir William Stanley key themes that you
was involved. Henry’s execution of the Earl of Warwick and Perkin Warbeck in 1499, will be asked about
in the examination
followed by the imprisonment of Edmund de la Pole in 1506, meant that by 1506 almost questions. Many
all rival claimants had been eliminated. Since Richard de la Pole was in exile abroad, it chapters focus
on 1 specific Key
can be said that by 1509 Henry VII had successfully secured his power.
Question, but some
address more than
1. For example,
a chapter that
Which is the better answer and why? primarily discusses
intellectual and
religious ideas
REVISION SKILLS may also contain
information relevant
Prepare a set of 6 cards – 1 for each of the Key Questions for this component. As you revise each to the Key Question
chapter, consider what Key Questions it addresses. Write no more than 3 bullet points per chapter on the role of
on each of the relevant cards, so that you can see how the material you have studied links to these individuals and
Key Questions. groups.

15
 REVISION PROGRESS

2 Henry VII’s government

RECAP
Councils and the court

King

Unofficial
Royal court The Council advisers (e.g.
Margaret
Beaufort)

Council
Other
Household Chamber Learned
committees
in the Law

Central government

The Council was important in maintaining Henry’s authority as well in

The king ruled with a ‘council’ of advisers who supported raising finance.
him in making key decisions. The working Council contained Bray’s associate in the Council Learned was Sir Richard Empson
around six or seven members. Its functions were: – a fiercely ambitious lawyer and bureaucrat. After Bray’s
• to advise the king death in 1503, Empson was joined by Edmund Dudley. Empson
• to administer the realm on the king’s behalf and Dudley were able and conscientious bureaucrats, whose
• to make legal judgements. ruthless extraction of money from the king’s subjects made
them feared and unpopular, and created enemies out of some
There were three main types of councillor: of the king’s other advisers. They were removed and executed
1. Nobles, such as Lord Daubeney, though the working after Henry’s death.
Council only rarely included the great magnates.
2. Churchmen such as John Morton and Richard Fox, Court and household
who often had legal training and were excellent
The royal court was the centre of government. It was a focus for
administrators.
personal monarchy – a system in which a person’s power was
3. Laymen, either gentry or lawyers, who were skilled
determined by his relationship with the monarch. Rewards and
administrators, such as Sir Reginald Bray and Edmund
status were distributed through the court; courtiers enjoyed
Dudley.
paid positions or the right to receive free food, and it was there
Under Henry VII the Council was a permanent body with a that the support of the king or other influential persons could
core membership, though with no established procedures. be obtained.
Sometimes members also met separately to discuss legal or
In 1485, the court comprised:
administrative issues.
• the household proper, responsible for looking after
Non-councillors could also advise the king – for example,
the king, courtiers and guests, supervised by the Lord
Henry’s mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, acted as an unofficial
Steward
adviser.
• the Chamber, presided over by the Lord Chamberlain, a
powerful and influential courtier who was also a member
The Council Learned (or Council Learned in the Law) of the king’s Council and often spoke for the monarch –
An offshoot of the Council, this body developed during this was the politically important part of the system.
the second half of Henry’s reign, initially under Bray. Its In 1495, after the involvement of Sir William Stanley, the
function was to maintain the king’s revenue and to exploit Lord Chamberlain, in the Perkin Warbeck conspiracy, Henry
his prerogative rights. It made the system of bonds and remodelled the Chamber as the Privy Chamber. He could
recognisances work effectively, thus helping to ensure retreat into this, protected by his most intimate servants;
loyalty and raise finance. It was not a recognised court of this made it more difficult for anyone to gain or regain the
law and there was no right of appeal against it. This council king’s favour, and also cut Henry off from many of the king’s
traditional contacts at court.

16
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

Parliament
Parliament met infrequently and so was not central to government. It comprised the House of
Commons and the House of Lords. Of these, the House of Lords was more important.
Only the king could call Parliament, and Henry demonstrated his right to rule by calling his first
parliament in November 1485. Henry called seven parliaments in his reign. Five of these met in the
first ten years and only two in the remaining 14 years; this shows that power centred on the Crown and
when Henry felt more secure, Parliament could be dispensed with.
Henry’s early parliaments were largely concerned with the following:
• National security: For example, his first two parliaments passed numerous Acts of Attainder (by
which individuals could be declared guilty without trial if alive; if dead, their property would be
forfeit to the Crown).
• Raising revenue: For example:
• His first parliament granted tonnage and poundage (customs revenues) for life.
• Other parliaments granted extraordinary revenue (taxation granted as a one-off payment, for
example to enable the king to wage war).
Parliament appears in general to have operated effectively under Henry VII, with the king accepting its
decisions.

Domestic policy: justice and the maintenance of order

It was essential for the king to maintain law and order to prevent uprisings or rebellions, and so that
potential enemies had no excuse to challenge his authority.

Regional government (in the hands of the nobility)

Following losses of land and power during the Wars of the Roses, the great magnates (the wealthiest
nobles) were powerful only in the north of England. The Stanleys controlled the north-west. The Earl
of Northumberland ruled the north-east until 1489, when the Yorkist Earl of Surrey was released from
prison and sent to the north; this risk paid off, and Surrey served loyally for ten years.
The Earl of Surrey ruled this area through the Council of the North. There were other regional councils
in Wales and the Marches, and in Ireland.
Henry preferred to rely on the lesser magnates, but he trusted few and employed a spying network to
ensure all the nobility remained loyal.

Local government (justices of the peace)

At a local level, Henry gradually increased the powers of justices of the peace (JPs) who, together with
the sheriff (the man responsible for elections to Parliament and peace-keeping), were appointed to
each county.
• JPs were unpaid and mostly local gentry (of lower social status than the nobles); a few were royal
officials.
• They met four times a year to deliver judgements on disputes at the quarter sessions.
• They were responsible for routine administration, e.g. tax assessments, complaints against local
officials and maintenance of law and order.
More serious cases were heard at the courts of assize by judges appointed by the Crown. The Court of
King’s Bench dealt with appeals from the quarter sessions and courts of assize and could overturn the
decisions of the lesser courts. There was also a wide range of other courts, e.g. Church courts, manor
and borough courts, and king’s courts.

17
 REVISION PROGRESS

Domestic policy: improving royal finances

Royal income could come from various sources:

Profits from feudal dues and exercise of the royal prerogative

Revenue increased by reviving/extending medieval feudal dues, e.g.:
• Profits from wardship (when property was held by a minor) increased
• Feudal aid (the Crown’s right to impose taxes for certain services)
granted in 1504
• Dues paid by landowners on death of a feudal tenant-in-chief

Other sources
Crown lands (income from rents)
• Customs revenue (tonnage and
• Large proportion of ordinary revenue poundage)
• Around £12,000 per year at beginning of • Legal system and profits of justice
reign, collected by inefficient Court of (including fines and income from
Exchequer Sources of bonds)
income
• From c1492, administered through the • Bonds and recognisances
Chamber (as under Edward IV)
• Clerical taxes and grants
• By end of reign, had risen to around
• Loans and benevolences
£42,000 per year
• Parliamentary grants

Purple: ordinary revenue (ie. regular income) • Pensions from other powers (£5000
per year from France from 1492 under
Red: extraordinary revenue (ie. irregular income) Treaty of Etaples)
Note: Over £400,000 was raised from extraordinary revenue.
But this helped provoke rebellions in 1489 and 1497. In 1504,
Henry had to promise not to raise any more money by this
method

Henry and his officials focused heavily on increasing Crown revenues from all the sources above. However,
many of his policies were politically risky, in that those most affected were the landowners, on whose
support Henry relied.

SUMMARY
• Henry VII largely maintained the traditional structures of government; however there were
developments, such as the establishment of the Privy Chamber in 1495 and the creation of the
Council Learned in the Law.
• He kept law and order through the nobility (helped at a local level by justices of the peace), while
his system of bonds and recognisances enforced obedience; a network of spies ensured the
performance of both.
• A key focus was the improvement of royal finances, in which he achieved considerable success,
though at the cost of rising unpopularity and at the risk of alienating the group on whom his
throne most depended.

18
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
a Look at the text and define or briefly explain the following terms (in relation to government This activity will
between 1485 and 1509). help you in any
essay requiring you
to analyse change
courtier
and continuity in
government during
magnate
the reign of Henry VII.
Use of terms such as
bonds and recognisances these will show your
depth of knowledge.
prerogative rights

personal monarchy

Chamber

Privy Chamber

Act of Attainder

tonnage and poundage

extraordinary revenue

feudalism / feudal aid

b How might these terms contribute to an understanding of the government in England under
Henry VII?

PLAN YOUR ESSAY

REVISION SKILLS
AS ‘Henry VII’s efforts to increase the royal finances were very successful.’ Explain why
LEVEL
you agree or disagree with this view of the years 1485 to 1509. Planning your exam
essay is essential, so
a Draw a balance diagram like the one below. Label one side ‘Successes of financial policies’ and you should practise
the other side ‘Failures of financial policies’. Write a list of factors on each side. When you have writing essay plans
finished, decide for yourself: is the balance tilted towards ‘successes’ or towards ‘failures’ – and as much as you
by how much? List what issues seem to be raised by this ‘weighing up’. practise writing full
answers.

EXAMINER TIP
Before you start
to write an essay,
you should always
decide on what
judgement you will
come to, and state
it clearly in your
introduction. Also,
remember that
successes or failures
b Now plan your answer to the question and write the first sentence of each paragraph. Ensure may be political as
your argument makes clear whether you agree or disagree with the quotation. well as financial.

19
 REVISION PROGRESS

KEY QUESTION REVIEW

One of the Key Questions asks: You can add to your
flashcards as you
How important was the role of key individuals and groups and how were they affected by
find out more about
developments?
these individuals in
Key individuals mentioned in this chapter include John Morton, Sir Reginald Bray, Sir Richard Chapter 4.
Empson, Edmund Dudley and Lady Margaret Beaufort. Compile a set of flashcards, 1 for each
individual mentioned. For each, note 1–3 bullet points about their role and influence and how they
were affected by developments.

ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW

A ‘Henry VII was an expert financial manager who should be praised for increasing the
LEVEL
royal income.’ Assess the validity of this view of the years 1485 to 1509.

This question illustrates a difference between AS and A Level in terms of complexity. The AS
question in this chapter requires you simply to weigh up 1 issue. Here, there are 2 debates: ‘Was
he an expert financial manager?’ and ‘Should he be praised for increasing the royal income?’ In
planning, you will need to separate the 2 parts of the question and identify the factors that are
relevant to each.
a Copy the diagram below and fill in the gaps. Sort out the factors which would determine
whether the king was an ‘expert financial manager’ and list them as either supporting (yes) or
opposing (no) this view.
b Do the same with respect to ‘increasing the royal income’. Reflect also on whether this deserves
praise or criticism.
c Review what you have written and fill in your conclusion on both aspects.

Should Henry
Was Henry VII an
be praised for
expert financial
increasing royal
manager?
income?

Yes No Yes No

• • • •
• • • •

Conclusion

20
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

3 England’s relations with Scotland and other foreign

powers, 1485–1509
RECAP
Henry VII’s relations with foreign N
powers
Henry’s foreign policy aims were straightforward: SCOTLAND POLAND
• to maintain good relations with European powers (thus Berwick
allowing him to consolidate his power at home) IRELAND Carlisle
• to gain international recognition for the Tudor dynasty
ENGLAND THE
• to maintain national security NETHERLANDS
• to defend English trading interests. The Pale
Antwerp
Calais HOLY ROMAN
EMPIRE
Brittany and France Paris
DUCHY OF HUNGARY
BRITTANY BURGUNDY
KEY CHRONOLOGY FRANCE Venice
Milan
Relations with Brittany and France Navarre ITALY
OTTOMAN
EMPIRE
1487 The French invaded the Duchy of Brittany, the last Roussillon Florence

independent area within France Aragon Rome

AL

SPAIN The Naples

TUG

The death of Duke Francis II of Brittany, without a Papal

POR

States
male heir, provided the excuse Castile
1489 Treaty of Redon – Henry agreed to support the claim Granada
of Duke Francis’ young daughter, Duchess Anne, 0 500 km
although he was anxious not to antagonise the
French
European powers during the reign of Henry VII
1491 6000 English ‘volunteers’ were sent to Brittany but
Anne surrendered to the French; it was arranged
that she should marry Charles VIII of France, ending Burgundy, the Netherlands and the Holy Roman
Breton independence
Empire
1492 Based on intelligence that Charles was more
interested in invading Italy than fighting the English, The ports of the Netherlands were important for English trade,
Henry raised two parliamentary subsidies and particularly in cloth. However:
invaded France with 26,000 men. The French rapidly • The Netherlands had been under the control of Burgundy:
sought peace Margaret of Burgundy (Edward IV’s sister) had married
November – Treaty of Etaples; Charles agreed that the ruler, Charles the Bold, who died in 1477. Thereafter
he would no longer assist any pretenders to the she ruled as protector, while the duke’s title passed to
English throne. Henry was also to receive 745,000 Maximilian, who became Holy Roman Emperor in 1493
crowns, paid in annual instalments of 50,000 and, in turn, placed his son, Philip, in control of the area as
crowns a year. This was around 5% of Henry’s total Duke Philip IV.
annual income • Margaret, Maximilian and Philip supported the pretenders
to Henry’s throne, Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck.

Henry’s strategy had proved successful. He had defended

national and dynastic interests, improved his financial
position and ensured a period of relative friendliness in
Anglo-French relations.

21
 REVISION PROGRESS

KEY CHRONOLOGY
Relations with Burgundy, the Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire
1493 Following Margaret’s support for Perkin Warbeck, Henry broke trade relations with Burgundy.
(He was more concerned with securing his dynasty than protecting the commercial interests
of London and east-coast merchants, but the embargo harmed both the English and Flemish
economies)
1496 Henry VII and Philip IV agreed the Intercursus Magnus (‘Great Intercourse’) which ended the trade
embargo, and Margaret recognised Henry’s position as king
1503 Death of Margaret of Burgundy
1506 Philip and his wife, Juana, daughter of Isabella of Castile (in Spain) were blown into the English
coast as they set out for Spain following Isabella’s death in 1504. Henry VII entertained them for
three months and negotiated two treaties:
• By the Treaty of Windsor, he recognised Philip’s claim to Castile, and they each promised to
assist one another against rebels
• A trade treaty was agreed, but became known as the Intercursus Malus (‘Evil Intercourse’) by
the Flemish because it was over-generous to England
Further agreements meant that:
• Philip handed over the Yorkist Earl of Suffolk, who had been sheltering in Burgundy, to Henry
• A marriage was arranged between Henry (widowed in 1503) and Philip’s sister, Margaret,
Dowager Duchess of Savoy. (This came to nothing)
Philip died in September, and the trade treaty, of which Margaret (who became the new Burgundian
governor) disapproved, was never implemented
1507 A third treaty reverted to the terms of the first Intercursus Magnus
1508 Henry VII was diplomatically isolated by not being a signatory to the League of Cambrai, which was
formed by the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France and the Papacy

Spain
Spain (ruled by Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile) was a powerful state, with which Henry
hoped to develop good relations.

KEY CHRONOLOGY
Relations with Spain
1489 The Treaty of Medina del Campo agreed a marriage alliance between Catherine of Aragon
(Ferdinand and Isabella’s youngest daughter) and Prince Arthur (Henry’s eldest son)
1501 Marriage between Arthur and Catherine took place
1502 Arthur died; Henry (anxious to retain Catherine’s dowry) proposed a new marriage between
Catherine and Arthur’s younger brother, Henry; a treaty was signed in 1503 and a marriage
planned for 1506, Henry’s 15th birthday
1504 Isabella died; Henry supported the claims of Juana (married to Philip IV) to succeed in Castile.
(This was confirmed during their stay in England in 1506)
1506 Philip’s death led Ferdinand to deprive his daughter Juana of her inheritance. The marriage
between Catherine and Henry was jeopardised and did not take place until June 1509, after Henry
VII’s death

22
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

Scotland
Scotland was the only country which shared a border with England. It often supported France against
England.

KEY CHRONOLOGY
Relations with Scotland
1485–95 Anglo-Scottish relations were tense
1495–96 James IV of Scotland supported the pretender Perkin Warbeck and provided a small army to
invade in England in 1496. War threatened
1497 England and Scotland made the Truce of Ayton (this became a full peace treaty in 1502)
1503 James IV married Henry’s daughter Margaret to seal the treaty

Ireland
In Ireland, Henry VII ruled only the ‘Pale’, the land around Dublin. The rest of Ireland was ruled by
independent chieftains.
The Earl of Kildare (Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1477) was a threat to Henry because of his Yorkist
sympathies. Kildare crowned Lambert Simnel King of Ireland in 1486 and supported Perkin Warbeck
in 1491.
Consequently, Henry replaced him with Sir Edward Poynings who passed ‘Poynings’ Law’ of 1495 which
declared that the Irish Parliament needed the approval of the English monarch before it could pass laws.
Poynings also tried to subdue the Irish by force. However, Kildare was persuaded to abandon the Yorkist
cause and was reinstated in 1495. Thereafter, he served Henry loyally and secured the submission of various
Irish chieftains. By 1500, Henry had established a reasonable level of control.

Securing the succession and marriage alliances

Henry VII had four children who survived childhood: Arthur, Henry, Margaret and Mary.

Henry VII = Elizabeth of

York

Arthur b. 1486 Margaret Henry Mary

(died 1502) b. 1489 b. 1491 b. 1496

Despite Henry’s efforts at arranging suitable marriage alliances for Arthur (with Catherine of Aragon)
and Margaret (with James IV of Scotland), Arthur’s unexpected death in April 1502 increased the
insecurity of the dynasty.
• The new heir, Prince Henry, was still a child.
• The Yorkists had a powerful claimant in the Earl of Suffolk.
• Henry VII’s health was deteriorating.
The death of Henry’s wife, Elizabeth of York, in 1503, meant that no more children would be
forthcoming. Despite the imprisonment of the Earl of Suffolk in 1506, the succession remained insecure
as it rested on the survival and acceptance by ministers of Prince Henry.
Henry VII died in April 1509. One faction, led by Bishop Fox and supported by Lady Margaret Beaufort,
declared for Henry; Empson and Dudley were arrested.

SUMMARY
• Henry VII’s foreign policy aims were broadly to maintain good relationships with Europe, with a
view to strengthening the Tudor dynasty.
• In this, he was largely successful, overcoming various setbacks to reach agreements with France,
Burgundy, Spain and Scotland and achieving a certain level of security in Ireland.
• Agreements with Spain and Scotland were cemented with marriage alliances, ensuring that by
the end of his reign the Tudor dynasty seemed to have been accepted internationally.

23
 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP

Complete the graph below. Read the material on changing relationships with Scotland, and plot This activity will help
each key event on the graph. you visualise the ups
and downs of foreign
relations, which
will help you with
an essay question
Relations with Scotland

Strong
that asks you to
examine change
and continuity, or to
Neutral assess the success
or failure of Henry’s
foreign policies. You
could go further, and
Poor plot all the major
European powers in
different colours; this
would help you form
1485 1490 1495 1500 1505 1510 an overall view of
Henry’s relationships
with foreign powers
at different points
during his reign.

ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW

A ‘Henry VII’s foreign policy was driven by the need to preserve the Tudor dynasty.’
LEVEL
Assess the validity of this view of the years 1485 to 1509.
EXAMINER TIP
a Create a mind-map to help you answer this question.
• Put ‘Henry’s foreign policy’ in the centre. Use a diagram such
• Around this add other countries: Burgundy/Netherlands/HRE; Spain; Brittany/France; Ireland; as a mind-map to
Scotland. help you formulate
• You might like to start by adding Henry VII’s key involvement with each of the countries. your answer by
• Then you can extend the mind-map further with the key motives behind that involvement. clarifying the
• Use 1 colour for those that were concerned with the need to preserve the dynasty. facts that support
• Use a different colour for other motives. and challenge a
b Now use your mind-map to reach a judgement in relation to the question. statement visually.

24
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

IMPROVE AN ANSWER EXAMINER TIP

Here is an example paragraph from a student answering an essay question asking: A good paragraph
will begin with a
comment, linked to
AS ‘Henry VII’s foreign policy failed to achieve its key aims in the years 1485 to 1509.’ the question, which
LEVEL
Explain why you agree or disagree with this view. is then supported by
precise and specific
a Read the following paragraph from a mediocre essay. This comes immediately after the information. Dates
introduction: and detail help to
convince and enable
high examination
Answer marks.
The king’s only aim in foreign policy was to secure the succession. This was so
important that he married all of his children to foreign rulers – in one case twice! REVIEW
Henry built up alliances with Spain and Scotland through marriage to secure the Paragraph
succession of his son, the future Henry VIII, by being connected to all of the leading construction is
very important
powers in Europe. He also made treaties which stopped other countries from in essays. What
supporting pretenders. This is why Henry VIII was able to succeed to the throne and have you learned
about paragraph
this shows that Henry had achieved his only goal in foreign policy – to support his own
construction from
weak claim and that of his son after the long conflict called the Wars of the Roses. this exercise? Look
at any essay you
have written and see
if your paragraphs
b Consider this paragraph both as a whole and 1 sentence at a time, and assess its strengths and follow the formula
weaknesses. Think about the style and the content, and comment on whether the question is suggested above.
being addressed properly. Could you produce a better paragraph? If not, could you
rearrange your text
to make them more
analytical?

KEY QUESTION REVISION SKILLS

One of the Key Questions asks: A3 charts can
How did relations with foreign powers change and how was the succession secured? be a useful way
of consolidating
On a large A3 sheet of paper, copy out the chart below. Fill the chart in with a list of the key ways in
key points of
which relations changed between England and the country concerned during the years 1485–1509.
information. They
You can complete the remaining columns as you read the next 3 sections.
can also help you
to see a broad
Foreign power 1485–1509 1509–47 1547–63 1563–1603
sweep of events and
Brittany consider change
and continuity ‘at a
Burgundy/Netherlands/HRE glance’. Note, if you
are studying for AS,
France
you will only need
Spain to fill in the columns
marked 1485–1509
Scotland
and 1509–47.
Ireland

25
 REVISION PROGRESS

4 English society at the end of the 15th century

RECAP
The structure of society
King
Owned land –
dukes, earls and
Owned land Nobility barons; part of
Church Gentlemen who government
lived in large
houses in the
country; provided Gentry
armies for war

Farmers;
owned or Yeomen Citizens
rented land
in the country
Rich merchants and
Worked for citizens Labourers craftsmen in the
or yeomen or towns
shopkeepers

English society in the early Tudor period Vagrants/beggars

In some ways, society was still structured in a feudal Churchmen

arrangement, with the monarch at the top, the great noble
landowners and senior churchmen, closely followed by
Owned land Church
‘gentry’, below the monarch, and the labouring classes – of
both peasants and craftsmen – at the base. However, there
was a growing professional and mercantile group in London Senior churchmen;
and the major cities, and there was some (and growing) social very powerful; Archbishops
mobility. part of government

Nobility Bishops
The nobility dominated landownership. They comprised Important; Abbots of large
around 50 –60 peers (nobles), who were entitled to sit in the bishops were monastic houses
House of Lords. As noble families died out they were replaced regional leaders
by others who had acquired the king’s favour. However, of the Church;
Henry VII distrusted the nobility as a class, and was reluctant some held
government office Parish priests
to create new peers. and curates
Henry controlled the nobility through bonds and
recognisances. He also sought, in a law of 1487, to limit their The hierarchy of the Church in England
power; this restricted the practice by which wealthy magnates
recruited knights and gentlemen, known as ‘retainers’, to serve
them as administrators or for military purposes.

26
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

The Church was important both for its spiritual role and Gentry
as a great landowner. England was a Catholic country and The gentry (around 500 knights, 800 esquires and 5000
Churchmen had a dual allegiance – to both the Pope and the gentlemen in 1500) comprised:
king. The Pope was elected by cardinals, under whom came
the archbishops; in England, there were two archbishops, • The greater gentry – often great landowners in their own
Canterbury and York. Archbishops, bishops and the abbots of right, some sought knighthoods to confirm their social
larger religious houses were such important figures that the status.
king intervened in their appointments. They sat in the House • Esquires and ‘mere gentry’ – these were far more
of Lords and often undertook political roles. numerous and had far less social prestige than the greater
gentry. They too were landowners and both groups might
Henry VII ensured that he had men of administrative ability be office-holders.
as archbishops and bishops, and preferred men with legal
training (e.g. the royal councillors, Morton and Fox). The nobility and gentry combined made up around 1% of the
total population of the time.
At the parish level, curates and priests dealt with the spiritual
needs of ordinary people, living modestly. However, Church
influence was all-pervasive and the Church even had its own
Commoners
courts. All clergy were tried in these, as were those convicted Beneath the nobility and gentry were a little more than
of ‘religious crimes’ such as adultery. two million commoners.

Towns and cities Countryside

Educated professionals Yeomen farmers

and merchants (farmed substantial properties)

Shopkeepers and Husbandmen/

skilled tradesmen richer peasantry
(influential in borough (who had bought
corporations, guilds or rented their
and confraternities) own farms)

Unskilled urban workers Labouring peasants without land

and apprentices, beggars, (insecure; relied on selling their
prostitutes and 'drop-outs' labour); vagrants and beggars

27
 REVISION PROGRESS

Regional divisions
There were some regional social variations, arising from:
• Demographic differences. The sparsely populated rural areas to the north/west of an imaginary
line from the Tees estuary to Weymouth contained a quarter of the population, while three
quarters lived in more densely populated counties to the south/east of that line (see Chapter 5 for
a map and further detail).
• Differences in agriculture between the two areas either side of this line (see Chapter 5).
• Social attitudes (Londoners might see northerners as less refined; northerners might envy
southern wealth).
• Government structures. There were separate councils for the north of England, Wales, Ireland and
the Welsh Marches; nobles also had considerable influence across county boundaries. Some areas,
such as the County Palatines of Chester and Durham, enjoyed considerable independence.
• Church influence. This varied by area and equally cut across other boundaries.
• Linguistic and cultural differences within the kingdom, most particularly in Wales, Cornwall and
Ireland.
In an age of limited travel, regional loyalties were strong and officials appointed by or sent from London
could be resented as ‘outsiders’. However the sense of a single English identity would seem to have
been relatively strong at this time.

Social discontent and rebellions

In the late 15th century, there was relatively little explicit sign of discontent, probably because living
conditions for the poor were improving. However, there were two rebellions, in 1489 and 1497, both
triggered by taxation.
The Yorkshire Rebellion of 1489 was sparked by resentment of the taxation granted by Parliament in
1489 in order to finance an army for the Brittany campaign. The Earl of Northumberland was murdered
by his tenants when his retainers deserted him (punishing him because he himself had deserted Richard
III at Bosworth).
The Cornish Rebellion of 1497 arose from the need to finance the campaign against Scotland. A
mob protested against the taxation, blaming the king and ministers such as Morton (Archbishop
of Canterbury) and Bray. This uprising was a more serious threat to Henry’s rule than the Yorkshire
Rebellion, because:
• Large numbers were involved (15,000 according to some estimates).
• Perkin Warbeck attempted to exploit the rebellion.
• A march on London reached Blackheath, raising questions as to the effectiveness of Henry’s
system of maintaining order in the countryside.
In the short term, the revolt forced Henry to withdraw Lord Daubeney and his troops from the Scottish
border in order to crush the rebellion. This was easily done, and the leaders were executed (although
most of the rebels were leniently treated). In the longer term, it had the effect of making Henry ensure
that Anglo-Scottish tensions were eased, and it made him cautious about entering into further foreign
conflicts.

SUMMARY
• Socially, England remained broadly stable in this period.
• Under Henry VII, internal peace was generally maintained, and the various pretenders and
claimants were unable to attract much support.
• The two rebellions of the reign, the Yorkshire Rebellion (1489) and the Cornish Rebellion (1497),
were exceptional, and easily suppressed.

28
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Using the
AS ‘Henry VII’s policies weakened the nobility in the years 1485 to 1509.’ Explain why
information in the
LEVEL
you agree or disagree with this view.
diagram, consider
how the policies
a Complete the diagram of the measures taken by Henry VII in his dealings with the nobility and might be considered
show how each action would affect the nobility. to have weakened
b Colour code your diagram with 1 colour for maintaining noble powers and another colour for the nobility. You
reducing noble powers. would, of course,
need to consider if
c Use this diagram to help you plan an answer to the question. any of his actions
Measure Group(s) affected did not weaken
the nobility also, in
order to produce a
Did not create many new peers
balanced answer.

REVIEW
You will need to look
back at previous
Used bonds and recognisances chapters for
contextual material
on Henry’s actions
towards the nobility
in this period.
Limited the numbers of
retainers

REVISION SKILLS
When considering
2 sides of an
Used lesser magnates to argument it can be
govern helpful to draw up
a chart to arrange
your points. This
should help you
decide which side
Used spying network on of the argument is
noblemen better supported by
the evidence.

Used great magnates in the

regional councils

Dated his reign from the day

before Bosworth

Used Acts of Attainder to take

estates

29
 REVISION PROGRESS

HOW IMPORTANT? REVIEW

In the table below, indicate the ways in which each group was important to late 15th-century society. You will find it useful
to read part of
Examples of the Church’s importance Examples of the nobility’s importance Chapter 6 for your
to society to society list. Once you have
completed the table,
compare your list
with the one in the
answers section on
page 129. Were there
points you missed
out?

EXAMINER TIP
The detail in this
chart should help
you in answering
any examination
question about
society and social
developments.

PLAN YOUR ESSAY EXAMINER TIP

Although the
A ‘The Church was more influential than the nobility in the years 1485 to 1509.’ Assess introduction is
LEVEL
the validity of this view. the place to give
your views and
Consider this question by looking back at your answers to the Apply Your Knowledge and How
breakdown, you
Important? activities, and write an introduction advancing your view and summarising the key
should avoid using
points of your comparison.
the first person or
statements such
as, ‘First I will do
this and then I
will do that …’.
Introduce your
argument directly
and incorporate the
necessary detail in
your statements.
The rest of the essay
should uphold the
view put forward
here.

30
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

5 Economic development: trade, exploration,

prosperity and depression
RECAP
Most of England’s 2.2 million population made a living from Trade and industry
agriculture. Only around 10% lived in towns or cities, and while
London probably contained more than 50,000 people, only 20 At the end of the 15th century, cloth amounted to about 90% of
towns at most (including Norwich, Bristol, York and Coventry) English exports, and farm labourers were able to supplement their
had a population of 3000 or more. farming incomes by spinning, weaving, fulling (wool-cleaning)
and dyeing. Some towns, such Lavenham in Suffolk, flourished
from the cloth trade. The finished cloth was increasingly exported
The agrarian economy from London to the commercial centre of Antwerp, from where it
was sent all over Europe. Other industries included:
As the population began to increase in the 1480s and 1490s,
there was a move towards more sheep farming at the expense • mining – tin, lead, coal and iron ore (which required
of arable (cereal crops) because of the increasing demand for capital investment, but was still fairly small scale)
wool as trade developed. • metal working
• leatherwork
This development was most acute in the ‘lowland zone’ to • shipbuilding
the south and east of an imaginary line running from the Tees • papermaking
estuary to Weymouth. Traditionally, peasant farmers had • brewing (in small-scale craft operations).
practised open-field husbandry (farming strips of land in open
fields, and enjoying common rights, e.g. keeping animals on Trade
shared land). The growth of sheep farming could mean the loss
Henry was keen to develop English trade in order to boost
of common land and changes to the strip system (enclosure),
wealth through customs duties and taxes, as well as to enhance
although this did not become common until the first half of the
his own position by securing positive relationships with foreign
16th century. In general, English agriculture changed little in
powers. His actions included:
the late 15th and early 16th centuries.
• Navigation Acts of 1485 and 1489; these ruled that only
English ships could carry certain products to and from
English ports; they were designed to boost the English
N shipbuilding industry and challenge the Hanseatic League
which had a monopoly over trade in the Baltic
• support for the Merchant Adventurers – an English
0 100 km company which controlled the cloth trade
Teesmouth • the Intercursus Magnus of 1496 (confirmed 1499) between
Henry and Philip IV; this ended Henry’s 1493 embargo on
North
Sea trade with the Netherlands and stated that:
• English merchants could export to any part of
Burgundy except Flanders
• merchants would be granted swift and fair justice
• disputes would be resolved swiftly and fairly
• other trade treaties, sometimes made as subsidiary
Fens
clauses in diplomatic treaties with foreign powers.
Norfolk
Suffolk Despite the relaxation of restrictions there was no major
Herefordshire breakthrough in Mediterranean trade. Moreover the Hanseatic
League was largely successful in limiting the development of
Bristol English trading interests in the Baltic.
Kent
High Weald
Dorset Sussex

Key
Weymouth
Mixed farming
Pastoral farming
Grain farming and
fruit growing

Farming regions of England

31
 REVISION PROGRESS

Early English exploration

English sailors were slower at making new discoveries than 15th-century Spanish or Portuguese
seamen. However Bristol merchants and seamen were interested in transatlantic exploration and
voyages of exploration were underway by the end of the 15th century.
• In 1497, John Cabot set sail from Bristol in search of new fishing grounds, with authorisation from
Henry VII to search out any unknown parts of the world. Cabot found what became known as
Newfoundland and reported the existence of extensive fishing grounds (but failed to return from a
second voyage the following year).
• William Weston, a Bristol merchant, led an expedition to the New World, and may have landed
there in 1499 or 1500.
John Cabot’s son, Sebastian, also received sponsorship from Henry VII and led an unsuccessful attempt
to find the ‘north-west passage’ to Asia in 1508. However, Henry VIII had little interest in supporting
exploration, and in his reign the new fishing grounds were left to seamen from Portugal and Spain.

Prosperity and depression

On the whole, the late 15th century was a time of relative economic stability with signs of growing
prosperity, particularly in the more developed areas. The population was growing and trade was
expanding, with the cloth trade leading the way in stimulating the economy. However, depressions
could and did occur, whenever events disrupted normal economic development; a bad harvest at
home or an embargo abroad, such as that of 1493, are examples. Such depressions were usually quite
localised but between 1493 and 1496 the depression in the cloth industry had quite a wide effect.

SUMMARY
• The reign of Henry VII was a period of relative economic stability.
• The economy remained firmly based on agriculture,
with some small-scale industrial enterprises.
• The king made some attempts to encourage English trade; this was partly from a desire to
increase wealth and partly out of a concern for dynastic security.

32
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Here is a list of trading and economic developments: Precise information
on economic
• Intercursus Magna
developments
• Sebastian Cabot’s journey to find a ‘north-west passage’ to Asia
will enable you to
• the embargo on trade with the Netherlands
support answers
• John Cabot’s discovery of Newfoundland
to questions on the
• Weston’s expedition to the New World
economy fully.
• the depression in the cloth industry
• Navigation Acts.
REVIEW
a Place them in the correct chronological order, and add relevant dates next to each event.
Reflect on the
impact of these
measures. Try to
produce 1 or 2
generic reasons as
well as a specific
reason for either
the failure or the
success of each.
When considering
the Netherlands
trade embargo, you
could refer to Perkin
Warbeck, who is
b Give a one-sentence explanation of each. Try to include the intended impact of the change on
discussed in Chapter
the economy.
1, on pages 12–13.

TO WHAT EXTENT?
REVIEW
A To what extent was the growth of the economy between 1485 and 1509 due to the
Look back at
LEVEL
development of agriculture?
Chapters 3 and 4
Draw a mind-map showing the various factors which influenced the growth of the economy, and to identify other
show the connections between these. For example, while there was some change in agriculture possible reasons for
due to the opening up of markets for English cloth, this was only in the ‘lowland zone’ and generally the growth of the
agriculture changed little. economy.

33
 REVISION PROGRESS

EXTRACT ANALYSIS REVIEW

All these extracts
In the AS and A Level exam questions, you will be given 2 or 3 extracts to study. You will need to
refer to foreign policy
identify the arguments put forward in each extract and evaluate these, with reference to your own
issues which are often
knowledge. This task helps you analyse 2 or 3 related interpretations.
connected with trade.
In order to answer
EXTRACT A this question fully,
you should first read
In assessing the success of Henry’s commercial policy, it is not possible to reach a simple Chapter 4, which
conclusion. He did increase outlets for English trade and he deserves credit for the forward- covers Henry VII’s
looking treaty with Spain and the openings he forged with Venice and Scandinavia. However foreign policy.
his achievements did not, as he hoped, greatly benefit his financial position. Although the
customs revenue rose, this was probably as a result of the more efficient collection of customs
duties as of any expansion of trade. However English shipping did expand under his patronage
and by 1509 English merchants were shipping more cloth abroad than the combined exports
of all other merchants. Nevertheless, English trade was on a small scale compared to that of
Venice or Spain. Dynastic considerations were always his first priority; for example, Henry
stopped trading with the Netherlands because of its ruler’s support for Warbeck. Henry had
begun the development of English trade but it was left to his successors to build on the very
limited start he had made.
Adapted from C. Rogers and R. Turvey, Henry VII, 2005

EXTRACT B
Henry came to a throne with little income compared to Edward IV’s rule. Henry’s Navigation
Acts of 1485 and 1489 tried to concentrate trade in English hands by forbidding certain imports
from foreign ships. His overseas trade, essential for the economy, was concentrated on the
Netherlands, but its Habsburg rulers made a habit of supporting opponents and from 1494 to
1496 he embargoed trade to stop this assistance. Even with the Magnus Intercursus in 1496 he
could not achieve the English right to trade widely at fixed traditional rates. This forced him
to use trade alliances as with Spain in 1489 to secure trade. His investment in the alum trade,
vital to the cloth industry, complemented his support for shipbuilding and the Company of
Merchant Venturers which controlled wool and cloth exports. About 60,000 woollen cloths
were exported in the 1480s, rising to over 90,000 by 1500. They were the largest single source
of royal revenue. Henry demonstrated an economic wisdom that enabled the continued
resurgence of the kingdom.
Adapted from Terry Breverton, Henry VII: The Maligned Tudor King, 2016

EXTRACT C
Henry’s chief activity in foreign trade was to encourage the export of cloth, so he attempted
to promote and protect the industry at home. Numerous acts were passed to accomplish
this, including the Navigation Acts, which amounted to a policy of protection. However, it is
doubtful whether they really represent a consistent policy of economic nationalism. The king
did not interfere with the privileges of the Hanseatic League in England and overlooked English
interests when he used the cloth trade to put pressure on the Netherlands. The only thing
he did not like about foreign merchants was the exemptions from customs payments they
had extorted, and these he revoked; it did not concern him that they might deprive English
merchants of some trade. Nevertheless, his measures greatly assisted commercial revival
while their effect on customs revenue was small – in the five years after 1485 customs revenue
averaged £33,000; twenty years later it was no more than £38,000.
Adapted from G. R. Elton, England under the Tudors, 1974

34
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

EXTRACT ANALYSIS EXAMINER TIP

As you read each
A Using your understanding of the historical context, assess how convincing the
LEVEL extract, try to
arguments in these three extracts are, in relation to Henry VII’s contribution to
decide what the
economic growth in England between 1485 and 1509.
overall argument is.
You should always
a Read each extract in turn. For each: present this first
• Summarise the argument it puts forward in your own words. in your answer,
before looking
• Using your own knowledge, make a short list of bullet points to support or challenge the more closely at any
argument. sub-arguments or
b Using your answers to the above, plan your answer to the question. specific detail.

AS With reference to Extracts A and B and your understanding of the historical context, EXAMINER TIP
LEVEL
which of these two extracts provides the more convincing interpretation of the role
of Henry VII in economic growth in the years 1485 to 1509? After evaluating the
views in each extract,
you should provide
a Read Extracts A and B in turn. For each: a full paragraph of
• Summarise the interpretation in your own words. comparison. You will
need to show which
• Using your own knowledge, make a short list of bullet points to support or challenge the
of the arguments
argument.
you find the more
b Using your answers to the above, plan your answer to the question. convincing by using
your own knowledge
to support or criticise
what is written.

35
 REVISION PROGRESS

6 Religion, humanism, arts and learning

RECAP
Religion in the reign of Henry VII The central religious experience came with the Mass, during
which the priest would perform the sacrament of Holy
The function of the Church and churchmen Communion (Eucharist). Catholics believed that at the point
where the priest consecrated the bread and the wine (i.e.
All English people belonged to the Catholic Church, under the
declared them to be sacred), the bread and the wine were
spiritual leadership of the Pope in Rome.
transformed literally into the body and blood of Christ, a
process known as transubstantiation.

The Church’s social role

Means of maintaining
The Church played an important role in the community. Lay
social control
people (non-clergy) might do the following:
• Donate towards rebuilding parish church buildings or pay
for church objects.
• Leave money to the parish church in their wills (to
enhance worship, perpetuate their memory and reduce
Played an
important political The Catered for the their time in purgatory).
role (in both domestic Catholic population’s spiritual • Leave money for the foundation of chantries (chapels
and international Church needs where Masses for the souls of the dead were said).
affairs) • Gather together in a confraternity (religious guild or lay
brotherhood) to provide collectively for Masses or funeral
costs of members, to help maintain church fabric, to make
charitable donations, and to socialise.
Provided • Take part in the practice of ‘beating the bounds’ on
opportunities for
Rogation Sunday, walking around the parish boundaries
employment
and social
and praying for protection for the parish.
advancement Individual religious experience became increasingly
important throughout the 15th century. This was emphasised
in the writing of mystics, who believed in the personal
communication of the individual with God.
In England the Church was administered through the
archbishops of Canterbury and York. There were also 17
dioceses, each under a bishop. The Pope was not expected to Religious orders
interfere in the running of the Church, and senior churchmen These included the following.
enjoyed positions of great political power and influence.
Monastic orders:

Religious community, belief and services • Around 1% of adult males were monks, living in some 900
monasteries.
Religious experience was an essential part of daily life and the • The Benedictine Order often had large houses; some
parish and its church was central both to personal religious operated cathedrals and their members often came from
experience and to community life. Lives were governed by wealthier parts of society.
religious festivals and the rituals of baptism, marriage and • Cistercian and Carthusian monasteries were frequently
death. The threat of hell and purgatory (the limbo state when situated in more remote rural areas.
a soul had to be cleansed of sins before entering heaven) acted
as a major influence on behaviour. Friars:

• The Church provided a framework for controlling thinking • There were three main orders (Dominicans, Franciscans
and behaviour; it reinforced allegiance to authority and and Augustinians).
particularly the monarch. • They worked among lay people and were largely
• It spread and upheld Catholic Christian teaching. supported by charitable donations.
• It offered ways by which a person could acquire grace • They were recruited from lower down the social scale
in order to reach heaven and minimise the time a soul than the larger monasteries.
would spend in purgatory (e.g. by observing the seven • They were declining in importance by the late 15th
sacraments or going on pilgrimage). century.

36
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

Nunneries:
• They usually enjoyed less prestige than monasteries (they were often populated by women
considered unsuitable for marriage).
• They were often relatively poor.

The Lollards, heresy and anticlericalism

A small minority was critical of the beliefs and practices of the Church. Lollardy, which had first
emerged in the late 14th century, following the teachings of John Wycliffe, continued in pockets around
Britain. Lollards emphasised the importance of understanding the Bible and wanted it to be translated
into English. They were sceptical about transubstantiation and the principles of the Eucharist, and
viewed the Catholic Church as corrupt.
The burning of heretics had been introduced into English law in 1401, but few had died this way and
by the late 15th century Lollardy was in decline, while other forms of heresy were rare. Criticism of the
Church did exist, but anticlericalism was not widespread.

Humanism, arts and learning

Humanism and humanists
‘Humanism’ was a development of the 14th and 15th century Renaissance. It was concerned with
establishing the reliability of Latin and Greek translations by going back to the original texts. It was an
intellectual movement which affected religious teaching, politics and economics, but the impact was
largely restricted to a minority of the educated nobility and gentry, and it made only a limited impression
on England in Henry VII’s reign.
English humanism was influenced by the visit of the Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus to England in
1499. Erasmus criticised Church abuses, and sought to regenerate Christianity through emphasis on
education and rejection of some of the Church’s traditional ceremonies. He associated with English
humanists such Colet and More.
Key English humanists included:

William Grocyn Thomas Linacre

(c1449–1519) (c1460–1524)
Had discovered Had also discovered humanism
humanism in Florence in Florence
Lectured on Influenced by scientific
Plato and Aristotle at Oxford thinking; took medical degree
in Padua

John Colet Thomas More

(1467–1519) (1478–1535)
Dean of St Paul’s Cathedral Distinguished lawyer and
Refounded St Paul’s School humanist scholar
in 1512 His friendship with the Dutch
Saw humanist scholarly scholar Desiderius Erasmus
approaches as a way to reform the boosted humanist ideas under
Church from within Henry VIII

Humanists patronised education and thus educational opportunities increased with the spread of
grammar schools for the wealthy and the founding of new university colleges at Cambridge, e.g. by
Lady Margaret Beaufort.

37
 REVISION PROGRESS

William Caxton brought printing to England in 1476, and printed everything from traditional medieval
works such as Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales to ‘modern’ versions of Erasmus. Printing meant that more
texts became available, the language became more standardised, and literacy increased (while Henry
also used the press for propagandist purposes). Although initially there was little direct connection
between printing and humanism, printing allowed new ideas (e.g. the writings of Erasmus) to be more
widely circulated, and by 1509 the works of humanist scholars had become more fashionable.

Other arts
Drama was popular with church-ale festivals, and troupes of players toured the country. The guilds of
certain towns and cities performed mystery plays at the feasts of Corpus Christi, setting out simple
moral and religious messages.
Music ranged from local wind groups that entertained the crowds on saints’ days (sometimes with
bawdy drinking songs) to the great choral performances in the country’s cathedrals. Composers
benefited from the patronage of important nobles and even the king.
Much building and rebuilding of parish churches occurred at this time. These included the major wool
churches of East Anglia, such as Lavenham. These were built in the Gothic perpendicular style, which
Henry VII approved in 1502 for the Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey.

SUMMARY
• During Henry VII’s reign the English Church was in a generally healthy state, with little dissent and
generally cordial relationships between king and Pope.
• Humanism had begun to take root, but its major influence would not be felt until the reign of
Henry VIII.

KEY CHRONOLOGY
Political events International events and foreign relations
1485 Henry VII becomes king after Battle of 1487 French invasion of Brittany
Bosworth 1489 Treaty of Redon between England and
1486 Lovell rebellion fails Brittany
1487 Lambert Simnel conspiracy; defeated at Treaty of Medina del Campo between
Battle of Stoke Field England and Spain
1495 Perkin Warbeck lands in Kent; defeated, 1492 England invades France
takes refuge in Scotland Treaty of Etaples between England and
1497 Cornish Rebellion France
1499 Warbeck and Duke of Warwick executed 1496 Magnus Intercursus
1502 Death of Prince Arthur Scotland invades England
1509 Death of Henry VII; accession of Henry VIII 1497 Truce of Ayton between England and
Scotland
1501 Marriage of Prince Arthur and Catherine
of Aragon
1502 Death of Prince Arthur
1503 Marriage of Princess Margaret and
James IV of Scotland
1506 Treaty of Windsor
Malus Intercursus
Death of Philip of Burgundy (September)

38
 HENRY VII, 1485–1509 S B 1–61

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Look back at the sections on humanists and religious orders. Create a balance diagram, like the one When comparing the
below, to show which had the greater impact on society based on their numbers, the classes they significance of 2 or
were drawn from, and their influence on people. more groups, always
try to find criteria like
this against which to
compare them.

REVIEW

Humanists Religious You might like

• Numbers orders to reflect on the
• Classes • Numbers weighting of each
• Influence • Classes side. Should the
• Influence
scales remain
perfectly balanced or
tip in one direction?
You may wish to
review this balance
when you deal with
religion in the reign of
Henry VIII.

EXAMINER TIP
Remember, an
ASSESSYOUR
APPLY THE KNOWLEDGE
VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW introduction should
make your view
‘The years 1485 to 1509 were a time of stability for the Church in England.’ Assess clear. In order to do
A this, you will also
LEVEL
the validity of this view.
need to explain what
a To answer this question you will need to think about ‘stable’ in a variety of senses. Use the you understand by
chart below to help organise your arguments. ‘stable’; perhaps
discuss whether this
means that there
Judgement was no threat to the
Examples of the Church Examples of the Church Church’s position, or
being stable not being stable
whether the threats
• • • were not really
serious enough to
threaten its stability.

• • •

• • •

REVIEW
You could follow up
your work above by
writing a plan for the
b Now decide the argument you will adopt and write a suitable introduction to this question.
whole essay.

39
 REVISION PROGRESS

KEY QUESTION EXAMINER TIP

One of the Key Questions asks: Understanding
‘how far’ something
How far did intellectual and religious ideas change and develop and with what effects?
changed is different
a Read the chapter and identify 2 examples of change and 2 examples of continuity. from identifying
b Explain: changes. You need
to think carefully
Change Continuity when responding to
• the impact of the changes • whether the changes outweighed any essay that asks
the continuities. ‘how far’ or ‘to what
extent’ and try to be
as precise as you can
with your answer.

REVISION SKILLS
Change and continuity
Having studied Section 1, make a large revision chart on a sheet of A3 paper. For each chapter
you should select and record no more than 6 key facts. These should be the most important in
the chapter. When you have filled in the first row, try to identify the main points of change and
continuity in the 2 rows below.

Topics The Henry VII’s England’s English Economic Religion,

consolidation government relations society developments humanism,
of power with at the under arts and
foreign end of Henry VII learning
powers the 15th
century

Key facts
to
remember
Change

Continuity

40
 EXAM PRACTICE: A LEVEL SAMPLE ANSWER
EXAM PRACTICE

AS Level essay sample answer

REVISION PROGRESS

REVIEW
On these Exam Practice pages, you will find a sample student answer for an AS Level essay question.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the answer? Read the answer and the corresponding
Examiner Tips carefully. Think about how you could apply this advice in order to improve your own
answers to questions like this one.

‘Henry VII was very successful in establishing his dynasty REVISION SKILLS
AS
LEVEL
between 1485 and 1509.’ Explain why you agree or disagree In the AS exam you will have to answer one
with this view. essay question from a choice of two, from within
25 marks the period 1485–47. The essays will each draw
on material over at least 10 years, as this is a
breadth paper. Read page 7 for details on how
to master the essay question.
Sample student answer
Henry VII became king in 1485 by his victory at Bosworth against
Richard III who had a far better claim to the throne. The claim
of Henry and his family, the Tudors, largely relied on conquest.
However, by 1509, Henry had passed on a secure crown to his only
surviving son, Henry VIII, and so had established his family as the EXAMINER TIP
Tudor dynasty. This suggests the dynasty had been established; but This introduction has a good focus on the
question, gives a reasonable argument to
to what extent was this due to Henry or due to other factors? support the view and shows an understanding
There were many challenges to the Tudor succession during of the key term ‘dynasty’. The use of the
rhetorical question should be avoided,
Henry VII’s reign. They came from men with a legitimate claim to
though, and it would have been better to end
the throne, such as the Duke of Buckingham, and imposters who the introduction with a clear statement of
pretended to have a right. Henry dealt with the legitimate claim of agreement/disagreement about Henry's own
responsibility and some indication of the other
the Duke of Buckingham who had taken refuge in Burgundy. When factors to be considered.
the Duke of Burgundy had to land in England due to a storm,
Henry persuaded that duke to return Buckingham to England. He
defeated the impostor who pretended to be the Earl of Warwick EXAMINER TIP
in 1487 and also one who pretended to be Richard, Duke of York,
This paragraph tends to be over-descriptive
one of the two princes in the Tower. He made two landings in and yet lacks specific and clarifying detail, such
Britain but was captured and executed. Henry therefore dealt with as the names of the impostors. Nevertheless,
the candidate shows understanding of the
challenges effectively. dynastic challenges faced by Henry and
Henry also used marriage to establish his dynasty. By the the final sentence links the material to the
question.
leading member of the York family, Elizabeth, he had two male
heirs. He married his children well, one to the King of Scotland
and one to the King of Spain’s daughter. He combined the white
EXAMINER TIP
rose of York and the red rose of Lancaster to form the Tudor
This paragraph shows good understanding and
Rose, which represented his family. This helped reinforce the some detailed knowledge. Although it would
Tudor dynasty and meant that Henry had again dealt with the have been better to have made the concluding
comment first – and then supported it – the
issue of establishing his dynasty successfully. material is linked to the question well.

41
 REVISION PROGRESS

Henry also established his dynasty by crushing potential

opposition. He dated his reign from before the Battle of Bosworth.
He used bonds and recognisances to blackmail the nobles into
submission and to raise money, and did not allow Parliament to
challenge him. However, it could be argued that Henry was lucky. It
was Richard III’s mistakes which led to Henry’s victory at Bosworth
and the failure of the Yorkists to organise proper opposition made EXAMINER TIP
it easier for Henry. Also, Henry was lucky that Henry VIII survived This paragraph provides some useful balance
but, while it has focus, it covers the material in
as, once his first son, Arthur, died, the king did not remarry and
an undeveloped, list-like way.
produce more heirs. So, the survival of the dynasty depended on
one life and there were problems with the succession.
Overall, Henry Tudor was very successful in establishing the
dynasty. Although he had luck – like the Duke of Burgundy’s
landing in England or the mistakes of the Yorkists – most of the EXAMINER TIP
reasons why Henry VIII and his children in turn succeeded were The conclusion offers some judgement and
due to Henry VII’s marriages, his control over the nobility and his provides a good summary of the essay.
However, it, like the answer itself, is rather
military success in dealing with pretenders. one-sided.

OVERALL COMMENT
The answer is generally well organised and shows understanding and awareness of relevant evidence.
However, it is not always precise and points are not all clearly developed and explained. The balancing
(disagree) factors are also extremely limited, so it is primarily a one-sided response. For this reason,
this answer would reach no higher than the top of Level 3.

OVER TO YOU
Give yourself 45 minutes to answer this question on your own – take at least 5 minutes to sort out your
ideas first. Then check to see if your answer avoids the mistakes of the sample student answer as shown
in the purple Examiner Tips. Have you:
❑ Provided a sentence linking to the question and advancing an argument at the beginning of each
paragraph?
❑ Supplied sufficient precise detail to support the comments you make?
❑ Developed several ‘balancing factors’ and explained and argued the importance of these?
❑ Made your view clear in a well-balanced conclusion?
Now check Chapter 1 and Chapter 3. Are the details in your essay factually accurate? Have you missed
any issues or details you should have included?

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 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

Henry VIII, 1509–1547

REVISION PROGRESS

7 The character and aims of Henry VIII

RECAP
The character of Henry VIII
Henry VIII succeeded to the throne in April 1509, two months before his 18th birthday. In the seven
years since the death of his elder brother, Arthur, he had been well educated for this role as king.
He was well read and had been introduced to humanist ideas. He was charming and agreeable and
produced a positive first impression.
The manner of Henry VIII’s succession displays astuteness and ruthlessness on the part of the new
king. The death of Henry VII was concealed for two days, while Prince Henry and some of the old
king’s councillors secured his position. Richard Fox, Thomas Lovell and Richard Weston established
themselves in power and arranged the imprisonment of Dudley and Empson on the first day of the new
reign. This was a popular move, which seemed to symbolise an end to the old ways of ruling.
Henry VIII’s way of ruling was very different from his father’s:
• He lacked a strong work ethic, enjoying courtly activities such as pageants, revelry, sports, hunting and
tournaments.
• While he had little interest in the daily business of government, he could act decisively when he
chose.
• He relied heavily on others – members of his Council and, at times, a chief minister (Wolsey or
Cromwell).
Henry also exhibited certain character traits:
• ruthlessness and cynicism (for example in his execution of Empson and Dudley)
• insecurity (as demonstrated by his willingness to resort to execution for treason, often on flimsy
excuses)
• impulsiveness (examples include the speed with which he married Catherine of Aragon, his later
marriages to Anne of Cleves and Catherine Howard, and his decision to execute Thomas Cromwell
– all of which he later regretted).
Henry believed in his own ‘divine right’ to rule and conformed to the practices of the Catholic Church.

The legacy of Henry VII

Henry VII’s main legacy to his son was a full Crown coffer (around £300,000), but he also bequeathed
a peaceful kingdom in which the nobility had been checked and the Tudor dynasty secured. Although
some of his methods of raising revenue had been unpopular, his peaceful foreign policy and efficient
government had helped to provide stability and a welcome respite after the Wars of the Roses.

The aims of Henry VIII’s government

Henry’s early aims related to establishing himself and preserving the best of what his father had
left him, while marking out a new course as king.
Once his position was consolidated, his aims became less clear. Although always eager to pursue glory
and secure the succession to the throne, he showed little interest in policy-making, except when it
affected him personally.
The lasting effects of his reign, such as the growing importance of Parliament, the destruction of much
traditional religion and the plundering of Church wealth, arose from circumstances and were not the
results of a clear set of policy aims.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

Aim Actions
Dismantle unpopular aspects of his father’s legacy, while Empson and Dudley executed; Council Learned abolished
maintaining stability (Jan 1510); many bonds cancelled

Establish his status among European monarchs through Married Catherine of Aragon (June 1509)
marriage and preserve the dynasty (through expectation of
an heir)

Support the nobility while preserving strong government Nobles’ sons became Henry’s personal companions in
sport, leisure and war – but their political influence was
limited (e.g. Wolsey dominated as chief minister)

Establish himself as a warrior king through success in battle Pursued military glory through war with France

SUMMARY
• Henry’s accession in 1509 brought general rejoicing, as a new young, educated and charming
ruler swept away the unpopular mechanisms of Henry VII’s government.
• Henry had little interest in daily government but could act decisively and ruthlessly when he
chose.
• In the early years, Henry’s main aims involved establishing himself as king.
• For the rest of his reign, his aims changed according to circumstances, though his determination
to achieve military glory and to secure the succession were recurrent themes.

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 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE
The following are 8 descriptions of either Henry VII or Henry VIII. Using your knowledge from this
chapter, sort the statements to match the description of each king.

Used a chief Fought hard REVIEW

Jousted with the Oppressed the
minister to help to get rid of
nobility nobility Look back at
him govern pretenders
Chapters 1 and 2
on Henry VII to
help you make
Spent heavily Used councillors the comparison.
Was prudent Fought for glory
on war and but never had a This activity will
with money and enjoyment
entertainment chief minister help you answer
an exam question
on a comparison
between the first
Tudor kings by
pointing out key
differences in their
approaches and
political aims.

ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW

REVISION SKILLS
A
A
LEVEL
LEVEL
‘Despite their differences in approach, Henry VII and Henry VIII shared the same You might find it
political aims.’ Assess the validity of this view. helpful to create
a Plan out your answer to this question. Write out the aims of each monarch, then identify any a Venn diagram
shared aims. showing each
monarch’s aims
and those which
were shared. Use
a second diagram,
with 2 columns, to
compare differences
in approach.

b Now try to answer the question. Remember that in a complete answer, you would need to
address differences in approach too.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

8 Henry VIII, government and Parliament

RECAP
Government under Henry VIII representative) in 1518. He was appointed Lord Chancellor by
Henry in 1515; this put him in control of royal government and
Henry had inherited a strong and efficient central and local gave him immense power because all other courtiers had to go
government structure, staffed by able administrators. Some of through him to speak to the king.
these continued in office and Henry’s early years saw a good
deal of continuity. However, there were some changes after 1514. During the years of Wolsey’s chancellorship (1515–29),
domestic policy centred on strengthening royal authority
• Conciliar government had broken and raising finance, particularly to support Henry’s wars with
1509–c1514: down by 1514. This was because of France and Scotland.
Government by the disagreements between Henry and his As Lord Chancellor Wolsey was responsible for overseeing
Council councillors, e.g. over war with France, or the legal system, promoting royal authority by enforcing law
Henry’s preference to surround himself and order.
with younger courtiers.
• He presided over the court of chancery, which he used to
• From c1514, Henry relied on Wolsey uphold ‘fair’ justice in problems relating to enclosure of
to manage government effectively. open fields for sheep farming, contracts, and land left to
c1514–29: Thomas
Wolsey as chief minister Wolsey’s influence was derived more others in wills.
from his close relationship with the king • From 1516 he extended the use of the court of Star
than from formal positions. Chamber, which had been established as an offshoot of
the king’s Council during Henry VII’s reign, making it the
• Wolsey’s downfall brought a return to centre of both government and the legal system. It was
1529–32: Conciliar
conciliar government. used to increase cheap and fair justice and heard cases of
government restored alleged misconduct and private lawsuits.
• Local law officers were appointed to enforce royal law.
• The authority of the Crown over regional councils was
extended.
• Cromwell rose to power as chief Wolsey also oversaw the raising of finance for the king.
1532–40: Thomas minister by 1532 and dominated royal
Cromwell as chief government for the rest of the 1530s.
• Instead of using local commissioners to assess taxpayers’
minister wealth for the raising of subsidies (parliamentary
taxation/extraordinary revenue), he set up a network of
royal commissioners appointed by himself.
• In 1525, when the amount of extraordinary revenue
• Following Cromwell’s fall, a new raised still proved insufficient to finance Henry’s war in
c1540–47: Conciliar Privy Council emerged with fixed France, he tried to raise the so-called Amicable Grant of
government restored in membership and recorded proceedings. 1525. This was, in theory, a voluntary gift to the king from
a new form In the Privy Council power lay with the his subjects; in reality it was a heavy tax, levied without
conservatives. Parliament’s approval. It led to widespread resistance and
had to be abandoned.
Parliament grew in importance, particularly from 1529, when • In 1526, he introduced the Eltham Ordinances. These
the so-called ‘Reformation Parliament’ (1529–36) dealt with ostensibly aimed to reduce royal household expenditure
Henry’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon and reformed the by reforming the Privy Chamber’s finances, but through
Church. Henry also used Parliament to grant extraordinary them Wolsey also succeeded in reducing the influence of
revenue to finance his wars. the Privy Chamber.
The role of the Privy Chamber was also extended in the early
years of Henry VIII’s reign when the king’s ‘minions’ (young The establishment of royal supremacy
courtiers who enjoyed Henry’s favour) became Gentlemen of
the Privy Chamber. The ‘King’s Great Matter’
The ‘King’s Great Matter’ concerned the annulment of Henry’s
Domestic policies under Wolsey marriage to Catherine of Aragon; something which could only
be granted by the Pope, Clement VII. By the mid 1520s Henry
(1515–29) had no male heir (and only one surviving daughter, Princess
Mary), and his wife Catherine was past childbearing age. Henry
Thomas Wolsey was a churchman of humble origins. His
feared for the kingdom should he die without a male heir;
organisational abilities (especially in the French campaign)
he was also in love with Anne Boleyn, the niece of Thomas
impressed Henry and he rose to become Archbishop of York in
Howard, the Duke of Norfolk.
1514, a cardinal in 1515 and papal legate (the Pope’s personal

46
 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

KEY CHRONOLOGY
1525 Henry asked Wolsey to secure a papal dispensation for the Archbishopric of Canterbury in 1532) to put the
the annulment of his marriage to Catherine, providing theological case for annulment
biblical justification that his marriage to his brother’s 1531 The English clergy were collectively accused of
widow had been illegal in the sight of God praemunire and ordered to pay a £100,000 fine
1527 Wolsey, as the Pope’s representative, called a special 1532 Thomas Cromwell had emerged as the king’s chief
court to ‘try’ Henry for living in sin with his supposed minister, and he took matters in hand, passing a series
wife – to which Henry agreed. Catherine appealed to of measures, and laws through Parliament, to release the
Pope Clement VII. However, the Pope was reluctant to king from papal control, and thus enable him to remarry
cooperate, partly because Catherine’s nephew, Charles V, with a clear conscience
Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, fiercely opposed
• An act was passed withholding the payment of
such an annulment, and in May 1527, Charles’ troops
annates (taxes on first fruits and tenths – a tax
(who were fighting the papal-backed French in Italy)
paid to the papacy by clergy on taking up their
entered Rome, sacked the city and took the Pope
appointments)
prisoner
• The Supplication against the Ordinaries accused
Two years of fruitless diplomacy followed, during which
bishops of over-stating their power
the Pope deliberately procrastinated
• Cromwell organised the surrender of the Church’s
1529 The Pope finally sent an envoy, Cardinal Campeggio, to
law-making function to the king (known as the
hear the case along with Wolsey in a legatine court. The
Submission of the Clergy)
hearing opened in June but Campeggio adjourned it in
July, without agreeing to the annulment. In October, 1533 By January, Anne was pregnant, so Cranmer conducted
Wolsey was charged with praemunire (using papal a secret marriage ceremony. In May, Cranmer annulled
authority against the Crown) and retired to Yorkshire, Henry’s previous marriage, allowing Anne to be crowned
surrendering his possessions to the king queen. However, the birth of a daughter, Princess
Elizabeth, on 7 September did not solve the problem of
1530 In November Wolsey was arrested, but died before he
the succession
could be tried and executed. Henry was determined to
press ahead with his ‘Great Matter’. He used scholars
such as Thomas Cranmer (who was rewarded with

Acts of Parliament (1533–41)

From 1533, Cromwell passed a series of Acts of Parliament to establish royal supremacy.

Date Act Significance

1533 (April) Act in Restraint of Appeals Catherine could not appeal to Rome against her
No appeals could be made to Rome against marriage annulment
decisions of Church courts in England

1534 (April) Act of Succession Princess Mary became illegitimate; hopes for male
Annulled Henry’s marriage to Catherine; vested the heir rested with Anne
succession in Anne’s children; to deny Henry’s new
marriage was declared treason

1534 (Nov) Act of Supremacy Pope’s authority no longer recognised in England:

King declared Supreme Head of the Church in the ‘break from Rome’
England

1534 (Nov) Treason Act Used against opponents of royal supremacy and
Became treasonable to call Henry a heretic brought down Thomas More, scholar, courtier and
Lord Chancellor 1530–32 (executed 1535)

1534 (Nov) Act in Restraint of Annates Strengthened the king’s position; a special court
Allowed the annates (which had been withheld from was set up to administer this
the papacy by the 1532 Act) to be transferred from
Pope to king

1536 and 1541 First and Second Suppression Acts Confiscation of Church land to the Crown vastly
Dissolved the monasteries increased wealth and power of the Crown

47
 REVISION PROGRESS

Domestic policies under Cromwell (1532–40)

Thomas Cromwell was a lawyer, who had come to the king’s notice while working under Wolsey. His
skills, which engineered the break with Rome, became invaluable to Henry. It has been suggested
that Cromwell’s policies revolutionised government as he achieved the royal supremacy through Acts
of Parliament, so enhancing its status. Furthermore, he helped give parliamentary law (statute law),
precedence over Church law (canon law).
Cromwell developed a more ‘modern’ form of government, replacing the ‘personal’ approach of earlier
kings with a more bureaucratic approach that involved creating departments, controlled by rules and
procedures, for different areas. For example, the Court of Augmentations and the Court of First Fruits
and Tenths, which were established to look after Henry’s income from the Church, were subject to
scrutiny and the careful auditing of all accounts.
Cromwell changed the composition of the Privy Council, reducing it to 20 men who took responsibility
for the business of government. This increased efficiency and a higher value was placed on talent as
opposed to reward for personal service or status within government.
Cromwell also negotiated further marriages for Henry. When Henry’s relationship with Anne Boleyn
broke down, Cromwell made the case for Anne’s adultery. Her execution in May 1536 followed the
death, in January, of Catherine of Aragon. Henry’s third marriage was to Jane Seymour. Jane finally
produced a male heir, Prince Edward in 1537, but died in childbirth.
Cromwell’s fall followed the failure of Henry’s fourth marriage, to the Protestant German Princess Anne
of Cleves: a marriage the minister had arranged to suit his foreign policy. Cromwell was tried for treason
and heresy and executed in July 1540, on the same day that Henry married Catherine Howard, niece of
the Duke of Norfolk.

Government in Henry VIII’s last years (1540–47)

Under a revived system of conciliar government, Henry’s final years were dominated by conservatives
anxious to halt further religious change, such as Stephen Gardiner and Thomas Wriothesley. Norfolk’s
influence was threatened following Catherine Howard’s execution for treason in 1542 and the king’s
sixth marriage to Katherine Parr. As the king’s health began to deteriorate, factional rivalries between
those of differing political and religious views intensified in a bid to be able to control his successor.
Norfolk escaped execution by the timely death of the king in January 1547. The leading contender for
power was Norfolk’s rival Edward Seymour, the new king’s uncle.

SUMMARY
• Henry VIII largely left the day-to-day running of the government to others, intervening when it
suited him.
• Periods of conciliar government were interspersed by government through a chief minister
(Wolsey, c1514–29 and Cromwell, 1532–40).
• The need to secure the succession gave rise to the ‘King’s Great Matter’ – the annulment of Henry’s
marriage to Catherine of Aragon; this led to the breaking of the Church in England from
the Church in Rome and the establishment of the royal supremacy.

48
 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE REVIEW

a Create a timeline of the key events of the years 1525–34. Include the To remind yourself of the Pope’s position in the
actions of the Pope in green and other events in black. Decide when Church, look back at Chapter 4.
you think the following key turning points may have occurred and
plot these in red:
• Henry decided that Catherine would not have more children
• Henry decided that Wolsey would not get the divorce EXAMINER TIP

• Henry decided to pressurise the Pope by increasingly hostile A full answer would need reference to
measures 20 years and require consideration of a range
of factors. However, specific reference to the
• Henry decided that he must break with Rome to ensure the key turning points would be expected for high
succession examination marks.
b Use the information in your timeline to address the question: To what
extent was the break with Rome due to the Pope’s opposition?

PLAN YOUR ESSAY REVIEW

How successful was Wolsey as the king’s chief minister in This question does not address the 20 years
A
LEVEL
the years 1515 to 1529? that you would encounter in an A Level exam
but practises important skills. Look forward
In order to answer the question, it is important that you make clear to Chapter 11 to see how effectively Wolsey
the criteria against which you will assess ‘success’. One way of doing pursued his aims of making the law on
this would be to identify the key aims of Wolsey as the king’s chief enclosure fairer for the poor.
minister. These aims might be referred to in the opening sentences of
the paragraphs of your essay – so providing constant reference to the
question and building up an argument. EXAMINER TIP
a Consider the following key aims and his successes and failures: Remember that it is impossible to talk of
‘success’ without defining what success might
• enforcing law and order look like. There are various ways of doing
• increasing royal authority this, and in some essays it might be more
appropriate to assess success in a different
• raising finance for the king
way, for example, in relation to the strength of
• resolving the ‘King’s Great Matter’. the country or the well being of its people.
b Plan an answer to this essay by comparing Wolsey’s successes and
failures in each aim.
c Write the first sentence of each paragraph (excluding the introduction
and conclusion) in full. These first sentences should show the
direction of your argument.

49
 REVISION PROGRESS

EXTRACT ANALYSIS
Consider the following extract.

EXTRACT A

The changes in government under Cromwell were revolutionary, if that term may
be applied to any changes which profoundly affect the constitution and government of a state
even when no systematic and entire destruction was involved. The essential ingredient of
the Tudor revolution was the concept of national sovereignty which Cromwell summarised in
the Act of Appeals of 1533 by using the phrase ‘this realm of England is an empire’. Previous
EXAMINER TIP
kings like Edward I had claimed to rule an empire but the meaning here is different. Instead of
a claim based on ruling a large extent of land, the Act said that Henry was the ‘one supreme This activity
Head and King’. The royal supremacy over the Church virtually replaced the Pope in England provides practice
by the king but the Reformation statutes demonstrate that the political sovereignty created in in the first step
the 1530s was a parliamentary one. Cromwell’s administrative reforms – like the Privy Council towards answering
– provided the machinery for the new state he had started to construct. a full AS or A Level
Adapted from Geoffrey Elton, England under the Tudors¸1974 question. The next
step would involve
applying your own
a Underline the key words of the extract that will help you to identify the overall argument knowledge of the
which the extract puts forward in relation to Henry VIII’s government. historical context
b Underline (in a different colour) any references that it might be useful to quote in an answer, to to the arguments in
illustrate this argument. the extract in order
to respond to the
c Using the information you have identified above, write a paragraph in response to the
instruction, ‘how
question: ‘Assess how convincing the argument in this extract is in relation to the existence
convincing ...’.
of a Tudor revolution in government in the time of Thomas Cromwell.’ In this paragraph, you
You will get an
should show your understanding of the argument with reference to the extract only.
opportunity to
practise this skill in
Chapter 12.

REVISION SKILLS
REVIEW
Make a large chart to reflect the state of the government in 1547, as follows:
You can add more
Area Strengths Weaknesses to your chart as you
study Chapters 9, 10,
Position of king 11 and 12.

Position of Parliament

Government

Succession

Legal system

Control of Church

50
 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

9 Foreign relations and securing the succession

RECAP
Foreign relations KEY CHRONOLOGY
Foreign policy, 1509–14 Foreign policy, 1514–26
Henry’s early foreign policy demonstrated his enthusiasm to win 1517 Charles V and HRE Maximilian agreed the Treaty of
military glory and make England a major player in international Cambrai with the French, leaving England isolated
affairs. He was personally ambitious and believed he had a right 1518 The Treaty of London was a personal achievement by
to the French Crown. Wolsey; England, France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire
and other smaller states signed a non-aggression pact
KEY CHRONOLOGY 1520 Henry and Francis met at the ‘Field of the Cloth of Gold’.
Foreign policy, 1509–14 This reinforced positive relations between England and
1510 Henry entered an alliance (the Holy League), with France
Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy, against 1521 The Treaty of Bruges was negotiated by Wolsey with
France Charles V
1512 Henry sent 10,000 soldiers to south-west France but 1522 English armies invaded northern France but
Ferdinand of Spain failed to support the English who gained little; Parliament was reluctant to grant the
suffered defeat in Gascony extraordinary revenue to support the campaign
1513 Henry himself led a force to north-eastern France. He 1525 Charles V defeated the French at the Battle of Pavia
won the ‘Battle of the Spurs’ and captured Thérouanne (Italy), but refused a joint invasion of northern France
and Tournai with Henry. Henry changed tactics and supported
James IV of Scotland (allied to France) invaded England. the League of Cognac, with France and the Pope, to
He was defeated and killed at the Battle of Flodden, counterbalance Charles’s power in northern Italy
along with many of the Scottish nobility. This left the
Scottish throne in the hands of the infant James V, with
Henry VIII’s sister, Queen Margaret, as regent Foreign policy, 1527–40
From 1527 it was clear that Charles V was the dominant player
in Europe. This made Henry’s attempts to annul his marriage
The results of the military campaigns of 1512/13 were:
with Charles’ nephew Catherine difficult, and domestic issues
• a huge drain on English finance affected his foreign moves.
• trouble in Yorkshire, where resentment against taxation
nearly led to another rebellion
• the loss of the French pension which Henry VII had won KEY CHRONOLOGY
• insignificant gains in France; Tournai was sold back to Foreign policy, 1527–40
France in 1519 1527 Henry allied with the French in the Treaty of Amiens
• peace with Scotland (which lasted until 1542).
1532 Henry formed a further alliance with France, in an
A possible further campaign of 1514 was abandoned when attempt to pressurise Charles into supporting Henry’s
Ferdinand and Maximilian made peace with France. marriage annulment – but the tactic failed
1538 Henry’s position was weakened:
Foreign policy, 1514–26 • Charles and Francis signed the Treaty of Nice,
Between late 1514 and 1526 Henry’s foreign policy was followed by the 1539 Pact of Toledo when they each
inconsistent. Although Henry’s younger sister, Mary, married agreed to sever connections with England
Louis XII of France in 1514, the French king died in 1515 and was • Pope Paul III deposed Henry and absolved English
succeeded by Francis I, whom Henry regarded as a personal as Catholics from obedience to their ruler
well as political rival. The death of Ferdinand of Spain in 1516
1539 Paul III sent Cardinal Beaton to Scotland and Cardinal
and the accession of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor and
Pole to France to rouse support for a Catholic crusade
Spanish king also changed the balance of power in Europe; this
against Henry
affected Henry’s actions.
Henry responded by marrying the German Protestant
Princess Anne of Cleves, seeking an alliance with the
Protestant League of Schmalkalden
However this became unnecessary when relations
between Charles and Francis broke down, making
Henry’s position more secure

51
 REVISION PROGRESS

Ireland Securing the succession

The Earl of Kildare had governed Ireland on Henry’s behalf. The need to secure the succession led to a number of Acts of
However, a rebellion in 1534 proved difficult to suppress. The Parliament, each of which repealed its predecessor. Even the
subsequent attempt to bring Irish government more directly birth of Prince Edward in 1537 did not solve the succession
under English control failed, and Ireland became an increasing problem, as by 1543 the king’s failing health made it likely
expense to the Crown. that Edward would still be a minor when he succeeded to the
An invasion of the Pale by two Irish nobles in 1539 was throne.
eventually controlled, and in 1541 the government tried to
pacify Ireland by:
1534 Succession Act
• establishing it as a separate kingdom, under English law
• Declared Mary (daughter of Henry and
• creating counties out of the Gaelic lordships
Catherine of Aragon) illegitimate
• granting the Irish nobles peerage titles and the same legal
• Stated that the succession would rest
protection as their English counterparts. with Anne’s children
However, the government lacked the resources to follow through
with the reforms, there was no residual Irish loyalty to the
English Crown, and after 1534 the emerging religious differences 1536 Succession Act
between England and Ireland complicated the situation.
• Followed Anne’s execution for treason

Foreign policy, 1540–47 • Declared Elizabeth (daughter of Henry

and Anne) illegitimate
The 1540s saw Henry’s return to an aggressive foreign policy. • Stated that in the absence of a
legitimate heir, the king could
determine the succession by will or
KEY CHRONOLOGY letters patent; this would have allowed
Henry to legitimise his illegitimate son,
Foreign policy, 1540–47 the Duke of Richmond, but Richmond
1542 An invasion of Scotland brought heavy defeat for the died in 1536
Scots at the Battle of Solway Moss. The death of
James V weakened the Scots, but Henry failed to mount
a full-scale invasion 1544 Succession Act
1543 By the Treaty of Greenwich, Henry’s son, Edward, was
• Re-legitimated Mary and Elizabeth
betrothed to Mary, Queen of Scots. However, since the
• Affirmed Henry’s right to determine the
Scots refused to ratify the treaty, the Earl of Hertford
succession by will or letters patent
was sent to raid Edinburgh, Leith and St Andrews; this
achieved little
1544 Henry, in alliance with Charles V, invaded France in 1544
at the head of a large army. He captured Boulogne, but December 1546 Henry’s will
Charles made a separate peace with Francis I • Confirmed the succession
1545 Francis I sent troops to Scotland to support an invasion arrangements
of England. The English were defeated at the Battle of • Stated that if Edward, Mary and
Elizabeth died without children the
Ancrum Moor, Scotland, but the Scots failed to invade
heirs of Henry’s sister Mary, Duchess of
Another French force landed in the Isle of Wight; Henry’s Suffolk, should succeed
flagship, the Mary Rose, sank in the Solent • Set up a Regency Council to act on
The French failed to recapture Boulogne Edward’s behalf

1546 Peace was agreed between England and France, as

neither side could afford to continue the conflict
SUMMARY
• Henry’s early policy, while inconsistent and largely
Henry had paid a high price for his final pursuit of glory. Unable unsuccessful, was primarily driven by a desire to pursue
to fund the war from extraordinary revenue, he sold much military glory in France.
of the Crown estate, borrowed large sums and debased the • In the 1530s, the dominance of Charles V and the
coinage, thereby significantly increasing the rate of inflation. emergence of the ‘King’s Great Matter’ changed the focus
of foreign policy.
• In the 1540s, Henry returned to an aggressive foreign
policy, launching attacks on both Scotland and France.

52
 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Below are listed 9 aims of Henry VIII in foreign policy, in no particular order. Look at these then This exercise should
complete the following tasks: provide useful
a In the diagram below, put the aims in the rank order of their importance from top to bottom and supporting material
on each row left to right. Number them accordingly. for an essay on the
success of Henry’s
b Explain why you have chosen your most important aim in the ‘why’ box at the top.
foreign policy
c Explain why you have chosen your least important aim in the ‘why’ box at the bottom. between 1509 and
1547.
Henry’s aims in foreign policy
• Military glory • Attempting to outdo Francis I
• Land in France • Conquest of Scotland REVIEW
• Trade • Control of Ireland To remind yourself
• Annulment • Succession of Henry VIII’s aims,
ideas and ideology,
• Alliance with Protestants look back at Chapter 7.

Why?

Why?

53
 REVISION PROGRESS

ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW EXAMINER TIP

Always take a little
A ‘Parliamentary legislation was more important than other factors in ensuring the
time before making
LEVEL
succession of Edward VI in 1547.’ Assess the validity of this view with reference to
a judgement.
the years 1525 to 1547.
Diagrams that help
a This question requires an assessment of different factors, such as the actions of individuals, you to separate
Henry VIII’s will, securing peace at the end of Henry VIII’s reign, and noble support, about which factors often help
you are required to make a judgement on relative importance. Breaking the question down will you to formulate a
help you to consider the evidence and formulate an opinion. Fill in the table below. view by showing the
balance of evidence.
Parliamentary legislation Other factors

Acts of Parliament Actions of individuals

which determined the
succession

Other Acts which Henry VIII’s will

prevented challenges to
the succession

Acts relating to religion Securing peace at the

which would make a end of the reign
Catholic succession
difficult

Gaining noble support

for the Tudors

b Study your chart carefully and choose 1 of the following judgements: REVIEW
• Parliamentary legislation was more important than other factors in ensuring the succession of Look back to
Edward VI in 1547. Chapter 8 for
• Other factors were more important than parliamentary legislation in ensuring the succession more information
of Edward VI in 1547. on relevant
parliamentary
• Parliamentary legislation was of equal importance to other factors in ensuring the succession legislation. For more
of Edward VI in 1547. on how Edward’s
c Write an introduction to this question in which you convey your judgement. succession was
secured after
Henry’s death, look
ahead to Chapter 13.

54
 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

EXTRACT ANALYSIS
Consider the following extract.

EXTRACT A

By the end of the 1520s, domestic politics replaced foreign policy as Henry VIII’s top priority. It
is not known when precisely he determined that he must sacrifice Catherine of Aragon to the
cause of acquiring a male heir but, by 1529, Henry was devoting the bulk of his energies and
those of his ministers towards obtaining a papal annulment of his marriage. The ‘King’s Great
Matter’ became the pivot around which foreign policy turned. Clement was still paralysed by
the sack of Rome. Wolsey suggested war with Spain in 1528 but the nation lacked the means
to wage it. Having failed utterly to secure the annulment by diplomatic means, Wolsey was
dismissed as chancellor by Henry in October 1529 and replaced by Sir Thomas More. However,
when Charles made peace with France and England in 1529, England was reduced to its
previous and futile policy of trying to promote French hostility toward the Emperor as a means
of pressuring Charles on the divorce issue.
Adapted from William Palmer, The Problem of Ireland in Tudor Foreign Policy, 1485–1603, 1994

a Use a highlighter to identify opinion (and potential bias) in this extract.

b Summarise the argument in this extract in 2 short sentences. (Try to avoid repeating the
words used in the extract as you do this.)
c How might the argument in this extract be challenged?

PLAN YOUR ESSAY EXAMINER TIP

‘Henry VIII’s government was strengthened by its international position in the Ensure you are
AS familiar with the
LEVEL
years 1534 to 1547.’ Explain why you agree or disagree with this view.
chronology and
make good use
This question is asking you to account for the strength of Henry VIII’s government from the break of dates in your
with Rome in 1534 to his death in 1547. It would be helpful here to produce a three- (rather than answer. This is
the more usual two-) column plan, so that you can consider not only the strengths of Henry VIII’s essential in breadth
international position, but also its weaknesses, as well as the part played by other factors. This plan questions.
should enable you to decide what view you will adopt.
a Complete the following table:
REVIEW
To remind yourself
Strengths of Henry’s Weaknesses of Henry’s Other factors, e.g. the of the failures of
international position international position failures of domestic domestic opposition
1534–47 1534–47 opposition and other possible
factors, look back
at Chapter 8. The
failure of the main
rebellion against
Henry is covered in
Chapter 11.

b You may want to address Henry’s international position thematically or chronologically. Decide
which approach you will adopt before you begin writing.
c Write a paragraph plan for this essay, showing how your argument will develop.

55
 REVISION PROGRESS

10 English society in the reign of Henry VIII

RECAP

Elites and commoners by trade increased. The wealthy burgesses had a political
voice in Parliament, to which they could be elected. For the
There was significant social change in Henry VIII’s reign. This was semi-skilled and unskilled town workers, however, life could be
partly the result of a growth in the numbers of those engaged tough, as food prices were subject to wild variations.
in professional and commercial activities and partly because of
greater social mobility. However, the actual structure of society Most Englishmen continued to live in rural communities where
remained much the same, with the nobles and greater gentry they mostly worked as free self-sufficient peasant smallholders
wielding political and considerable economic influence, while (husbandmen). Their standard of living changed little during
the rural majority experienced little change. the first half of the reign, but this varied by area, and distress
(e.g. following a bad harvest or a change in agricultural
Henry relied on the landed elites (both nobles and gentry): practices) was never far away. Such problems became more
• He gave property and/or titles to nobles so that they could acute in the later part of the reign.
exert royal authority in particular areas (e.g. Suffolk was With the royal supremacy and the greater availability of land
given property in Lincolnshire after the rebellion there (formerly belonging to the Church and monasteries), there was
in 1536). change. Some peasants acquired copyholds to land (paying
• He ensured full support by executing nobles (such as the a rent to members of the gentry who increasingly bought up
Duke of Buckingham in 1521) when there was any doubt landed estates in order to lease them out and make a profit).
of loyalty. The more prosperous peasants bought land outright and
• He conferred knighthoods as a sign of royal favour. increased the size of their holdings. Such entered the ranks of
The gentry provided Henry’s justices of the peace (JPs) and the yeomen, farming for profit rather than mere subsistence.
often undertook unpaid administration for the Crown. This These changes in the countryside were accompanied by an
group grew considerably in the course of Henry’s reign as more increased movement away from rural to urban communities as
land became available, following the changes to the Church new opportunities opened up there.
and dissolution of the monasteries. This offered opportunities
to increase the size of landed estates and lease out farming Regional issues
land. The increased complexity of government also gave the
gentry more opportunities to make their mark. Legal training Maintaining order in the regions on the borders of the kingdom
became more highly valued and local administration was was a continual problem for Tudor monarchs, and Henry VIII
increasingly performed by lawyers rather than clergymen. sought to impose royal control in Wales, Ireland and the North
of England.
There was also a growth in the urban elites as towns and cities
grew and the numbers of merchants and skilled artisans living
Ireland Key
N
England tried to control the Irish through Palatinates
Durham In 1536, three English
force, keeping a standing army there. The Lancashire
Crown also kept a tight control over the counties, Lancashire,
Cheshire
Irish parliament and in 1541, Henry Cheshire and Durham,
adopted the title King of Ireland. which were technically
‘palatinates’ (separate
Wales jurisdictions) were brought
Before 1536 Wales, comprising marcher (i.e. border) back under English control,
lordships and the Principality of Wales, had neither although the bishop of
a single unified administration nor a formal Durham was allowed to
political link with England. Cromwell’s Wales Act of retain some independence.
1536 (with additions down to 1543):
England
• divided Wales into shire counties operating in the
The north of England posed
same way as the English counties – i.e. with JPs
problems because it was so far
• gave the Welsh shires direct representation in the
from the government in London.
House of Commons at Westminster
Following the Pilgrimage of Grace
• brought Wales into the same legal framework as
(a rebellion provoked by the
England.
closure of monasteries) in 1536,
In practice this meant that Wales became
Henry and Cromwell re-established
incorporated into England, and English culture and
the Council in the North as a
language were imposed.
permanent body based in York with
From 1536, the Principality of Wales, along with the
a professional staff. It had both
four bordering English counties (Shropshire,
administrative and legal functions.
Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire)
It helped to keep the north quiet
came under the jurisdiction of the Council of Wales
during the summer of rebellions in
and the Marches, based at Ludlow in Shropshire.
1549, although northerners
This offered the area relatively cheap and local
resented the appointment of
access to the law. 0 100 km
southerners to the Council.

56
 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

The social impact of religious upheaval 4000 refusals and the king was forced to back down. Wolsey
sought pardon for the protestors and the leaders were
The religious upheaval of the 1530s had huge social treated leniently. The unrest showed that Henry dare not
consequences. press his people too hard – for his next invasion of France,
• In the short term, resentment at the dissolution of the he supplemented his revenue with the profits from monastic
monasteries and attacks on traditional Catholic practices lands.
was exacerbated by fears of an attack on parish churches.
This led to a major rebellion, the Pilgrimage of Grace, The Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace
in 1536.
Together, the Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace
• A huge amount of land was transferred from the Church
comprised the largest single rebellion in the history of Tudor
to the Crown. This temporarily increased the Crown’s
England, with around 40,000 people involved.
wealth. However by 1547 nearly two thirds of the
confiscated Church and monastic property had been • It began as a rising in Lincolnshire in early October 1536
sold off, often cheaply, to fund Henry’s expensive foreign and spread first into the East Riding of Yorkshire and then
policy. This greatly increased both the size and the wealth into parts of the West Riding.
of the landholding gentry. • A second and more militant rising (the Pilgrimage of
• Education suffered, with the loss of monastery schools. Grace) started in the Yorkshire Dales and spread west into
• Many monks and nuns became unemployed. Cumberland, Westmorland and north Lancashire, north
• Many monasteries had played a key role in their into Durham and south-west into Yorkshire’s West Riding
communities (e.g. offering jobs, welfare services, of Yorkshire. The rebels there were more hostile towards
education and hospitals); this was all lost. the gentry because of the strength of their grievances
against their landlords, sending out letters in the name of
Rebellions ‘Captain Poverty’.
• Further rebellion broke out in Cumberland early in 1537.
As in Henry VII’s reign, taxation to pay for foreign wars caused
unrest. There were complaints in Yorkshire in 1513 about the Causes of the rebellion
raising of a subsidy for Henry’s campaigns and some demands
had to be written off. The causes of the rebellion varied from place to place. There
were secular motives but the main factor was resentment at
In 1525, there was widespread opposition to the Amicable Henry’s religious changes, and particularly the dissolution of
Grant; e.g. 1000 people on the Essex–Suffolk border refused the monasteries.
payment. The dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk faced around

Fears about dissolving the

monasteries, e.g.:

• loss of charitable/ educational Economic grievances, e.g.:

functions and the facilities/ services
which monasteries offered • resentment of taxation

• loss of parish churches which were • tenants’ grievances (especially relevant for the extension
monastic properties of the rebellion into Cumberland and Westmorland)

• fear that the north would be

impoverished if monastic land was
transferred to southerners
Causes The imposition of the
Religious Secular Duke of Suffolk upon
Fear for parish churches and
motives of the motives Lincolnshire as a
traditional religious practices,
caused by: rebellion magnate

• Cromwell’s Injunctions of 1536

• discouragement of celebration
of locally important saints and of A courtly conspiracy by former supporters of Catherine of
pilgrimage Aragon, who:
• rumours that church plates and • wanted to restore Princess Mary as heir
jewels, bequeathed by parishioners, • exploited northerners’ religious and financial concerns to
would be confiscated and that pressurise the king
parishes might be amalgamated

57
 REVISION PROGRESS

The Pontefract Articles provide the most comprehensive set of The Pilgrimage of Grace alarmed Henry VIII but did not slow the
rebel demands. They incorporated a range of grievances: pace of religious change.
• religious: including concerns from both common people
and the clergy, and attempts to restore some of the SUMMARY
religious houses that had been suppressed
• Henry VIII’s reign saw some social change. Greater
• regional: including a call for Parliament to meet at York
availability of land (following the dissolutions) opened up
• specific: such as resentment of Cromwell.
possibilities of enrichment and social mobility for both
gentry and peasants; this was accompanied by a growth
KEY CHRONOLOGY in the urban elites, as professional activities provided
opportunities for advancement.
Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace
• Measures were taken to create a unified state, including
1536 Oct Lincolnshire Rising began bringing Wales directly under Crown control.
Pilgrimage of Grace began in the East Riding • Henry’s religious changes, including the dissolution of
of Yorkshire, led by Robert Aske the monasteries and attacks on traditional Catholic
Lincolnshire Rising ended by Duke of practices, caused immense social upheaval.
Suffolk’s forces • Protests against taxation, economic grievances and the
unpopularity of the religious changes led to outbreaks
Northern rebels captured Pontefract Castle
of disorder in 1513 and 1525 and to full-scale rebellion
Rebels met Duke of Norfolk’s forces; Norfolk in the Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace
offered a pardon and promised (falsely) in 1536.
that the dissolved monasteries would be
restored and a free Parliament established
Nov East and West Riding rebels dispersed
Dec Royal proclamation offered a pardon to the
rebels
1537 Jan/Feb Rebellion in Cumberland and renewed
rebellion in the East Riding of Yorkshire was
suppressed by Norfolk; martial law was
declared and 74 rebels hanged (though
thereafter lenient treatment was given)

58
 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE
a To understand the difference between the social structure of Tudor society (which remained
the same) and mobility within that structure, use the information in Chapter 10 to complete the
following chart:

Social change Social structure

REVIEW
Nobles and gentry
Look back to
Chapter 4 to
Urban elite consider what the
lives of peasants and
town workers were
like at the start of
Town workers
this period.

Peasants EXAMINER TIP

Even a category
such as ‘peasants’
b Based on your findings, which social group saw the greatest change during the Tudor period? is quite broad and
encompasses a
variety of different
experiences. Always
try to be as specific
as possible in your
own writing.

ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW EXAMINER TIP

‘The key social development of the years 1509 to 1547 was the growth of the gentry.’ Prioritisation is
A
LEVEL
Assess the validity of this view. essential when
analysing the
a When asked to address a ‘key’ development, it is important to consider what other importance
developments occurred and to create a hierarchy of importance. Here are some of the social of events and
developments of the years 1509–47. Rank them in order of importance and add a brief comment developments.
alongside each to explain your choice. Try also to show
• The gentry families of England and Wales rose to 5000 by 1540. how such events
and developments
• The closure of 900 monasteries ended their charitable functions.
interrelate in your
• The population of England and Wales rose from 2.1 million to 2.9 million. essay answers.
• Monastic estates of 2 million acres (16% of England and Wales) were sold.
• Some peasants became yeomen or copyholders and capitalist farmers.
• Enclosure and engrossment turned many peasants into labourers or migrants. REVIEW
b Use your findings to make a judgement as to whether you agree or disagree with the premise of Look back to
the quotation. Chapters 4 and 5 to
c Look forward to Chapter 11 to select additional information that would be relevant in answer to remind yourself of
this question, then plan and write the full essay. social issues under
Henry VII.

59
 REVISION PROGRESS

EXTRACT ANALYSIS
For AS and A Level exam questions you will be given 2 or 3 extracts where you need to identify
the interpretation given in each extract before deciding how convincing it is. This task helps you
analyse one interpretation.

EXTRACT A
While the accumulation of capital by the wealthy merchants and gentry through the seizure of
land by enclosure and engrossment continued, capitalism was secured by legal changes and
the peaceful exploitation of the class who did not own land. However, there was opposition,
such as the Pilgrimage of Grace. This appears to have been a reactionary, Catholic movement
of the north, led by the still half-feudal local nobility and aimed against the Reformation and
the dissolution of the monasteries. But if the leaders were nobles, the mass support for the
rising indicated a deep discontent and the rank and file largely came from the dispossessed
and from the threatened peasantry. The government had no standing army to fight the rebels
and was saved only by two things. One was the support of the south and east. The other was
the extreme simplicity of the rebels, who entered long negotiations with the government,
during which their forces melted away and they were easily dispersed.
Adapted from A. L. Morton, A People’s History of England, 1938

This extract might be used in a question asking you to assess how convincing its argument is in
relation to the importance of social change in undermining feudal society.

a To identify the author’s argument:

• try to pick out the part of the extract that puts forward a distinctive view on social change
and how feudal society was undermined – this will be the overall argument
• identify any other views/interpretations/arguments in the extract.
b To assess how convincing the author’s argument is:
• find evidence that would support the overall argument and evidence that would
contradict it
• find evidence to support or criticise the other views/interpretations/arguments.
c Now try writing an answer to the question which assesses how convincing the argument in the
extract is, with reference to your own contextual knowledge.

60
 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

IMPROVE AN ANSWER EXAMINER TIP

A full answer would
In an AS extracts question, you will be asked which of 2 extracts is the more convincing about the
also need your
same theme. Here, you will be looking at the beginning of an answer on 1 extract – and since each
own knowledge of
extract will be shorter than those at A Level, you should read only the first part of Extract A, given
context to support
on the previous page (as far as ‘threatened peasantry’ in line 8). This AS extracts question asks
and criticise views.
whether the extracts provide a convincing interpretation of the reasons for the Pilgrimage of Grace.

Answer
The extract’s interpretation is that the Pilgrimage of Grace was non-religious. The
extract says that society was becoming more capitalist and peasants were being forced
to abandon their traditional feudal way of life at this time. This shows the impact of
economic factors on social change and how everything was breaking down which led the
pilgrims to rebel. The extract also says that although the nobles led the movement, the
rank and file came from the dispossessed and threatened peasantry due to engrossment
and enclosure depriving them of their land. So, this extract clearly shows the impact
of economic factors on the Pilgrimage of Grace and its interpretation is very negative
about society then.

Explain your views:

a Does this answer begin/end well?

b What would you judge to be the overall strengths and weaknesses of this analysis (based on
the extract only)? Could you improve on it?

61
 REVISION PROGRESS

11 Economic development in the reign of Henry VIII

RECAP
Trade • In the countryside, some were made homeless on account
of enclosure and engrossing. There was legislation to limit
English trade increased during the first half of the 16th century, the practice in 1515; Wolsey established an enclosure
with the encouragement of the Crown. The most important commission in 1517, leading to some prosecutions; further
export was woollen cloth, and exports almost doubled during legislation, in 1534, attempted to limit sheep ownership
Henry VIII’s reign. Broadcloths and cheaper fabrics, such and engrossing. None of this was particularly effective.
as kersey (a lighter woollen cloth), were exported through • Debasement brought inflation and for many there had
London, although foreign merchants controlled much of this been a fall in real wages by the end of the reign as prices
trade until the 1550s. Nevertheless the English company of and rents rose.
the Merchant Adventurers flourished. They traded in finished
cloth which was sent to their base in Antwerp (Netherlands) for
dyeing and finishing, and they also controlled trade with north-
west Germany. They enjoyed special privileges and in return
provided the Crown with much-needed loans.
Other exports included Cornish tin, hides and furs, while wine
was increasingly imported from the continent, reflecting the
changing tastes and wealth of the social elites.

Exploration
Henry VIII made no attempt to build on the achievements of
Cabot and the Bristol merchants at the end of the 15th century.
Robert Thorne, a Bristol trader, continued his involvement in
an Iceland and Newfoundland fishery but other merchants Distress
failed to procure royal support for exploration. Rising demand
Prosperity
put strain on
food supply Increase
in agricultural
Prosperity and depression Plentiful supply
of labour –
prices

Compared to earlier times, Tudor England seems to have been wages Increase
stagnated in farming
relatively prosperous. The woollen industry, most particularly
Some peasants moved incomes
in the West Riding of Yorkshire, East Anglia and parts of the
from rural to urban
West Country, grew in order to keep pace with increasing Increased wealth for
communities and
trade and demand. Tin mining in Cornwall, lead mining in the suffered precarious husbandmen, yeomen
high Pennines and coal mining in north-east England also existence and landowners
prospered, and new blast furnaces produced an increasing
amount of iron ore in the Weald of Sussex and Kent. The growth
of the population from around 1525 aided this prosperity
as surplus labour could work in industry. Furthermore,
debasement of the coinage (reducing the silver content), which
was first attempted in 1526 and became more frequent in
The impact of population growth
the 1540s (as the Crown tried to create more money to meet
expenditure), created a short-term artificial boom in 1544–46
by putting more coinage into circulation.
SUMMARY
Agricultural prices rose from the 1520s, increasing farmers’
incomes. Enclosure (which increased farm size), new • Trade (especially in cloth) increased under Henry VIII,
agricultural techniques (such as the rotation of crops and though exploration was not pursued.
the breeding of superior cattle and sheep), and engrossing • Developments in the wool and cloth trade and in
(amalgamating farms) benefited agriculture. farming, coupled with a significant rise in population
from 1525, brought prosperity for some; but much
Industrial and agricultural growth did not, however, always remained the same, and there were regular periods of
bring prosperity for all. depression.
• Bad harvests (e.g. 1520–21 and 1527–29) raised food
prices. Food prices almost doubled across Henry VIII’s
reign. This brought urban poverty.

62
 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE REVIEW
This activity enables you to contrast the achievements of Henry VII and Henry VIII in trade and Look back at
exploration. Copy the diagram below and add underneath each monarch the key policies and Chapter 5 to remind
developments in each area. When you have done this: yourself about
a Look across – which of the 2 areas was each monarch more interested in? the development
of trade and
b Look down – which monarch made more advances in each area?
exploration under
Henry VII.

Henry VII: Henry VII:

Trade Exploration

Henry VIII: Henry VIII:

Trade Exploration

IMPROVE AN ANSWER EXAMINER TIP

The introduction
AS ‘Henry VIII failed to build on the successes of his father in his policies on exploration should lead the
LEVEL
and trade.’ Explain why you agree or disagree with this view. reader into your
essay so that what
Your work above effectively acts as a plan to answering this question. Here is an introduction to the
follows makes
question:
sense. Parts of
this introduction
are very detailed,
Answer yet not all is well-
In 1509, Henry VIII replaced Henry VII as king; Henry VII had ruled for 24 years but focused or clearly
explained. Is your
his son ruled for 38 years. During Henry VII’s time as king he did a lot for trade and own version better?
exploration. He encouraged Cabot to discover Newfoundland. In trade he made lots of
treaties where he helped trade, like the Intercursus Magnus. England’s main trade was
the wool trade and much of it went to Flanders. Henry VIII did help trade a bit during
his time but as he ruled for longer than Henry VII, this meant that over the time he
actually did more.
REVIEW
a • Identify the weaknesses in this introduction.
See page 7 for
• Identify the strengths. further advice on
b Write an improved version of this introduction. how to write a good
introduction to an
essay.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

12 Religion, ideas and reform

RECAP
Renaissance ideas Erasmus visited England four times between 1509 and 1514;
he was appointed as the first professor of Greek at Cambridge
Humanism and education University, published a Greek New Testament complete with a
Humanism gradually took root in schools such as St Paul’s new Latin translation in 1516, attended court, and was a friend
School, London (under John Colet) and Magdalen College of Fisher and More. He continued to visit England between 1514
School, Oxford, promoting a more secular education. At St and 1521, corresponding with his English friends while absent.
Paul’s, Colet appointed a humanist as head, chose as governors His ideas, known as Erasmianism, influenced younger English
members drawn from a city guild rather than clergymen, and humanists who were often described as ‘Christian humanists’,
set out a curriculum that included works by Erasmus. keen to establish the truth about Christian texts.

Similar concepts influenced the foundation of colleges at Henry VIII appointed humanist tutors to Prince Edward and
Oxford and Cambridge universities, e.g. Cardinal (later Christ Princess Elizabeth; and the king’s sixth wife Katherine Parr,
Church) College, Oxford, founded by Cardinal Wolsey. By the who had had a humanist education, gathered a humanist circle
end of Henry VIII’s reign, humanist influences had gained a around her and patronised the arts and literature.
lasting hold on university curricula. University education or
legal training thus came to replace the Church as the way to Renaissance ideas and English culture
rise to prominence in politics. While Wolsey had been a cleric,
Renaissance influence on English culture grew under
Thomas Cromwell was a lawyer.
Henry VIII:

Classical learning spread as More schools became influenced

humanist groups formed in Oxford by humanist approaches to
and Cambridge education

Visual culture (paintings,

Influence Henry VIII saw himself as a
sculpture and architecture)
combined Renaissance elements
of the Renaissance in promoter of new ideas and of
with traditional Gothic styles England humanism

English humanists
became influential in
Well-educated diplomats government and the Church;
emerged, who could the most important English
communicate elegantly with their humanist writer was Thomas More
counterparts abroad (Lord Chancellor 1530–32) who
was both an intellectual and a
lawyer and statesman

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 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

Reform of the Church of 1539. At the time of Henry’s death in 1547, the Church
in England remained an odd mixture of Catholic and
Church doctrine and practices were changed between 1532 Protestant doctrine.
and 1540, with Henry VIII’s reforms of the Church. Archbishop
Cranmer played a major role in this, particularly after his
appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1532. KEY CHRONOLOGY
1536 The Ten Articles stated that only three sacraments
Weaknesses of the Church (penance, baptism and Eucharist) were
The Church in England, like that on the continent, suffered from necessary for salvation; praying to saints to
a number of abuses in the early 16th century: forgive sins was rejected but confession was
praised. This showed a mixture of Lutheran and
• corruption, including pluralism (receiving the profits of Catholic influences
more than one post), simony (buying Church office) and
The first set of royal injunctions pronounced
non-residence (receiving the profits of a post but being
against superstitious beliefs on pilgrimages, relics
absent from that post)
and images; they also required the clergy to teach
• the corruption of the legal privileges of the clergy
parishioners about the Ten Articles and to teach
and clerical misconduct (which gave rise to some
the Lord’s Prayer, creed and commandments in
anticlericalism)
English
• worldly monasteries that no longer fulfilled their spiritual
functions, leading Wolsey to dissolve around 20 houses in 1536–40 Dissolution of the monasteries
the 1520s. 1537 The Bishops’ Book restored the other four
sacraments (though at a lower status)
Evidence of early English Protestantism 1538 The second set of royal injunctions ordered the
Martin Luther’s attack on the Church in Germany from 1517 removal of images, the continuance of baptisms,
gave rise to Protestantism, with followers rejecting papal marriages and burials and the placing in churches
authority and believing in faith alone. German Protestants of a large Bible in English. (The earliest English
came to London and eastern England in the 1520s, and a group Bible had been published in parts by Tyndale
based in Cambridge included Thomas Cranmer. However, 1525–26, but Coverdale printed the first complete
although their ideas attracted some Christian humanists, English Bible in 1535)
there was little committed attempt to spread Lutheran 1539 The first edition of the Great Bible, edited
Protestantism before the ‘King’s Great Matter’ brought by Cranmer, was published by Coverdale, at
discussion of religious issues. Henry VIII’s request. It was the first English Bible
authorised for public use and was distributed to
Changes to doctrine and religious practices every church and chained to the pulpit
Cranmer helped to reform Church doctrine with the support of The Six Articles reasserted Catholic doctrine
Thomas Cromwell, although measures were quite hesitant at and transubstantiation. (Two reforming bishops
first. Protestant beliefs were introduced, such as: resigned)
• justification by faith (the belief that a person can achieve 1543 The King’s Book revised the Bishops’ Book – it
grace by faith alone, regardless of good works) was largely conservative, with some Protestant
• consubstantiation (the belief that the bread and wine features
of the Eucharist are spiritually the body and blood of The Act for the Advancement of True Religion
Christ without physically becoming so at the point of restricted the public reading of the Bible to upper-
consecration – as opposed to the Catholic doctrine of class males
transubstantiation).
These points of doctrine were the natural consequence of the
break with Rome and the population was, often reluctantly, Dissolution of the monasteries
forced to accept Lutheran influences on their faith. As well as
The dissolution of the monasteries was carried out for a variety
legislation, relics and images were destroyed and an English
of reasons but the lure of monastic wealth must have weighed
Bible was introduced.
strongly. Henry was conservative in his religious views and
Henry personally disliked the early moves towards heavily opposed to the destruction of religious objects, so
Protestantism and was responsible (along with the it seems unlikely that he was motivated by religious ideas,
conservative faction at Court, including Gardiner, Bishop even if Cromwell and Cranmer were. Possible reasons for the
of Winchester, and the Duke of Norfolk) for the Six Articles dissolution are shown on page 66.

65
 REVISION PROGRESS

Spiritual Non-spiritual
reasons reasons

Nobles' loyalty
Papal loyalty Nobles’ loyalty could be bought
Monks were loyal to with land acquired from
the authority of the monasteries; they would entrench
Pope in Rome change and resist the restoration
of papal authority

The monasteries were bastions To finance Henry's army

of Catholic doctrine A much welcome addition to the
Henry and Cromwell were keen to royal coffers (particularly since
remove any chance of return to raising taxation could provoke
Catholicism on religious grounds rebellion)

Monasteries were outdated

Perceived corruption The 1535 Poor Law provided
Some monasteries were seen support within villages, making
as having poor standards of monastic welfare outdated;
behaviour and piety printing reduced the need
for scribes

Reasons for the dissolution of the monasteries

KEY CHRONOLOGY
1535 Cromwell set up the Valor Ecclesiasticus, a survey to
assess the Church’s wealth; four ‘visitors’ assessed
monastic institutions, identifying any weakness or
corruption (although they also gave some praise)
1536 Dissolution of the smaller monasteries (with an
income of under £200 per annum)
1539 Dissolution of the greater monasteries (this had been
carried out by March 1540)

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 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

Continuity and change in religion by 1547

Continuity
The hierarchy of the Church
remained largely intact
There was little attempt to alter the
interior of churches
Services remained largely
traditional in form (they were still
held in Latin and music was
important)
The Six Articles Act in 1539 and the
fall of Cromwell in 1540 weakened
the cause of religious reform

Change
The jurisdiction of the Pope had been
replaced by the more visible authority
figure of the king
The monasteries had been dissolved –
many monastic buildings fell into ruin
and there had been a massive transfer of
resources from the Church to the Crown
through the dissolutions
Parish churches were required to possess
Bibles in English
Religious doctrine had been influenced
by Protestantism

SUMMARY
• Renaissance ideas in intellectual life and culture began to take hold during the reign of Henry VIII – humanism spread
through schools and universities, and the king was influenced by humanist ideas.
• Between 1532 and 1547 Henry, Cromwell and Cranmer introduced sweeping changes to the Church, including the break from
Rome, the dissolution of the monasteries, and the reform of traditional Catholic practices and (to some extent) doctrine.
• Despite the changes, some elements of the Church remained the same – Church structure was kept largely intact and the
form of services remained mainly traditional.

KEY CHRONOLOGY KEY CHRONOLOGY

Political events International events
1509 Henry VIII becomes king; marries Catherine of 1512 First invasion of France
Aragon 1513 Second invasion of France (Battle of the Spurs)
1514–29 Wolsey as chief minister War against Scotland; Battle of Flodden
1532–40 Cromwell as chief minister 1518 Treaty of London
1534 Royal supremacy established 1520 Field of the Cloth of Gold
1535–40 Dissolution of the monasteries 1522–25 French campaign
1540 Henry marries Anne of Cleves; marriage quickly 1542 Invasion of Scotland (Battle of Solway Moss)
dissolved
1544 Invasions of Scotland and France (capture of
1547 Death of Henry VIII Boulogne)
1546 Peace with France

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 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Below are 3 important groups from the years 1509–47. On the right are the names of some It is important to
important individuals who influenced religious thought in this period. Match the individual to the be aware of the role
group and give a one-sentence explanation of his contribution to the movement. of key individuals
in developments.
Knowledge such
Desiderius Erasmus
as this should help
you to write more
precisely in your
essays.

Thomas More

Humanists

Thomas Cranmer

Catholic conservatives

Protestants/ reformists Thomas Cromwell

Stephen Gardiner

EXAMINER TIP
Your diagram should
help you to see the
HOW IMPORTANT? importance of the
opposing religious
How important were the groups which opposed the Catholic Church in forcing groups (relative
A to other factors)
LEVEL
change in the Church in the years 1509 to 1547?
visually, and so
a In the centre of a large sheet of paper, draw a box containing a list of changes in the Church help you to reach a
between 1509 and 1547. judgement.

b Create a spider diagram around this box showing as many factors as you can think of, which
REVIEW
helped to produce these changes.
For detail on the
c Highlight all the factors which relate to groups which opposed the Catholic Church.
changes in the
Church, look back to
Chapter 8.

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 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123

KEY QUESTION
One of the Key Questions asks: REVIEW
How important was the role of groups and how were they affected by developments? If you find it
To answer this in the context of religion, it would help to chart the development of the opposing challenging to note
religious groups in relation to the broader political, economic and intellectual developments in the key political,
the years 1509–47. economic and
social events and
a Look at the horizontal timeline of the 3 key periods of Henry VIII’s reign: 1509–29, 1529–40, intellectual ideas,
1540–47. Record the key developments in the first 3 rows. you should revisit
b In the 4th row, give the dates, names and key aims of the 2 opposing religious groups. Chapters 7–11 to
consolidate your
c Can you see a link between the growth of opposing religious groups and the political or
knowledge.
economic situation? What intellectual ideas were affecting opposing movements at this
time? Write 1–2 paragraphs giving a summary of how opposing groups were affected by the
key developments of 1509–47.

1509–29 1529–40 1540–47

REVISION SKILLS

Political You may find

that making a
visual diagram
like this helps you
to structure and
remember key
facts. Alternatively,
you may find it
more helpful to
create a straight
Economic and social
chart, with the
developments in
the 1st column and
the 3 time periods
in the 2nd, 3rd
and 4th columns.
Choose the
revision method
that works best
Intellectual ideas for you – or use a
variety of methods,
to suit your own
revision style.

Opposing religious
groups

69
 REVISION PROGRESS

PLAN YOUR ESSAY

AS ‘Opposition to the Reformation of the Church in England failed in the years

LEVEL
1530 to 1547 because it lacked leadership.’ Explain why you agree or disagree
with this view.
EXAMINER TIP
In order to plan your answer effectively you will need to look at a variety of reasons as to why Grouping factors in a
opposition to the Reformation failed. suitable way helps to
a Create a mind-map of reasons. clarify the argument
in an essay and
b Colour all the reasons that link to the lack of leadership between the groups opposed to the grouping is often
Reformation in 1 colour. more successful
c Use different colours to ‘group’ your remaining reasons, e.g. royal authority; succession, lack of than seeing each
external support; any other factors. factor separately.

d Now use your colour-coded diagram to plan and write an answer to the question above.

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 HENRY VIII, 1509–1547 S B 63–123
EXAM PRACTICE

AS Level extracts sample answer

REVISION PROGRESS

REVIEW
On these Exam Practice pages, you will find a sample student answer for an AS Level extracts question.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the answer? Read the answer and the corresponding
Examiner Tips carefully. Think about how you could apply this advice in order to improve your own
answers to questions like this one.

With reference to these extracts and your understanding of the REVISION SKILLS
AS
LEVEL
historical context, which of these two extracts provides the At AS Level, you will have to answer one extracts
more convincing interpretation of Henry VIII’s actions towards question which will be linked to two historical
the Church in England? interpretations with different views. Read
25 marks page 6 for details on how to master the extracts
question.

EXTRACT A
Henry’s greatest triumph was the establishment of supremacy over the
Church, and we may doubt whether that would ever have happened
had his fascination with Anne Boleyn not held him to his purpose
against enormous odds. He decided to marry this woman no matter
what the cost. One of the reasons was his need for legitimate children,
but another was his belief in the sanctity of marriage. He was offended
by loose sexual morality and criticised his sister, Margaret, when she
abandoned her second husband. Until 1525 he was a conventional
Renaissance prince, but thereafter his political and sexual needs drove
him into uncharted waters, with extremely constructive results for the
future of England.
Adapted from David Loades, The Six Wives of Henry VIII, 2009

EXTRACT B
Henry’s failure to get rid of Catherine drove him onwards to attack
Pope Clement and the Church in England, but this was not the whole
explanation of his actions. There were two ideas present in his mind;
one that he must procure a divorce; the other that kingship conferred
on him a position in the Christian community which had been stolen
by others, which he must recover. The Royal Supremacy grew with
the divorce campaign, but was distinct from it. Had there been no
divorce, or had Clement given up, there would probably still have been
a clash between the Pope and a prince who, in the name of reform, was
beginning to claim new spiritual authority.
Adapted from Jack Scarisbrick, Henry VIII, 1969

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 REVISION PROGRESS

EXAMINER TIP
Sample student answer
This first sentence simply repeats the question,
Both extracts deal with Henry VIII’s actions towards the Church in but incorrectly uses the word ‘valuable’
England. I will explore each extract in turn and decide which is the instead of ‘convincing’. There is no need for an
introduction in an extracts question.
most valuable explanation.
Extract A argues that it was Henry’s ‘fascination’ for Anne
Boleyn which drove him to marry her and so establish the Church EXAMINER TIP

of England. It supports this by arguing that his behaviour changed This paragraph correctly attempts a summary
of the argument in Extract A. A more succinct
after 1525 and that Henry even criticised his sister for not keeping summary of the interpretation would, however,
to her wedding vows. He needed to marry Anne not only to have have been, ‘Henry was driven to take action to
make himself Supreme Head of the Church of
‘legitimate’ children but also because he believed in marriage. This England by his determination to marry Anne
in turn led him to take over the Church. Boleyn.’
Certainly, some evidence confirms this view. Henry had been
a ‘Renaissance prince’ before 1525, enjoying a carefree lifestyle EXAMINER TIP
and having at least two adulterous affairs. We know that Anne This is a strong paragraph as it assesses
the argument of Extract A with reference
fascinated Henry as this is shown in their love letters, but Anne to relevant and reasonably detailed own
was not prepared to be his mistress and demanded that he marry knowledge.
her. This forced him to action. It was therefore Henry’s ‘sexual
needs’ which drove him to separate from Catherine and get
involved in a process which led to the rejection of Papal authority
and Henry’s own headship of the Church in England. EXAMINER TIP
However, the argument in this extract is limited because it
This paragraph tries to introduce some
overstates Henry’s lust for Anne Boleyn as a motive for his actions balance to the evaluation of Extract A, but
towards the Church in England, and although it mentions that it never develops or explains the valid point
about Henry struggling against ‘enormous
Henry fought against ‘enormous odds’, it fails to explain what these odds’ and adds another factor somewhat
odds were. Another reason for Henry’s actions was Catherine’s randomly at the end.

failure to produce a son to protect the succession and establish a

dynasty of Tudors.
Extract B, on the other hand, argues that ‘Henry’s failure to EXAMINER TIP
get rid of Catherine… was not the whole explanation of his actions’ This paragraph identifies the main argument of
Extract B, showing some understanding, but it
in attacking the Pope and the Church. More important was the doesn’t explain the interpretation and relies on
fact that ‘kingship’ gave him a ‘position in the Christian community’ overlong quotations.
which he wanted to recover. The argument is that Henry’s actions
towards the Church in England were about ‘authority’ over the
Church.
The extract argues that the decision to attack the Pope and the
Church in England was about obtaining authority over the Church.
Henry believed in the Divine Right of Kings, by which he was God’s
representative in England. He could therefore argue that he, and EXAMINER TIP
not the Pope, had the right to decide matters concerning the This is a much better paragraph; it provides
some explanation of the argument of Extract B
English Church. The reforming Archbishop Cranmer was able to and supports it with some contextual own
provide documents to back Henry’s claim to authority and this was knowledge.

72
 EXAM PRACTICE: AS LEVEL EXTRACTS SAMPLE ANSWER

an argument that was often used during the disputes over the
divorce and the position of the Church.
The argument given in Extract A for Henry’s actions towards
EXAMINER TIP
the Church is the more convincing. Henry primarily took action
This final paragraph provides a convincing and
to ensure his marriage to Anne Boleyn. This was why Wolsey was
well-explained judgement on the arguments in
dismissed in 1529, and the final decision to separate from Rome both extracts, with a substantiated judgement
was only taken once Anne Boleyn had got pregnant. Despite its as to which is the more convincing. The good
understanding shown here would help raise
emphasis on Henry’s lust, the first extract is more convincing as the level into which the answer is placed.
it focuses on the king’s marriage and the need for a male heir.
Although the second extract suggests the need for a divorce was
important, it also stresses Henry’s desire for authority over his
own Church. However, this seems to have been less a reason for
action than an excuse. The timing of Henry’s claims to supremacy
suggests that the need for a divorce forced his actions and
the arguments used to support this were of only secondary
importance.

OVERALL COMMENT
This answer accurately identifies the key arguments in each extract and comments on them with the
use of contextual own knowledge. Parts could have been fuller, however, with more development of
own knowledge to both support and criticise what is said. The answer also lacks full explanations of
some terms used in the extracts, such as ‘enormous odds’ or ‘position in the Christian community’.
However, the conclusion is good and shows substantiated judgement. Overall this answer would be
worthy of a low Level 5.

OVER TO YOU
Take 5 minutes to read the extracts and sort out your ideas before answering this question within
40 minutes. Then, check to see if your answer avoids the pitfalls of the sample student answer as shown
in the purple Examiner Tips. Have you:
❑ Used own knowledge to support the argument in each extract?
❑ Used own knowledge to criticise the argument in each extract?
❑ Ensured that all own knowledge is precise, specific and relevant?
❑ Explained the references and concepts in both extracts?
Now check Chapter 8. Are the details in your answer factually accurate? Have you missed any issues you
should have raised?

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 PART TWO ENGLAND: TURMOIL AND TRIUMPH, 1547–1603
REVISION PROGRESS

Instability and consolidation: ‘the Mid-Tudor

Crisis’, 1547–1563
REVISION PROGRESS

13 Edward VI, Somerset and Northumberland

RECAP
Royal authority under Edward VI Whether Henry named Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, the
new king’s uncle, as ‘Protector’ is not known, but it is possible
The accession of a nine-year-old king in 1547 left the he did so verbally. Whatever the circumstances, within days
Crown insecure. Henry VIII’s will had established a Regency the Regency Council had delegated its power to Hertford, who
Council that would govern during Edward’s minority. awarded himself the title of Duke of Somerset and became
Significantly, neither the arch-conservative Gardiner nor Lord Protector (1547–49).
Norfolk, who was accused of treason and put in the Tower,
was included.

Administrators
and lawyers

Religious
conservatives Religious reformers
such as: such as:
Thomas Wriothesley (Lord Regency Council Edward Seymour
Chancellor since 1544; 16 members, (Earl of Hertford from
made Earl of Southampton supported by 12 1537, Duke of Somerset
in 1547 by Somerset) more (who were from 1547)
William Paulet to assist as Archbishop Thomas
(styled Lord St John – required) Cranmer
became first Marquis of Sir Anthony Denny
Winchester in 1551) (MP for Hertfordshire)
Cuthbert Tunstall
(Bishop of Durham)

The Duke of Somerset Somerset governed largely with members of his own household.
Somerset rapidly promoted his own supporters and initially He also controlled the Privy Chamber by appointing his brother-
relied on: in-law, Sir Michael Stanhope, as Groom of the Stool and Chief
Gentleman of the Privy Chamber, effectively making him the
• Archbishop Thomas Cranmer king’s keeper. However:
• Sir William Paget (who had been one of Henry VIII’s two
private secretaries) • Public acceptance of Somerset’s protectorate was
• John Dudley, the son of Henry VII’s executed minister, uncertain; to stem disorder Archbishop Cranmer
Edmund Dudley; Dudley was created Earl of Warwick in published ‘On Obedience’, to be read in parish churches,
1547 (and Duke of Northumberland in 1551). emphasising that disobedience to the king was a
mortal sin (which could lead to damnation).

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

• Somerset created enemies among his former supporters Catholicism would be restored (and Northumberland, who had
through his arrogant and dictatorial manner: supported Protestantism, would be ruined).
• Thomas Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton, was Northumberland therefore encouraged Edward to write the
dismissed from the Chancellorship, losing his seat on Devyse, to alter the succession. In June 1553 both Mary and
the Privy Council. Elizabeth were declared illegitimate, in favour of the Protestant
• Somerset’s own brother, Thomas Seymour, conspired Lady Jane Grey (grand-daughter of Henry VIII’s sister Mary),
with Southampton to turn Edward VI against Somerset. who was married to Northumberland’s son, Guildford Dudley.
Seymour was charged with treason in 1549. (Southampton However, before Parliament could ratify this, Edward died
was persuaded to denounce him, and was readmitted to on 6 July 1553. Without parliamentary sanction the Devyse
the Privy Council.) had no status. Nevertheless, on 9 July 1553 Northumberland
• Henry FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel (Lord Chamberlain and proclaimed Lady Jane Grey as queen.
one of the 12 ‘assistants’ to the Regency Council) and
The Privy Council initially agreed to this, but when the crews
William Paulet (Lord St John) objected to Somerset’s
aboard Northumberland’s ships, sent to prevent Mary sailing
dominance and plotted to unseat him.
from Norfolk (where she was residing), changed allegiance, the
• Somerset’s policy failings – particularly his poor showing cause was lost. Most of the ruling elites deserted Jane and after
in the war against Scotland and his mishandling of nine days as queen, she and her husband were committed to
rebellion at home in 1549 – weakened his position. the Tower. Northumberland was executed in August 1553 (and
Lady Jane Grey followed in February 1554).
By autumn 1549, even Dudley (Warwick) was convinced that
Somerset would have to go and joined the Earl of Southampton,
the Earl of Arundel and Lord St John in a plot to remove
him. In October, Somerset was arrested on the orders of the
Relations with foreign powers
Regency Council and surrendered, having been promised (in a Somerset inherited a state of war with both Scotland and France
deal brokered by Cranmer) that no treason charges would be (who remained joined in alliance), threatening security and the
pressed against him. He was promptly committed to the Tower. succession. Despite the costs, Somerset chose to continue this,
Dudley (Warwick) and Cranmer persuaded Edward to appoint hoping to unite the Crowns of England and Scotland through
some new religious reformers to the Regency Council a marriage between Edward VI and the infant Mary, Queen
and Privy Chamber. When Southampton tried to regain of Scots.
predominance, by charging Dudley with treason, the scheme Somerset’s armies defeated the Scots at the Battle of Pinkie
backfired and Dudley had the religious conservatives Arundel in September 1547, but it proved too expensive to garrison
and Southampton placed under house arrest. Dudley thus border forts and he failed to prevent the French from relieving
consolidated his power and in 1550 became Lord President Edinburgh. This allowed the French to take Mary to France in
of the (Privy) Council. Nevertheless, he sought reconciliation August 1548, to marry the heir to the French throne.
with Somerset and arranged his release and return to the
Somerset’s military strategy had proved costly and unpopular.
Privy Council and Privy Chamber. In 1550 Dudley’s son,
By 1549 England was threatened with a French invasion.
John, even married Somerset’s daughter, Anne. However,
Northumberland therefore negotiated peace: he abandoned
Somerset’s double-dealing led to his re-arrest in 1551 and
the remaining English garrisons in Scotland and returned
execution in January 1552.
Boulogne to the French. He ended the wars – but at the cost of
a humiliating climb-down.
The Duke of Northumberland
Dudley, who created himself Duke of Northumberland in
1551, initially tried to avoid the concentration of power that SUMMARY
had caused Somerset’s downfall. He made no attempt to re- • The Regency Council established to govern during
establish a protectorate and presided as Lord President of the Edward VI’s minority was sidelined as Somerset
(Privy) Council. took control as Lord Protector. However, Somerset’s
Nevertheless, he moved away from conciliar government, and dictatorial behaviour, combined with failures in his
had William Paget, who had tried to draw up new guidelines, foreign and domestic policy, led to his arrest in 1549.
committed to the Tower in 1551. Although essentially more • From 1550, the Duke of Northumberland ruled as
pragmatic and more capable than Somerset – for example he President of the Council; he restored stability and made
crushed the 1549 rebellions and brought some stability to the peace with Scotland and France.
country – his record is mixed. He educated the young king in • Northumberland’s attempt to alter the succession to
government and, like Edward, supported Protestant reform prevent the accession of Princess Mary and the restoration
and the work of Cranmer. However, he was not universally of Catholicism failed following Edward’s death in 1553.
popular and his power entirely rested on Edward’s survival.

Problems of succession
Edward’s health declined rapidly in 1553. Under the 1544
Succession Act, as reinforced by Henry VIII’s will, Princess Mary
was next in line to the throne. However if Mary succeeded,

75
 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Complete the flow chart of the political changes under Edward VI below. Although you will
a Fill in key events (as given below) chronologically, with dates. never be required
to write a narrative
b Write an explanation of how one event led to the next. account of events,
Key events: it is very important
that you develop
• Mary became queen
a good grasp of
• Henry VIII died chronology and
• Dudley (later Duke of Northumberland) became Lord President of the Council understand how
events relate to one
• Earl of Hertford (later Duke of Somerset) became Lord Protector another.
• Edward wrote the Devyse, naming Lady Jane Grey as his successor

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

____________________________________

REVIEW
Look back to
TO WHAT EXTENT? Chapter 9 for the full
details of Henry VIII’s
A To what extent were Henry VIII’s aims in foreign policy continued in the reign foreign policy.
LEVEL
of Edward VI?

a For each, identify the ways in which Somerset and Northumberland:

EXAMINER TIP
• continued to carry out his aims
• partially continued to carry out his aims Part a should help
• failed in or ignored carrying out his aims. you to plan your
essay. Remember
b Now plan and write an answer to the question above. that Hertford
(later Duke of
Somerset) and
Northumberland
may not have shared
exactly the same
foreign policy aims.

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

KEY QUESTION REVISION SKILLS

One of the Key Questions asks: Spider diagrams
are often used by
In what ways and how effectively
students but many
was England governed during this
students simply
period?
add lines to show
One way to study this issue for links. Annotating the
Edward VI’s reign is to construct diagram is essential
a spider diagram looking at how for remembering
effective Edward was as king. the evidence that
a Copy and complete the diagram supports the links.
opposite.
b Add labels to the lines coming
from each reason that you have Was Edward VI’s REVIEW
written, giving evidence for each government
effective? Before completing
reason. Add more lines and labels this chart, you need
as required. to look at Chapter 14
to see the religious
and social changes
under Edward VI.

IMPROVE AN ANSWER EXAMINER TIP

Here is an example paragraph from a student answering an essay question asking: Although it is
important to reflect
A How significant was Henry VIII’s legacy for the governments of Somerset the words of the
LEVEL
and Northumberland? question in your
answer, you need to
do so in a ‘thinking’
Answer manner, otherwise
Henry VIII was a king who transformed England in many ways; one of these was how he the meaning of
the question can
changed the Church and its relationship with the state. He wanted to divorce his first wife become lost.
and so he took control of the Church. Although the Church’s doctrine remained little
altered, the Bible was translated into English and there was an English service, the Litany, in
1543. The monasteries were dissolved and their lands sold which required new government
departments to be set up to deal with the income. After the execution of Cromwell for
treason in 1540, the two main religious groups struggled for control over the government –
factionalism therefore dominated with the Duke of Norfolk leading the conservatives and
Edward Seymour, the uncle of the future Edward VI, leading the reformers. All of these
changes show how significant the legacy was in terms of religion and the state that Henry VIII REVIEW
left to his son’s two chief regents, Somerset and Northumberland. Before attempting
to write a full essay
a This paragraph is actually responding to a slightly different question from that actually posed.
in response to this
Can you suggest the question that would match the paragraph and explain what has gone wrong?
question, you will
b Improve on this paragraph by linking it directly to the given question. You should not add to the need to have studied
evidence, but rewrite and reorder the commentary – expanding it a little if necessary. Chapters 8–14.

77
 REVISION PROGRESS

14 The social impact of religious and economic change

under Edward VI
RECAP
The social impact of religious and • An Act had been passed in 1545 to dissolve chantries to
secure their wealth. A subsequent Act was passed in 1547
economic change to end the practice of masses for the souls of the dead.
• There was a spate of iconoclasm in London, leading to
Religious change widespread destruction; the injunctions of 1538 against
Although the Church in England had been changed structurally pilgrimages and other traditional Catholic practices were
by the royal supremacy, by 1547 there had been limited doctrinal reissued in 1547.
change. There were churchmen who held Protestant views, such • In 1549 Cranmer introduced the Protestant Book of
as Nicholas Ridley, Bishop of London; but in many areas religious Common Prayer to be used for all Church services and
beliefs had scarcely been touched. Under Edward VI, religious enforced by an Act of Uniformity. This:
policy moved firmly in the direction of Protestantism. • translated the traditional services into English to
enhance understanding of the key texts
Religious changes under Somerset • was ambiguous in relation to the Eucharist
Somerset was, himself, a moderate reformer, although Edward VI (Communion service) using wording which might still
had been brought up to favour more radical religious change. allow the Catholic belief in transubstantiation.

• One of the first pieces of legislation passed in 1547 was

Religious change under Northumberland
a new Treason Act which allowed religious issues to be
discussed and removed censorship. Protestant material Northumberland favoured increasingly radical religious
could be brought into England legally for the first time. reforms for a number of reasons:

Cranmer was becoming more radical

(as seen from his new Book of Common
Prayer of 1552)

More radical senior

Edward VI’s influence on policy-
making was increasing;
Reasons clergy (e.g. Nicholas Ridley, Bishop
for radical of London, and John Hooper, Bishop of
a committed Protestant, the king saw it as his
reform Gloucester) were becoming more
mission to destroy idolatry
influential

Eminent continental reformers had

moved to England and were influencing
decisions on religious matters

The religious changes included: • The 1552 Book of Common Prayer (replacing that of 1549),
accompanied by another Act of Uniformity. These:
• The removal of altars and reforms to Church services,
• removed remaining ‘conservative’ ceremonies
combining Lutheran and Calvinist elements (Calvinism
• gave Protestant form to the baptism, confirmation,
being a more radical form of Protestantism put forward in
burial and Communion services (removing the
Geneva by the French reformer John Calvin).
ambiguity of the 1549 prayer book)

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

• banned traditional vestments (clergymen’s clothes), • resentment of enclosure

introducing simpler replacements • local frustration about the maladministration of the
• restricted Church music. Howards.
• Cranmer’s Forty-Two Articles of Religion of 1553; these Somerset was forced to send an army under the leadership of
provided an official Protestant statement of doctrine John Dudley (Warwick). The rebellion was brutally suppressed
(although Edward’s death meant that they were never and Kett was hanged.
implemented).
There were other risings the same year, motivated by:

Impact on society of the religious changes • inflation and high food prices
• religious grievances
Services became plainer and traditional religious practices • resentment of taxation.
declined. People became less inclined to leave money to
their parish church, possibly for religious reasons but more Although they presented some danger, as Somerset was
probably on the basis that their bequests were likely to be preoccupied in his dealings with Scotland and France, most
confiscated. (The Church was slowly losing its wealth as land died out quickly, either because of insufficient support or
was taken from bishops and church property was seized.) through prompt action from the local nobility and gentry.
They did, however, contribute to Somerset’s fall.
Traditional practices were not entirely destroyed; in 1550
the radical reformer John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester and Northumberland tried to remedy the situation by ending the
Worcester, admitted that the pace of reform was hampered by wars, reorganising financial administration, and passing a new
an uncooperative public. The survival of old beliefs is borne out Poor Law in 1552. This created a ‘collector of alms’ in each
by the speed with which traditional practices were re-adopted parish, responsible for a register of those eligible for Poor Relief.
following the accession of the Catholic Queen Mary in 1553.
Nevertheless, the changes which took place during the years Intellectual developments, including
1547–53 must have affected many people. For example, the
loss of the charitable functions of monasteries and chantries, humanist and religious thought
including care for the sick and elderly and the provision of
The reign of Edward VI witnessed a contest between two
education, would have impinged on many communities.
reforming traditions: traditional Christian humanism (in
the tradition of Erasmus) and a more radical approach to
Economic changes Protestantism (inspired by Calvinist teachings). Both sides
England’s economic situation in 1547 was poor, following published tracts (using the new printing press).
Henry’s expenditure on war and inflation. Unemployment
Stephen Gardiner had come from the tradition of Christian
levels were high, partly because of the growth of the population
humanism. Its influences were also seen in much of Cranmer’s
at a time of increasing enclosure in the countryside and partly
work, although at times his thinking could be more radical.
because of a fall in demand for English cloth exports in the
William Cecil (important in Northumberland’s administration)
1540s. Both Somerset and Northumberland took steps to
encouraged humanist scholars at Cambridge and the humanist-
address the situation, including:
influenced reformers Martyr and Bucer were invited to work in
• Somerset’s proclamation against enclosure and tax on England (Bucer was appointed Professor of Divinity at Cambridge).
sheep (which only harmed small farmers)
Opposing the moderates, reformers such as Hugh Latimer,
• debasement of the coinage (producing further inflation)
court preacher 1547–50, wanted a complete change in
• Northumberland’s commission to improve royal financial
religious doctrine and thinking. Northumberland also
administration (although this took time to take effect).
patronised Bishop John Hooper and the reforms of 1552 and
1553 suggested that the more radical Protestant movement
Rebellion was gaining ground. However, Edward VI’s death destroyed
both contending groups.
1549 brought the Western Rebellion in Devon and Cornwall and
major rebellions in East Anglia (particularly Kett’s Rebellion in
Norfolk). SUMMARY
The Western Rebellion in Devon and Cornwall was prompted in
• During Edward VI’s reign, under both Somerset and
June/July by:
Northumberland, England moved further towards
• religious grievances: the catalyst being the new Book of Protestantism.
Common Prayer • This led to significant social change (although many
practices would be quickly restored after the king’s
• the sheep tax: seen as the imposition of an uncaring
death).
government in London hitting local farmers.
• Religious change, combined with economic and agrarian
The rebels besieged Exeter but were defeated by Lord Russell’s grievances, provoked disorder in 1549 and two major
troops in August, and the revolt was suppressed. rebellions, although stability was restored under
In July, rebels led by the tanner Robert Kett captured Norwich. Northumberland.
The rebellion was motivated by: • Christian humanism continued to flourish, but was
increasingly challenged by more radical Protestantism.
• hatred of local government officials

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 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE REVIEW
Draw a mind-map to illustrate the impact of religious policies on England between 1547 and 1553. When writing about
the impact of
religious policies on
Edward VI’s England,
it is important to be
aware of the changes
that occurred as a
result of Henry VIII’s
reformation of
the Church (see
Chapter 10).

EXTRACT ANALYSIS EXAMINER TIP

Although these
A Using your understanding of the historical context, assess how convincing the extracts are
LEVEL
arguments in these three extracts are in relation to the impact of the religious narrower in
reforms under Edward VI. their time-frame
than would be
found on a real
EXTRACT A examination paper,
they nevertheless
There were parishes where the Protestant reforms of Edward VI were embraced with ardour by provide practice in
those with influence. Even in communities where this was not so, the passage of time and the important extract
relentless push of Protestant policies had its effect. People sold off as much of their Catholic past evaluation skills.
as they could not hide or keep and called in carpenters to set boards on trestles and fix wooden
forms around the Communion tables. Used to obedience, many of them accepted the changes as
unavoidable. Four years of exposure to the matchless dignity of Cranmer’s English services could
not be without effect. Even men of profoundly Catholic convictions found themselves drawing
on the rhythms of the new English Bible and prayer book to express their beliefs. Even for the
traditionalists, nothing would ever be the same again. But when all that is said, in the majority of
English villages, men breathed easier for the accession of a Catholic queen.

Adapted from Eamon Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars, 1997

EXTRACT B

What the effect of religious changes had been on the people at large by 1553 is very hard to
gauge. One might guess that the short-term effect of any particular change would be negative;
a change in a church service would create a good deal of resentment and gain few genuine
converts. On the other hand, the long-term effect of officially-inspired Protestantism was
bound to be considerable. The effects of Cromwell’s vernacular bible were, under Edward VI,
reinforced by the new services, gradually accustoming men to the idea that Protestant worship
was not the anarchical practice of wild enthusiasts and reinforcing the evangelical beliefs
fostered by scripture reading. Vested interests in the new order were increasing; those who
had benefited from the sale of monastic lands were joined by the many priests who had taken
the opportunity to marry. It is probably true that most people were not committed to either
Protestantism or Catholicism, or even thought in such hard and fast terms. Political accident
could determine England’s religious future.

Adapted from C. S. L. Davies, Peace, Print and Protestantism 1450–1558, 1977

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

EXTRACT ANALYSIS

EXTRACT C

The regime of Protector Somerset has been regarded as relatively moderate yet its impact
was devastating: the great majority of the decorations and rites found in English churches
in early 1547 had gone by 1549. The churchwardens’ accounts reveal that all the succeeding
‘radical’ administration of Northumberland had to do was to ‘mop up’ by revising the prayer
book, replacing altars with communion tables and confiscating church goods. The new service
was introduced in every parish within a year and the other reforms were just as thoroughly
carried out. The churchwardens’ accounts show that the great majority of people did not want
the Reformations of Henry, Edward and Elizabeth. Catholic practices retained their vitality
in the parishes until the moment they were outlawed, and few parishes acted in advance of
instructions. The machinery of coercion and supervision deployed by Edwardian governments
was so effective that for most parishes passive resistance to reformist changes was simply not an
option for a largely Catholic population.

Adapted from R. Hutton, ‘The local impact of the Tudor Reformations’, in C. Haigh (ed.),
The English Reformation Revised, 1987

a Underline the single key statement of opinion in each extract about the effect of
Protestant policies and identify the main argument.
b For each main argument, supply 1 or more pieces of contextual own knowledge, to
support and criticise that opinion.
c What conclusion would you draw as to ‘how convincing’ each of the arguments is? Write
a conclusion for each extract.

KEY QUESTION EXAMINER TIP

One of the Key Questions asks: Comparing the
policies of these 2
How important was the role of key individuals and groups and how were they affected by
leaders will allow
developments?
you to show an
It is important to understand the similarities and differences between the policies of Somerset and understanding
Northumberland. Using the following headings, write a sentence to compare the policies of each: of similarity and
difference, which is a
key concept that will
add depth to your
essays.

Attitude to Attitude to
Scotland France

Social
Method of policy
governing

Economic Religious
policy policy

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 REVISION PROGRESS

15 Mary I and her ministers

RECAP
Royal authority under Mary I
In 1553, faced with Lady Jane Grey’s challenge, Mary acted bravely, decisively and quickly. She gathered
Catholic supporters among the nobility and gentry and won over those who resented the brutality
with which Kett’s Rebellion had been suppressed. As a result she was proclaimed queen in July 1553.
However, Mary was a committed Catholic in a kingdom where reforms in favour of Protestantism were well
advanced. Furthermore, neither she, nor her most loyal supporters, had any real political experience.

Royal government under Mary

Although female, Mary was determined to play an active role in government. She selected a large
group of Privy Councillors to help her in this, including Catholic nobles and churchmen, such as Bishop
Stephen Gardiner, who became the Lord Chancellor until his death in 1555. She also called on the
services of moderates from Edward’s reign, such as William Paget. This brought some factional rivalry,
although it provided Mary with some experienced officials.
However, the queen increasingly ignored the Council and turned instead to Simon Renard, the
ambassador of Charles V and later adviser to Philip II. He acquired tremendous influence over Mary
and, until her marriage to Philip of Spain in 1554, which he promoted, virtually directed English affairs.
Mary also relied on Cardinal Reginald Pole, who arrived in England in 1554 and became Archbishop of
Canterbury in 1556.
Mary and Parliament generally cooperated, with a few disagreements over Mary’s religious policies and
the succession:

A significant minority of MPs opposed

the reversal of the Edwardian religious
legislation

MPs proved reluctant to restore

ex-monastic property to the Church,
out of concern for property rights
(and probably self-interest)
Mary I Parliament

Parliament defeated a 1555 bill to

allow the seizure of property of
Protestant exiles

There was opposition over the issue of

the succession

Problems of succession
The Spanish marriage, 1554
Mary (who was already 37) wanted to marry and produce an heir as soon as possible in order to
guarantee a Catholic succession.
• Gardiner suggested Edward Courtenay, Earl of Devon, but marriage to an Englishman was likely to
provoke factional rivalry.
• Mary preferred her Catholic cousin, Philip of Spain (who received Paget’s support), although
English public opinion was hostile to a foreign marriage.

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

A parliamentary delegation failed to dissuade Mary, and, without consulting the Privy Council, Mary chose
to go ahead with the Spanish marriage. A marriage treaty was agreed, as follows:

gave Philip the title of king but no

actual power

absolved England from any The

forbade foreigners from holding
involvement in, or financial support marriage English offices
for, Philip’s wars. treaty

ruled that Philip had no claim

on the English Crown if Mary died
before he did

The marriage of 1554 was not a success.

• Philip found the English unwelcoming and was unimpressed by his new wife. He determined to
spend as little time as possible in England.
• In 1554, Parliament rejected a bill that would have included Philip along with Mary in a proposed
new law on treason.
• In 1555, Parliament prevented Philip’s coronation as king.

Plans for the succession

The 1544 Succession Act, confirmed by Henry VIII’s will, had provided that Mary would be succeeded by
her half-sister, Elizabeth, should she die childless. However:
• Elizabeth was Protestant and likely to restore Protestantism.
• Mary resented Elizabeth as the reason for her parents’ divorce. She personally believed that
Elizabeth was illegitimate and without claim to the throne.
Although Mary confined Elizabeth to the Tower after a rebellion (Wyatt’s) in 1554, no proof could be
found of Elizabeth’s involvement in that rebellion, and she was released (although carefully watched).
Consequently, the childless Mary finally named Elizabeth as her successor on 6 November 1558, 11 days
before she died.

Relations with foreign powers

The main influences on Mary’s foreign policy concerned her desire to restore papal supremacy and to
advance Philip’s cause as her choice of husband. Both were achieved in 1554. However, the election of
the fiercely anti-Spanish Pope Paul IV in 1555 led to renewed war between France and Spain. Despite
the terms of the marriage treaty, Mary decided to support Spain, going to war against France (and,
indirectly, the papacy).
Paget and others who hoped to gain credit through the war supported an expedition to northern
France in 1557. Although the English successfully repulsed a minor invasion of England by the Scots the
same year, the French campaign rapidly turned into a disaster, with the humiliating loss of Calais (the
last English possession in France) in January 1558.

SUMMARY
• Mary’s strength and determination helped her to capitalise on popular support and
overcome Northumberland’s attempt to alter the succession in 1553.
• Inexperienced in politics, she relied on Catholic and moderate churchmen and councillors, and
also on her husband (from 1554) Philip of Spain, Renard and Pole.
• Her foreign relationships were largely unsuccessful: her marriage to Philip neither gained the
approval of Parliament nor produced an heir, while her war against France ended in disaster.

83
 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
PLAN YOUR ESSAY EXAMINER TIP
When answering a
A How significant was Henry VIII’s treatment of Catherine of Aragon for the failure of question like this,
LEVEL
the marriage of Mary I and Philip of Spain? you would need to
To answer the question, you would have to consider a variety of reasons for the failure of Mary and define what is meant
Philip’s marriage (looking at Henry VIII’s treatment of Catherine of Aragon among these). by significant.
It would also be
a Re-read Chapter 8 and consider how Henry treated Catherine of Aragon. You need to think of the helpful to think of
implications for England’s relationship with Spain. long- and short-term
b Review this chapter and make a spider diagram to show the reasons for the failure of the reasons for failure.
marriage of Philip and Mary, considering both the English and Spanish perspectives and showing
links to the points you made in part a.
c Add numbers to show the most to least significant of your reasons.
d Using the information in the previous steps, create an essay plan to the essay question.

IMPROVE AN ANSWER
Here is an example paragraph, on the years 1547–58, from a student answering an essay question
asking:
KEY QUESTION
A ‘England was better governed by ministers and regents than by monarchs.’ Assess This essay question
LEVEL
the validity of this view of the years 1513 to 1558. is addressing the
Key Question ‘In
what ways and
Answer how effectively was
The reigns of Edward VI and Mary provide a vivid contrast between the two forms of England governed
during this period?’
government. Edward as an infant had to rely on two regents, the Dukes of Somerset and
Northumberland, whose periods of government almost led to disaster. They tried to exploit
their position for their own advantage one way or another and they showed the problem of ruling
by ministers when the ministers were self-seeking and plainly incompetent. On the other hand,
Mary was a much more effective ruler of the country. She never employed a chief minister and
so, despite qualms about her capacity to govern as a woman, she ultimately made all the key
decisions herself. Her decisions, taken on the whole, were far better than those of Somerset and
Northumberland and had she been spared beyond her 42 years, her decisions would probably
have had time to become far more effective and permanent. This clearly shows that in the
latter part of the period at least, monarchs were far more effective rulers than ministers. REVIEW
Look back at
a Identify the opinions that are being expressed in this paragraph. Chapters 13–15,
b Identify the evidence that is provided to support these opinions. which provide
information relevant
c Suggest pieces of evidence which would support the opinions more effectively. to this activity.

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

KEY QUESTION
One of the Key Questions asks:
How did relations with foreign powers change and how was the succession secured?
The material in this chapter could be used to address this Key Question. Complete the Venn diagram
below to show the ways in which Mary pursued her foreign policy and succession objectives during
her reign. The overlap should show the ways in which the two objectives overlapped; other details
within the circles should relate to the key area of policy concerned, using dates where relevant.

Foreign policy Succession

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

If you were required to write a breadth essay evaluating the importance of succession in foreign
policy in the years 1534–58, you might include a paragraph assessing its role under Mary. Look at
the material given in this chapter, and:
a Write an opening sentence for the paragraph which gives an overall assessment of the role of
succession in foreign policy under Mary.
b Choose 4 pieces of relevant information which could be used to determine its importance in her
reign.
c Write this paragraph in full.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

16 The social impact of religious and economic

changes under Mary I
RECAP
Religious change under Mary and its social impact
Mary’s greatest desire as queen was to restore the Catholic faith and Church in England. This desire
was not unpopular. In many areas, local people began restoring Catholic practices even before Mary’s
government ordered religious changes, showing that Protestantism was far from entrenched in 1553.
However, Mary proceeded cautiously as a number of problems had to be resolved.

Problem Actions
Beginning of reign:
A strong Protestant minority in
• Some prominent Protestant clergy, including seven bishops, were
London and other parts of the south
deprived of their livings
Reformed Protestant Church of • Foreign Protestants were ordered to leave the country
England had been established by • Around 80 MPs voted against the religious changes of Mary’s first
statute law Parliament
Many members of the political elites, First Parliament (Oct 1553):
on whose support Mary depended, • Edwardian religious legislation was repealed but the legal status of the
had acquired Church land and had no Church of England was upheld
desire to return it • The Church was restored to its state of 1547
• Clergy who had married could be deprived of their livings

1554:
Pope Julius III demanded that the • Pope Julius agreed not to try to claim back Church land that had been sold
Church submit to Rome before (this reduced opposition to the return of Catholicism from MPs and local
dispensations to landowners of landowners)
ex-Church property could be granted • Cardinal Pole was sent to England, as legate and Archbishop of
Canterbury, to facilitate a change to Catholicism
Third Parliament (Nov 1554 – Jan 1555):
• This restored the heresy laws (1554); these made it punishable by death to
deny papal supremacy
Act of Repeal provoked furious • Act of Supremacy (1555) made the Pope the leader of the Church again
debates particularly directed against
Pole
Paul IV (Pope from 1555) dismissed
Pole as papal legate, April 1557

Mary’s key religious reforms

In 1553, Mary repealed earlier religious legislation and reinstated the Catholic faith. Under the heresy
laws, Mary persecuted Protestants, including the Oxford martyrs (Cranmer, Ridley and Latimer). Around
280 Protestants (mainly men but also women) were burnt at the stake, most in the south-east and East
Anglia. Because of this, Mary has become known as ‘Bloody Mary’.
The persecutions under the heresy laws increasingly turned people against Mary. While facing
opposition only from a small number of ardent Protestants at the beginning of her reign, by the end she
was widely unpopular.

Other religious reforms

Pole tried to introduce reforms into the Church and increase the number of priests. He appointed
new bishops, who were to reside in their dioceses, to preach and to oversee carefully the religious life
of their parishes. He also proposed that each cathedral should have a seminary for training priests.
However, Mary’s reign was too short for these reforms to have much impact and while some areas (such
as Catholic Durham and Lancashire) enthusiastically embraced his reforms, many others did not.

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

Economic change and its social impact One area of economic success was in the reorganisation of
the administration and finance of the navy; six new ships were
Mary inherited a serious economic situation in 1553, and this built and others were repaired, laying the foundations for the
grew worse during her reign as inflation continued, culminating powerful navy of Elizabeth’s reign.
in serious distress in the years 1556–58. There was a series
of bad harvests and the population suffered bouts of various
epidemics, including the plague. Wyatt’s Rebellion
Mary’s determination to marry Philip II of Spain produced a
rebellion in 1553–54. Not only was there strong anti-Spanish
Long term sentiment in the country, some rebels were also provoked
Population growth combined with a by Mary’s religious outlook and determined to prevent pro-
limited increase in productivity Catholic change. Social and economic grievances are also
(particularly in agriculture) likely to have played a part. The rebels hoped to unseat Mary,
caused inflation
in favour of either Elizabeth or Jane Grey, whose father was
involved in the rebellion.
There were four simultaneous risings: in Devon (led by Edward
Courtenay – Gardiner’s candidate for Mary’s husband),
Hertfordshire, Leicestershire and Kent. However, the only
serious rising was in Kent where Sir Thomas Wyatt raised a
Medium term
force of about 3000 men. Wyatt’s rebels tried to march on
Effect of debasement of
coinage made inflation worse
London, but were repelled and Wyatt was forced to surrender
within a month.
Although the rebellion failed, it demonstrated the extent
of popular hostility to the Spanish marriage, and showed
that Protestant religious opinions could not be ignored.
Short term It resulted in the execution of Lady Jane Grey and the
Harvest failures 1555 and 1556 imprisonment of Princess Elizabeth in the Tower of London.
(severe food shortages, strain However she was released when it was proved that she had
on real wages for the poor) not been involved.
Impact of 'sweating sickness' (influenza)
1557 and 1558
High taxation to pay for war against France Intellectual developments, including
humanist and religious thought
The reintroduction of Catholicism weakened the influence
of humanism; Pope Paul IV regarded the Catholic humanist
Erasmus as a heretic and banned Catholics from reading his
books.
Religious thought was largely centred on Catholic reform at
Social a parish level. Edmund Bonner, Bishop of London, published
distress A Profitable and Necessary Doctrine, which explained the faith
in a straightforward manner, and a new book of homilies.
Protestants, who were forced into exile, were divided in their
thinking. Some were happy to use the 1552 prayer book and to
operate within existing structures, while others (such as John
The government made some attempt to address the issues: Knox) wanted to move in a yet more radical direction.
• 1556–58: re-coinage plans were drawn up (although not
carried out until Elizabeth was queen).
• 1555: the Poor Law Act extended the Act of 1552 and SUMMARY
ordered licensed beggars to wear badges; this was
intended to encourage fellow parishioners into donating • Although most of the country remained Catholic in
more alms for poor relief. sentiment, the shortness of Mary’s reign, coupled with a
• Encouragement was given to the conversion of pasture delay in restoring the structure of the Catholic Church,
land to crop farming. meant that Mary was unable to restore Catholicism fully.
• Movement of industries from town to countryside • Economic and social distress worsened under Mary I,
was discouraged in an attempt to reduce urban culminating in severe hardship in 1556–58.
unemployment. • Wyatt’s Rebellion demonstrated that neither Mary’s
foreign marriage nor her religious reforms enjoyed
Not all measures were a success, however, and any benefits universal support; the kingdom remained divided.
were not realised until Elizabeth’s reign.

87
 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Mary wanted to restore the Catholic Church in England but she encountered many obstacles. Nine
of these are listed below, in no particular order. Look at these then copy the ‘diamond 9’ shape
shown and complete the following tasks:
a Rank the obstacles in their order of importance from top to bottom and right to left.
b Explain why you have chosen your most important obstacle in the ‘why’ box at the top.
c Explain why you have chosen your least important obstacle in the ‘why’ box at the bottom.

Obstacles encountered in restoring the Catholic religion

• Protestant opposition • Need to repeal reforming legislation
• Ownership of former Church lands • Influence of Church reformers
• Lack of papal support • Succession problems
• Married priests • Shortness of the reign
• Reaction to persecution

Why?

Why?

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

KEY QUESTION
One of the Key Questions asks:
In what ways and how effectively was England governed?
The following groups and persons all played a role in how England was governed during the period
of Mary’s reign:
• advisers
• the Privy Council
• Parliament REVIEW
• Philip II
To complete this
• Mary
activity, you need to
For each group or person, explain their role, their influence, and whether they helped England to be look at Chapter 15 as
governed effectively or not. well as Chapter 16.

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP

Draw a mind-map to illustrate the impact of economic change on social policy under Start by identifying
Mary, 1553–58. the problems posed
by the economic
situation in 1553
and add those
that developed in
1556–58. Lead out
to the social policies
adopted to address
these issues.

REVISION SKILLS EXAMINER TIP

Sections 3 and 4 of this Revision Guide trace developments in Tudor England between 1547 and Your timeline will be
1603. To support your revision of this period, create a 56-year timeline and record key events on an essential revision
it as you meet them. Colour code your entries: red: political/government, green: religion, blue: aid. Use it to check
economic, yellow: social, black: international; 1547 has been started for you. Note that you may not context for extract
be able to fill in a specific event for every year of the timeline. work, and to ensure
accurate chronology
1547 Edward VI becomes king and an appreciation
of change and
Earl of Hertford (later Duke of Somerset) becomes Lord Protector continuity in essay
answers.
Battle of Pinkie (Sept)

Military and Church decrees (Dec)

Unemployment and inflation are high

Chantries dissolved and injunctions reissued (Dec)

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 REVISION PROGRESS

17 Elizabeth I: character and aims

RECAP
The character and aims of Elizabeth I • William Cecil was appointed Principal Secretary.
• Elizabeth presented herself to the people from the Tower
Elizabeth was 25 (much younger than Mary) when she came of London.
to the throne. She was well educated and had learned from • Her coronation took place in January.
personal experiences (including imprisonment in the Tower as a
consequence of Wyatt’s Rebellion). She was shrewd and proved
a good judge of character. However, her difficult existence, as The Elizabethan religious
a Protestant during Mary’s reign, had made her cautious and,
even as queen, she was reluctant to take final decisions. settlement
Elizabeth believed God had saved her to be his queen and she It was clear that the English Church would again be broken
derived much comfort from her faith. Although a Protestant from Rome, and that Elizabeth would seek to re-establish royal
with a firm belief in royal supremacy, she had conservative supremacy over the Church in England. However, it was less
views in matters of church ceremony. clear what form Elizabeth’s Church would take. The Elizabethan
Church Settlement of 1559 provided the framework for this,
On coming to the throne her short-term aims were:
creating a ‘via media’ (middle way) between Catholicism and
• to consolidate her position Protestantism. The settlement, enacted in Elizabeth’s first
• to settle religious issues parliament, January–April 1559, not only established the royal
• to end war with France. supremacy, but also set out the way the Church was to be
organised and the content and conduct of services.

Elizabeth I’s consolidation of power

Elizabeth swiftly consolidated her power:
• Mary’s councillors accepted Elizabeth’s succession; many
of them personally assured her of their loyalty. She was
proclaimed queen in November.

Act of Supremacy:
1559

New Book The Elizabethan

of Common Prayer Church Royal injunctions (detailed
(compromise between the Act of Settlement and conduct of services and Church
Edwardian prayer books of Act of Uniformity: organisation): 1559
1549 and 1552): 1563
1559

Thirty-Nine Articles
(replacing the Forty-Two
Articles of 1553): 1563

The Act of Supremacy, 1559

This Act: • made the queen ‘supreme governor’ (rather than
• repealed the papal supremacy and Marian heresy laws ‘supreme head’) of the Church of England
• reinstated the religious legislation of Henry VIII’s reign • demanded an oath of supremacy from all clergymen and
and revived the powers of royal visitation of the Church church officials.

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The Act of Uniformity, 1559 Intervention in Scotland

As well as demanding that everyone should go to church once In June 1559, Henry II of France was succeeded by Francis II,
a week or pay a fine of 12 pence (a considerable sum), this whose wife was Mary, Queen of Scots – Elizabeth’s cousin and
established the use of the new Book of Common Prayer. The the main Catholic claimant to the English throne. The new king
1559 prayer book was a version of that of 1552, to make it more sent French troops to garrison Scottish fortresses.
acceptable to traditionally minded worshippers. For example,
John Knox, the radical Calvinist, and his political allies,
it was carefully worded to allow variations in Eucharistic belief.
the Lords of the Congregation, who were seeking power in
Edinburgh, requested assistance from their fellow Protestants
The royal injunctions, 1559 in England. Elizabeth was reluctant to intervene, but Cecil
A set of royal injunctions nominated ‘visitors’ to inspect the strongly supported intervention as he wanted to secure
Church and gave specific instructions such as: England’s borders and weaken the influence of Mary, Queen of
Scots.
• the removal of ‘things superstitious’ from churches
• the purchase of an English Bible and a copy of Erasmus’s England initially sent money and armaments but from
Paraphrases by every parish church December 1559 became more directly involved.
• the celebration of the Eucharist at a simple Communion
table (not altar)
• the suppression of Catholic practices (e.g. pilgrimages KEY CHRONOLOGY
and the use of candles) Intervention in Scotland
• the requirement that any prospective wife of a clergyman
1559 Dec The navy was sent to the Firth of Forth to stop
had to produce a certificate, signed by two JPs, to
French reinforcements from landing
indicate her fitness for the role.
1560 Mar An army was sent north and blockaded Leith,
where most of the French force was situated
The Thirty-Nine Articles, 1563
The French fleet was damaged by storms,
The Thirty-Nine Articles, drawn up by the Church in leading to its withdrawal
convocation in 1563 (and confirmed by Act of Parliament in
July The Treaty of Edinburgh brought peace and a
1571) sought to define the doctrine of the Church of England.
Protestant Scottish government
Based on Cranmer’s earlier articles, they broadly supported Dec Francis II died; Mary had to return to Scotland,
reformed doctrine. For example, they denied teachings where she was forced to accept the political
concerning transubstantiation and affirmed that Scripture was and religious power of John Knox and the Lords
the final authority on salvation. They stated that both bread of the Congregation
and wine should be served to all in the Communion service and
that ministers could marry.

The significance of the settlement Cecil had succeeded – the interests of Scottish Protestants
had been protected and Mary’s political influence had been
The settlement was a compromise. It is not known whether reduced.
it was intended as an end in itself or as a precursor to further
reform. Certainly, Elizabeth was placed under pressure from
two extremes:
Intervention in France
In 1562, conflict broke out between Catholics and Protestants
• a ‘Puritan choir’ of radical clergymen and MPs, who may
(known as Huguenots) in France; Robert Dudley encouraged
have forced her to accept a more Protestant prayer book
Elizabeth to put military pressure on the French Crown so as to
than she had really wanted
ensure the return of Calais. Elizabeth provided the Huguenot
• Catholic bishops and conservative peers in the House of
leader, the Prince of Condé, with men and money, but his army
Lords, who strongly opposed the uniformity bill, believing
was defeated and Condé captured.
the settlement too Protestant.
The English were forced to accept the Treaty of Troyes, 1564, by
which the loss of Calais was confirmed as permanent.
England’s relations with foreign
powers, 1558–64 SUMMARY
• With Cecil’s assistance, Elizabeth skilfully managed her
The Treaty of Câteau-Cambrésis, 1559 accession and coronation, and achieved a compromise
Elizabeth ended the French war with the Treaty of Câteau- religious settlement.
Cambrésis (April 1559). This stated that France would retain • Despite mixed results in her foreign policy, by 1563 she
Calais for eight years; thereafter, France would pay England had firmly established herself as queen.
500,000 crowns (around £125,000) or return it.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE
This chapter sets out the 3 short-term aims Elizabeth set herself. One way to revise a topic is to
look at the aims of a monarch and assess whether they were achieved or not, by using a see-saw
diagram.
a Copy the diagram below 3 times, 1 for each aim:
• Consolidate her position
• Settle religious issues
• End war with France
b Add points on the ‘Yes’ side to suggest they were achieved, and on the ‘No’ side to suggest they
were not.
c Rank the 3 aims in terms of how feasible it was to achieve them and explain your prioritisation.

Aim:

Yes No

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE REVIEW

Look back through this section and Section 2, and create a timeline/ flow chart to record the main Look back to
developments in foreign policy from 1540 to 1564. For example: Chapters 9, 13
and 15 to remind
yourself of the
development of
1540– . foreign policy before
47 . Elizabeth’s reign.

1547– .
49 .
EXAMINER TIP
The difference
between a middling
1549– . and a high-level
answer is often the
53 . certainty of dates
and chronology, and
the use of specific
facts and evidence
when addressing
1553– . change over time.
Also, remember that
58 . breadth questions
will cover 20 years
or more, so make
sure you think about
the short reigns of
1558– . Edward and Mary
64 . in the context of a
longer period of time.

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW EXAMINER TIP

It is important to break essay questions down, so that you examine all aspects. For example, you It is easy to ignore
might be asked: parts of questions
when focusing on
A ‘The Elizabethan religious settlement was a balanced response to twenty years of the main issue, e.g.
LEVEL
religious division.’ Assess the validity of this view. the word ‘balanced’
in this quotation. To
To answer this question, you would need to think about:
achieve high marks,
• the nature of the religious divisions you should try to
• the history and impact of these divisions over 20 years (dates and details) analyse all aspects of
• the nature of the settlement questions and show
• whether the settlement was ‘balanced’ between reformists and Catholics a clear judgement
• a ‘balanced response’ suggests a considered policy; was this a considered policy or the result about those aspects.
of events?
a Breaking down the question should help you to formulate a response to it. Which of the following
first sentences would you use in your introduction? (If you are not happy with any of them,
provide your own.)
• ‘The Elizabethan religious settlement was certainly a balanced response to a twenty-year old
religious division.’
• ‘The Elizabethan religious settlement was neither balanced, nor a response to a twenty-year
old religious division.’
• ‘The Elizabethan religious settlement was not balanced, but it was a response to a twenty-
year old religious division.’
• ‘The Elizabethan religious settlement may have been balanced, but it was certainly not a
response to a twenty-year old religious division.’
b Now write a full introduction to this essay, building on your chosen opening sentence to explain
your choice of view and to refer to the words of the question.

KEY QUESTION
One of the Key Questions asks:
How important was the role of key individuals and groups and how were they affected by
developments?
The following groups were involved in the Elizabethan religious settlement of 1558–64:
• radical clergymen and MPs
• Catholic bishops and Conservative peers
• William Cecil and the mainly Protestant Privy Council
• Elizabeth herself.
For each group, explain their view of the religious settlement. Then decide the importance of each
in the eventual religious settlement.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

18 The impact of economic, social and religious

developments in the early years of Elizabeth’s rule
RECAP
The impact of economic and social developments, 1558–63
In 1558, the economy was in a poor state and a fall in real wages meant that there was considerable
social distress. MPs were particularly concerned about the number of masterless (unapprenticed) men
in towns, and reports of increasing vagabondage and escalating crime.

Date Problem Elizabethan action Results

1561 Inflation, due to debasement of Plan put forward to replace the debased Had only limited effect in the
the currency coins (which contained only 25% of the silver short term, because households
content of their face value) with soundly tended to hoard the good coinage
minted ones and pay their debts with the old
debased coinage
1563 Vagabonds in towns, increasing Statute of Artificers Proved very difficult to enforce,
crime, and workers demanding • sought to fix prices, impose maximum even for JPs within their own
higher pay wages, restrict workers’ freedom of communities
movement and regulate training
Concerns about increasing
• made local magistrates responsible for
numbers of masterless men and
regulating agricultural wages
vagabondage
• established a compulsory seven-year
apprenticeship in order to follow a craft
1563 Increasing poverty, made worse Poor Law Act Had limited impact
by inflation and poor harvests • extended the previous Act of 1555
• laid down fines for those who refused to
Lack of support for ‘deserving
contribute to poor relief when requested
poor’ with reduction in Church-
to do so
sponsored welfare

The impact of religious developments, 1558–63

The Elizabethan settlement of 1559 was clearly Protestant. In December 1559, all but one of the Marian
bishops refused to consecrate the new Archbishop of Canterbury, Matthew Parker, a Cambridge
University don of moderate views. Their positions were filled by Protestants exiled under Mary, such as
Edmund Grindal, who became Bishop of London in 1560.
However, Elizabeth herself was more conservative than her strongly Protestant supporters. She
disapproved of clergy marrying, distrusted preaching, and favoured the musical culture of the
cathedrals and university colleges.
• The queen viewed the settlement as an act of state, defining the relationship between Crown and
Church but not ‘making windows into men’s souls’.
• Others (including Cecil and Dudley) believed the settlement was the starting point for the
development of a Puritan Church (i.e. a radical Protestant Church, following Calvinist ideas and
totally rejecting Catholic teaching).
While the Elizabethan settlement reformed doctrine, it did not go far enough to please leading
Protestants in its reform of the Church’s structures, disciplinary procedures, services and clerical
dress. In essence, the Church of England was becoming Calvinist in doctrine but only ‘half reformed’
in its structures.

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

A mid-Tudor crisis?
Historians for a long time promoted the concept of a mid-Tudor crisis. According to this view, the
reigns of Edward VI and Mary I (and to some extent the last years of Henry VIII’s and the first few years
of Elizabeth’s reign) were unproductive and marked by religious strife, inefficiency in government,
economic and social distress, and failures in foreign policy. This marked them out from the
achievements of the reigns of Henry VIII and the later years of Elizabeth.
More recent historians have emphasised the positive features of the period 1547–58 and have argued
that more negative features, such as rebellions and social dislocation, were just as apparent in, for
example, the mid 1530s.

SUMMARY
• The early years of Elizabeth’s reign saw some attempts to address problems of social distress but
these were of limited effect.
• Religious development proceeded in the direction of Calvinist Protestantism, although the
queen’s conservative tendencies meant that many Catholic practices were retained.

KEY CHRONOLOGY KEY CHRONOLOGY

Political and religious events International events
1547 Edward VI succeeds 1547 Battle of Pinkie against Scotland
1549 First Book of Common Prayer introduced 1557 England declares war against France
Fall of Somerset 1558 England loses Calais
1552 Second Book of Common Prayer introduced 1559 Treaty of Câteau-Cambrésis ends war with France
1553 Forty-Two Articles of Religion published 1559–60 English intervention in Scotland
Edward VI dies, Lady Jane Grey proclaimed queen;
1562 English intervention in France on the side of the
Mary I succeeds
Huguenots
1553 Edwardian religious laws repealed
1564 Treaty of Troyes makes peace with France
1554 Mary marries Philip of Spain
Wyatt’s Rebellion
1558 Death of Mary; Elizabeth succeeds
1559 Elizabethan religious settlement
1563 Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion published

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 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE
The mid-Tudor crisis is a key concept in this period of history, but not all historians agree on whether
it existed. If they do think a crisis occurred, there is often debate about when to date it from. Complete
the chart below; in the 2nd column record events which could be seen as the start (in red) or end (in
green) of the possible crisis; in the 3rd column suggest why it could be seen as the starting point or
the final point of the crisis.

Event Reason

1534

1540

1547

1558

1559

1563

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

One way to view the religious changes in Tudor England 1540–63 is to think of them as a pendulum
swinging from Catholicism to various kinds of Protestantism. The diagram below marks out key
elements of the kind of Church you would find at each point.
a Copy the diagram, then on the curved orange line place a coloured dot and a year next to where
the Church in England would be at the following points, and draw a line to connect them in order:
• 1547 The end of Henry VIII’s reign
• 1549 The end of Somerset’s Lord Protectorship
• 1553 The end of Northumberland’s Lord Presidency
• 1558 The end of Mary’s reign
• 1564 After the Elizabethan religious settlement
b Note when the line makes its biggest change of direction and write a sentence to explain why this was.
c Note where Catholic Protestant
the position
of Elizabeth’s
religious
settlement is
and write a
sentence to
explain why it
is often called
the ‘via media’
(middle way). Pope as head English services
of Church and Bible
Latin services Protestant services
and Bible Monarch as head English translation Married priests
Monasteries of Church of Catholic services
Celibate priests English Bible Ambiguous phrasing
Monasteries in masses
Celibate priests Priests able to marry

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 INSTABILITY AND CONSOLIDATION: ‘THE MID-TUDOR CRISIS’, 1547–1563 S B 125–181

KEY QUESTION
One of the Key Questions asks:
How did English society and economy change and with what effects?
To assess the ways in which society and the economy changed between 1540 and 1563, and
ascertain the effects, review Sections 2 and 3 of this Revision Guide. As you read through the
sections, copy and complete the table below. Add up to 3 social and 3 economic changes in each
period. In the last column, list the overall effects of these social and economic changes.
REVIEW
Ruler Social Economic Effects You will need to
read Chapters
Henry VIII from 1540 10 and 12 to gain
information on
Edward VI
social and economic
changes in the later
Mary
reign of Henry VIII,
Elizabeth I to 1563 Chapter 14 for those
under Edward, and
Overview Chapter 16 for those
under Mary.

ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW EXAMINER TIP

When 2 dates are
A ‘A state of crisis existed in England between 1540 and 1563.’ Assess the validity of given in an exam
LEVEL
this view. question, make a
point of explaining
One way of approaching this question is to work out what you think is meant by a ‘crisis’, and then
their significance.
test to see whether it applies to the statement.
Remember that
a Below is a list of events which could be described as a crisis. Write down those which could be within a time span
useful criteria for this essay: there may be
• A serious threat of a civil war within the country periods of crisis and
periods of calm.
• Profound religious differences leading to deaths and conflicts You need to form a
• Social and economic problems leading to disease, death and disturbances judgement about
whether the periods
• The likelihood of the seizure of power by one group of politicians from another
of crisis outweigh
• Weak government the periods of
• A change in the line of succession calm in duration or
seriousness – and
• A serious threat of foreign invasion and conquest show this debate in
• Bad harvests your answer.
• Arguments in the government about policy
b Now write down the key event that corresponds with the beginning and end dates of the
EXAMINER TIP
question. Do these events suggest you have selected appropriate criteria?
Whenever a key
c Complete the table below.
term is given in
an essay always
Criteria To what extent apparent Evidence explain what it
means. In this case
a definition of
‘crisis’ will help your
answer.

d Now write down a short paragraph where you state your overall judgement and your key reasons.

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 EXAM PRACTICE

A Level essay sample answer

REVISION PROGRESS

REVIEW
On these Exam Practice pages, you will find a sample student answer for an A Level essay question.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the answer? Read the answer and the corresponding
Examiner Tips carefully. Think about how you could apply this advice in order to improve your own
answers to questions like this one.

‘Despite a change in authority, England remained a largely REVISION SKILLS

A
LEVEL
Catholic country in belief and structure between 1547 and At A Level you have to answer two of the
1564.’ Assess the validity of this view. three essay questions you are given. You have
25 marks
45 minutes to answer each one. Read page 7
for details on how to master the essay
question.

Sample student answer

EXAMINER TIP
England saw many religious transformations between 1547 and 1564.
This introduction addresses the question, is
Henry left a Church which was largely Catholic but the Pope had accurate and explains the approach to the
been replaced as the leader. Edward’s regents turned the Church answer. It also states a clear view in relation to
the question.
in England into a more reformist organisation in two stages. Mary
reversed this so much that it was as Catholic as it was before
Henry’s seizure of control. Elizabeth returned the Church to a
middle way between reformists and Catholics. This seems to suggest
that England did not remain a largely Catholic country in belief
and structure throughout this period. However, despite the changes
in authority, the formal structure of the Church under bishops and
priests was untouched while the beliefs of most ‘ordinary people’,
although difficult to assess, seem to have remained quite Catholic.
In terms of formal authority the Church see-sawed dramatically. EXAMINER TIP
However, it was only for a very short period that the Church was This paragraph builds on the first one
with some focused comment and detailed
not Catholic in belief – between 1552 and 1553 – when the use of evidence.
the second Book of Common Prayer was enforced. The services
were made reformist and simpler so that ordinary people could
understand. However, even then there were elements of Catholicism
in the Church’s structure, as bishops and archbishops remained.
Moreover, for most of the period, there were always elements of
Catholicism in the established Church. For example, the words of
the Communion service were designed so that both Catholics and
Protestants could say them honestly and priests were allowed to
wear decorative vestments in services.
It could be argued that, apart from Mary’s reign, the Church in
England was more Protestant than Catholic. Catholic institutions
such as chantries and monasteries disappeared, which undermined

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 EXAM PRACTICE: A LEVEL ESSAY SAMPLE ANSWER

the Catholic Church structure, and practices such as priests being EXAMINER TIP
allowed to marry and English Bibles and services predominated, This paragraph is trying to address counter
arguments and to offer an individual argument
reinforcing the idea of a new ‘Protestant’ Church. However, many and judgement in an analytical way. However, it
priests took wives in England even though it was against Catholic lacks some precision in relation to terminology
and the degree of change and continuity
Church teaching and the services were largely translations of Latin over time.
ones. So it could be argued that the Church had always contained a
mixture of Catholicism and Protestant ideas since the time of
Henry VIII’s reformation and it is impossible to say that the Church
was entirely Catholic or largely reformist. The best way of viewing it
is the way in which Elizabeth’s Church was established and viewed –
as a ‘via media’ throughout this period. EXAMINER TIP
However, it can also be argued that the ‘ordinary people’ never lost This paragraph tries to explore the views of
their Catholic beliefs at all. Even in Edward’s time a radical reformer the ‘ordinary people’ but lacks development
and the idea of a ‘turning point’ in the 1570s
admitted that ‘uncooperative public’ hampered reform. This is also comes as an afterthought and goes beyond the
shown by the speed with which traditional practices were re-adopted finishing date of the question.
following the accession of the Catholic Queen Mary in 1553 and the
confidence of the conservative nobility who blocked a more Protestant
settlement in 1558. The key turning point between England being
Catholic and Protestant was probably not until the 1570s and it certainly
took a long time before the old beliefs died out, if they ever did.
In conclusion, Catholic beliefs and structures remained in EXAMINER TIP
England after 1547, and although ideas had begun to change by This conclusion is well developed, although
the reference to Mary’s burnings is not clearly
1564, there was still some way to go before England could be
integrated or consistent with what has gone
described as a truly Protestant country. However, reaction to the before. It provides some judgement.
burnings at the stake by Mary meant that England was more of
a Protestant country than it had been by 1558, and Elizabeth’s
‘via media’ helped establish a Church that combined Catholic and
Protestant structure and beliefs successfully.

OVERALL COMMENT
After a strong start, the essay falls away and despite its overall understanding, the points made are
not always well-developed nor effectively substantiated. There is analysis and balance, together
with some supporting evidence and reference to both aspects of the question. However, the
explanation of the main ideas is thin, permitting only a low Level 4.

OVER TO YOU
Take 45 minutes to write your answer, then review it using the following checklist:
Does each paragraph address the question?
Have you provided focused comment backed by specific evidence in your answer?
Have you offered a counter argument to give balance to your answer?
Have you given a clear judgement in relation to the question at the outset, which is
subsequently well substantiated and repeated in the conclusion?
Review Chapters 14, 16 and 17 again. Are the details in your essay factually accurate? Have you
missed any issues you should have raised?

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 REVISION PROGRESS

The triumph of Elizabeth, 1563–1603

19 Elizabethan government, 1563–1603

RECAP
The royal court and Privy Council queen’s potential marriage and were frequent rivals in political
matters, with competition between the Dudley (Leicester) and
The royal court was not just the monarch’s home, but also the Cecil factions at court. Nevertheless, these factions largely
centre of government. The court travelled with the queen and balanced one another out and disagreements were matched by
came under the jurisdiction of the Lord Chamberlain. The Privy issues of agreement.
Council, the main formal body in which the queen’s principal
ministers met, was based at this court and work and pleasure In the 1570s, the influence of the traditional conservatives
were often combined as the queen met with ministers in both a was reduced, as a result of perceived disloyalty in the 1560s;
formal and informal setting. Norfolk was executed and Winchester died. A nucleus of firmly
Protestant councillors subsequently emerged, including Sir
Elizabeth wanted to be an active ruler and deliberately chose Francis Walsingham, who became Elizabeth’s Principal Secretary
a much smaller Privy Council than that of Mary’s reign. This 1573–90 and acted as her chief spy master. Working with Lord
was intended to reduce opportunities for faction-fighting and Burghley, Walsingham devised an effective spy network in the
improve efficiency. Consequently, around ten members usually later years of Elizabeth’s reign. He was also instrumental in
attended its regular meetings. Some of Mary’s councillors were convincing Elizabeth to execute Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587.
chosen to continue in service, but Elizabeth also added her
own choices, giving the Council a new dynamism. Sir Walter Mildmay, the Earl of Leicester and his brother the
Earl of Warwick, Sir Francis Knollys and the Earl of Bedford
The Privy Council was responsible for policy advice and joined Walsingham and Burghley to form an ‘inner ring’ of
administration, and its principal functions were: strongly Protestant councillors, although there were still
• to discuss and advise on state matters, helping to some conservative figures, such as Sir James Croft and Sir
formulate policies Christopher Hatton and Thomas Radcliffe, Earl of Sussex.
• to manage Crown finances For the most part Elizabethan ministers of all persuasions
• to manage Parliament worked together to give coherence to government. It was not
• to oversee the regional councils and local officials until the 1590s that faction-fighting became problematic, as
(e.g. JPs and borough councils) Robert Cecil clashed with the Earl of Essex.
• to oversee national defence
• to enforce the 1559 religious settlement
• to act as a court of law (when sitting as Star Chamber). Problems of government in the
Despite some disagreements over foreign policy and the
execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, for most of the reign
1580s and 1590s
Elizabeth and the Council worked well together.
Several key
ministers died in quick
The role of ministers and succession, most notably
the Earl of Leicester in
factional rivalry Elizabeth 1588
Elizabeth
would not allow
Elizabeth’s chief adviser was William Cecil (who became Lord was slow to
Cecil (Lord Burghley) to
replace deceased
Burghley in 1571). Cecil had served under Edward VI; he twice retire, despite ill-health; he
councillors, and often
became Principal Secretary (1550–53 and 1558–72) and was appointed his son Robert as
less capable men
privy councillor, 1593 and
also Lord High Treasurer from 1572. Other members of the were promoted
as Principal Secretary, Problems of
Privy Council included Sir Nicholas Bacon, Francis Russell 1596 government in
(Earl of Bedford) and Sir Francis Knollys. More conservative the 1580s and
ministers included the Duke of Norfolk and the Marquis of 1590s
Winchester, and the earls of Sussex and Shrewsbury, while
Elizabeth’s favourite, Robert Dudley (who became Earl of Clashes took
The great noble
Leicester in 1564), joined the Council in 1562. place between
families were no
Cecil’s son, Robert
Despite Elizabeth’s good intentions, the Council experienced and Leicester’s
longer represented
some factional rivalries. For example, the Earl of Leicester on the Council
stepson, the Earl of
and Cecil, two of Elizabeth’s key ministers, disagreed over the Essex

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

Problems stemming from Cecil–Essex faction-fighting

culminated in the Essex ‘rebellion’ of 1601, when Essex (who 1572, The Commons took action against its own members for
had failed in his bid to defeat Irish rebels and had been 1576 speeches that were felt to have gone too far regarding
banished from the court by Elizabeth, because of his arrogant Mary, Queen of Scots and religion
manner) tried to revive his declining influence by mounting a
1576 Peter Wentworth made an appeal for freedom of speech
coup against Cecil. This attempt failed and he was tried and
and was committed to the Tower by order of the House.
executed. Essex lacked political judgement, but his attitudes
(He was later readmitted but imprisoned again in 1587
nevertheless reflected increasing wider discontent with the
and again in 1593 for defying Elizabeth’s restrictions
rule of Elizabeth and Cecil.
on freedom of speech concerning both religion and the
succession)
Parliament 1585 Speaker John Puckering delivered a message from
Elizabeth banning religious debate
Parliament had always been a less important feature of government
than the Privy Council and this continued under Elizabeth. In a
reign of 44 years, Parliament held only 13 sessions and most lasted
Nevertheless, until 1593, relations between queen and
around three months. Parliament was primarily called to:
Parliament were generally cordial. Most MPs apparently
• grant taxation: 11 out of 13 parliaments were asked to accepted the restrictions she imposed and those who did
grant revenue not were punished severely. Protests like Wentworth’s were
• make statute laws: 438 Acts were passed by Elizabeth’s exceptional.
parliaments, notably the Acts of Supremacy and From 1593, however, relations between Crown and Parliament
Uniformity in 1559 and the poor laws of 1597/8 and 1601. deteriorated:
Within Parliament, the House of Lords was more important
1593
than the House of Commons and all bills were first discussed
One of Burghley’s associates criticised John
there. Parliamentary sessions were carefully managed. Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury, for
Cecil was active in preparing bills, assisted by the Crown’s encouraging the passing of an Act punishing
representatives in the House of Commons (initially Sir Francis sectaries (members of Protestant sects who
Knollys and from 1576 Sir Christopher Hatton) and privy had rejected the Church of England and the
royal supremacy)
councillors often began parliamentary sessions by outlining
the Crown’s priorities. When parliaments were invited to The queen took this as personal criticism
and barred the politician’s advancement
discuss legislation, all debate was closely controlled by the 1593
Speaker. Cecil managed the Commons, which was expected Peter Wentworth was
imprisoned, with three
to be respectful and not hinder parliamentary business with
colleagues, for arguing
undue debate, with the help of supportive MPs (typically for a named successor to
lawyers), and generally this tactic seems to have succeeded. Elizabeth – the queen saw
Nevertheless, the Queen’s assent was needed before any this as an attack on her royal
measure became law and Elizabeth refused royal assent to prerogative
over 60 bills that had passed through both houses.
1601
The royal prerogative and parliamentary clashes The relationship between Elizabeth and her parliaments broke down in the
debate over monopolies (whereby the sole right to sell or manufacture a
Elizabeth would not allow uninvited debate or opposition particular commodity was bought by an individual or company)
on any matter which she regarded as her prerogative. Such A compromise was achieved and the parliamentary session ended with
matters included marriage and the succession, religion and the queen’s emotionally moving Golden Speech (essentially a farewell) to
foreign policy. This brought about several clashes between the a crowded gathering of MPs
queen and her parliaments.
SUMMARY
KEY CHRONOLOGY
• In general, government during Elizabeth’s reign was well
1559 Parliament raised the issue of marriage but Elizabeth conducted, especially over the first 30 years of the reign,
deflected it and there was a broad consensus (except on religion)
1563 Parliament met at a time when it was feared that concerning royal policies and their enforcement.
Elizabeth would die of smallpox. The queen opposed the • Elizabeth chose her key ministers well, and was rewarded
discussion of the succession; she survived her illness by the services of talented individuals, such as Cecil,
1566 Parliament (encouraged by Cecil and Leicester) Walsingham, Mildmay and Hatton.
pressed Elizabeth to marry: the queen responded • Towards the end of the reign, the coherence of
angrily and banished Leicester from the court government began to break down as these experienced
1571 At the opening of the 1571 Parliament, Elizabeth sent explicit ministers died and were replaced by less able officials;
instructions to the Commons, not ‘to meddle with matters a renewal of factional rivalry, between Robert Cecil
of state’. When William Strickland tried to introduce a radical and the Earl of Essex, indicated a decline in effective
religious reform bill he was forced to leave the chamber government.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE
a Draw a mind-map to illustrate the problems in the relationship between the queen and
Parliament. The diagram below gives you an example.

1563 1559

Marriage

Problems
Freedom
between the
of Succession
queen and
speech
Parliament

EXAMINER TIP
Religion It is often helpful
to use historical
terminology, such
as royal prerogative,
in essays, but
you should never
use terms that
are not properly
b Beneath your diagram, write a definition of the term, ‘royal prerogative’. understood.

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP

Elizabeth used various methods to control Parliament. You could use this
a Re-read this chapter, paying attention to the sections on Parliament, the royal prerogative and activity to respond
parliamentary clashes and make a list of the methods Elizabeth used to control her parliaments. to a question asking
how effectively
b Rank the methods in order of effectiveness and explain the reasoning behind your prioritisation. Elizabeth managed
c From your results in part b, is there a single reason which stands out for the continued problems her parliaments.
Elizabeth faced with Parliament?

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

KEY QUESTION
One of the Key Questions asks:
In what ways and how effectively was England governed during this period?
Review this chapter, paying special attention to the sections dealing with the ministers and
Parliament 1563–90. Then complete the following table about the role of the Privy Council in
serving the queen from 1563–90 by adding a general comment in each box, followed by specific
example(s).

Issues Issues well managed Problems

Maintaining a working
relationship
Working together to provide
constructive advice REVIEW
Management of Parliament In finding specific
examples for the
Loyalty about religion
last row (on foreign
Protection of queen policy), you will find
it helpful to read
Foreign policy Chapter 20.

IMPROVE AN ANSWER

A ‘Elizabeth’s management of government could be described as 30 years of success,

LEVEL
followed by 15 years of decline.’ Assess the validity of this view.

An essay evaluating this exam question would require a paragraph on the relationship between the
queen and the Privy Council in the first 30 years. Here is a sample paragraph:

Answer
The queen appointed Cecil as her Principal Secretary in 1558 although he was not a
leading civil servant. She used Cecil and the Privy Council to manage Parliament. The
Privy Council was also used to discuss foreign affairs. One of her privy councillors was
her favourite, Robert Dudley, and rumours abounded about their relationship. She had a
portrait of him in her bedroom bearing the words ‘My love’. When Dudley was alleged to
have killed his wife, this caused problems in the Privy Council and she had to remove him
from court for a while. However, she managed this factionalism well, partly because William
Cecil shared out the benefits of service to the state fairly between factions. Generally the
Privy Council managed Parliament well, but allowed it to push its own agenda at times
because it wanted to put pressure on the queen; this is shown in several ways. Both
Parliament and the Privy Council wanted Elizabeth to get married and name a successor.
Also, they both wanted her to execute Mary, Queen of Scots. One of the few times the Privy EXAMINER TIP
Council acted beyond their powers was when they sent the order to execute Mary before The order and way
in which you present
the queen was ready to do so. The queen also promoted able people to the Privy Council
your material
which protected her from many Catholic plots. This shows that, during the first 30 years, within a paragraph
the queen and the Privy Council worked well together and produced effective government. is very important.
Facts followed by a
concluding sentence
a Sections of this paragraph are irrelevant; score them out.
will never provide
b The paragraph is poorly ordered, with the comment on effective government coming last as convincing an
instead of first. Rewrite the first sentence. argument as an
c The information in this paragraph is presented either very descriptively or assertively. Rewrite the opinion supported
paragraph to improve the answer and make the given information more relevant to the question. by facts.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

20 Foreign affairs
RECAP
Issues of succession Mary represented a continuous threat to Elizabeth, since
some English Catholics saw her as the rightful monarch. This
Marriage issues problem increased when Elizabeth was excommunicated in
Elizabeth’s marriage was an issue of great concern for her 1570, meaning that the Pope freed her Catholic subjects from
ministers and those who represented her people in Parliament. the need to obey her.
It was initially assumed she would marry – probably a powerful Mary became the focus of four plots to overthrow Elizabeth
European prince – so enhancing England’s status and producing between 1571 and 1586. The last of these, the Babington
an heir to guarantee the succession. The alternative – of Plot of 1586, resulted in a trial at which she was found guilty.
marriage to a member of the English nobility – posed potential Although Elizabeth was reluctant to authorise the execution
problems in terms of faction-fighting. of another anointed monarch, Cecil convinced her that it
While she remained without an heir, her natural successor was was necessary for her personal safety and the security of the
Mary, Queen of Scots; but Mary was a devout Catholic. Fear of a Protestant State. Mary was beheaded in 1587. This provided an
Catholic inheritance was strong among Elizabeth’s Protestant excuse for Philip II, whose suit of Elizabeth had broken down by
nobility and Elizabeth’s death without a successor could bring the 1570s, to send an Armada against England in 1588.
civil war, foreign invasion and religious strife. However the By the 1580s, Elizabeth was well past childbearing age,
queen felt that issues of marriage and succession lay within the although she refused to name a successor right up to her death.
royal prerogative and were not areas for discussion either in She was succeeded by Mary Queen of Scots’ son, James VI of
Parliament or even by the Council. The queen was not short of Scotland, who had the best hereditary claim, was Protestant,
suitors – both from within England and from abroad. and already had two sons by 1600. Councillors such as Essex
(who died himself in 1601) and Robert Cecil had already made
contact with James when Elizabeth died in 1603, paving the
way for a smooth transition.
Robert Dudley (Earl of
Leicester from 1564)
English nobleman but opposed
by Cecil and marred by scandal
England’s relations with Spain
over death of first wife
(possible murder); Relations to 1585
Protestant
Anglo-Spanish relations began cordially in the 1560s as
Philip proposed marriage with Elizabeth. However, they had
deteriorated by the 1570s and became steadily worse during
the rest of Elizabeth’s reign.
Philip II of Spain • John Hawkins’ trading activity threatened the Spanish
Prince Erik of Sweden
Keen to maintain
Protestant trading monopoly in the Caribbean.
influence in England;
devoutly Catholic • In the Netherlands, the Catholic Philip II (who controlled
the Netherlands) clashed with Dutch Protestants.
Elizabeth’s
Protestant councillors pressurised Elizabeth to aid the
suitors
Protestants. She was reluctant to support rebels but her
expulsion from English ports of the Sea Beggars (Dutch
pirates) in 1572 sparked a revolt in the Netherlands
against Spanish rule.
The Archdukes • 1568 – the English seized Spanish vessels, driven by a
François, Duke of
Ferdinand and
Anjou storm into English ports, and confiscated the money they
Charles
Brother of King carried, which was intended to pay Philip’s army in the
Sons of the Emperor
Henry III of France;
Ferdinand:
proposed by Cecil, 1579; Netherlands.
Catholic • Philip supported the Northern Rebellion (1569) and the
Catholic
Ridolfi Plot to replace Elizabeth with Mary, Queen of
Scots (1571).
For Elizabeth, the issue of her marriage gave her a bargaining tool • 1570s and early 1580s – Philip’s success in the
which she could use to England’s advantage in foreign policy. Netherlands were of concern to Elizabeth; relations
continued to deteriorate as privateers captured
Mary, Queen of Scots considerable quantities of Spanish bullion on its way to
Europe from the New World.
The Catholic Mary had fled south in 1568 (after a breakdown • 1584 – Philip’s Treaty of Joinville with the Catholic League
in her relationship with the Protestant lords had culminated in France proved the final straw and an Anglo-Spanish war
in a brief civil war), and was living in captivity in England. broke out in 1585.

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

The Anglo-Spanish War, 1585–1604

• To counteract the terms of the Treaty of Joinville, Elizabeth made the Treaty of Nonsuch with the
Dutch Protestant rebels and sent troops to the Netherlands under the command of the Earl of
Leicester. However, the English commanders quarrelled among themselves and the troops were
ill-disciplined.
• 1587 – the English successfully attacked Spanish ships at Cadiz (‘singeing the King of Spain’s beard’),
delaying the launch of the Spanish Armada (invasion fleet).
• 1588 – Leicester returned to England. Philip’s huge Armada set sail with plans to load a Spanish
army in the Netherlands, for an invasion of England. It was sighted off Cornwall; engaged in
indecisive battle (by Drake) in the English Channel; and forced by unfavourable winds to round
Scotland and Ireland, losing many ships to rocks and storms.

N 0 100 200 miles

0 100 200 300 km

SCOTLAND

IRELAND

ENGLAND

Portsmouth Tilbury
Plymouth
Gravelines

FRANCE

La Coruna

PORTUGAL

Lisbon
SPAIN

Key
Cadiz
Direction of Armada
Battles or skirmishes

• The war was fought both at sea, off western Europe and in the Caribbean, and on land (including in
Ireland, where it was connected to a revolt against Elizabeth’s rule). It dragged on at great expense.
• 1589 – Sir Francis Vere was made commander of the English forces in the Netherlands. He worked
effectively with the Dutch Protestants so that the Spanish were expelled from the north by 1594;
the country was divided into an independent Protestant north and Catholic south, the latter under
Spanish sovereignty.
• Attacks on Spanish shipping mounted both by professional seamen such as Hawkins, Drake
and Frobisher, and by courtiers such as Walter Raleigh, achieved some financial gains but little
strategic success.
• Philip ordered another invasion of England in 1596 but the fleet was defeated by storms.
• The war was finally concluded in 1604 after the deaths of both Philip and Elizabeth.

SUMMARY
• The issue of marriage and the succession caused tension at home and affected policies abroad.
• Elizabeth’s foreign policy was broadly successful, although costly. Dynastic considerations were
coupled with the desire for glory and the national interest.
• The conflict with Spain was long-running, expensive and brought limited gain.

105
 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Look at the diagram of Elizabeth’s suitors on page 104, and make a simplified form of the diagram Marriage was a vital
with just the suitors’ names. Then draw an outer circle. From each suitor draw 2 lines to the outer issue for a queen in
circle labelled ‘For’ and ‘Against’. For each suitor write in at least 1 point in favour of the marriage the 16th century, as
(For) and 1 point against it (Against). Mary found to her
cost. Therefore, it is
important to make
sure you understand
the issue.

KEY QUESTION
One of the Key Questions asks:
In what ways and how effectively was England governed during this period?
Marriage was a key issue as it would affect how effectively England was governed. Below are 7 reasons
why Elizabeth might not bow to pressure from the Privy Council and Parliament to marry.
a Rank the statements below in order of their importance to the queen (1 = most important,
7 = least important).

Reason Rank and explanation

A It would interfere with royal prerogative.

B She had seen what problems marriage had

caused her sister, Mary.

C Elizabeth did not want to risk having a child as a

male heir as he might be a rival to her position.

D In a male dominated world, marriage would

restrict her power.

E Marriage was a bargaining tool that could only

be used once.

F All the eligible foreign suitors brought serious

problems.

G Marrying Dudley (probably her preferred choice)

would have led to faction-fighting in England.

b Write a sentence to explain why you think your first choice was the most important reason.
c Write 2–3 bullet points showing what impact not getting married had on how effectively she was
able to govern.

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

TO WHAT EXTENT? EXAMINER TIP

Remember that
A To what extent was the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots in 1586 the key turning
when you write your
LEVEL
point in England’s relationship with Spain in the years 1558 to 1603?
essay, you should
Since this essay addresses a turning point, you should plan it by considering other potential ensure that the
‘turning points’. Recording the information in chart form will enable you to make a judgement. case for and against
each turning point
a Complete the planning chart below – the first row has been completed. You might also pick
(columns 2 and 3) is
other dates/events as possible turning points.
fully assessed. This
is a high-level skill
Year: Potential Case for Case against which examiners
turning point will look for in good
essays.
1569: Northern Philip for the first time acted There was no active war
Rebellion against Elizabeth; because of between the 2 nations;
this, the Pope excommunicated alternatively, Elizabeth had
Elizabeth in 1570, confident of already soured relations by
Spanish support. Plots followed seizing some Spanish bullion
ships in 1568 REVIEW
To contrast this
Elizabethan period
1584:
of declining relations
between England and
Spain with previous
good relations, look
1587: back at Chapters 9
and 15. Also, learn
more about the
Northern Rebellion in
1588: the next chapter.

b Decide on your judgement. You could then write the opening sentences of your paragraphs – or a
full essay.

KEY QUESTION
One of the Key Questions asks:
How did relations with foreign powers change and how was the succession secured?
Review this chapter and write 3 bullet points about:
• the improvement or deterioration in relations with France, Spain and Scotland
• how the succession was secured.
Compare the two sets of points. Is there any connection between the two?

REVISION SKILLS REVISION SKILLS

Create a timeline of key foreign policy events from this chapter, and the earlier Tudor periods. This timeline can
Colour code references to specific countries. help inform your
understanding
of change and
continuity in Tudor
foreign policy.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

21 Society in Elizabethan England

RECAP
Society: continuity and change • Each parish was required to raise the rates for, and
administer, poor relief through an overseer of the poor.
• The impotent poor (those unable to work) were to be
Continuity Change cared for in a poorhouse.
Great No dukedoms • The able-bodied poor were to be given work in a
landowners created after 1572 ‘House of Industry’.
Dominant Indulged in • The idle poor and vagrants were to be sent to a ‘House
political and massive house-
social role Nobles building projects of Correction’ or prison.
Senior Less opportunity • Pauper children were to be apprenticed to a trade.
military to fulfil a military
positions role Although the treatment of the undeserving poor was harsh,
the creation of a national system showed a more enlightened
Included attitude to relief than that of earlier reigns. This system was
a wide further complemented by an increase in donations from
social range
(knights, Growth in wealthy secular benefactors who gave or left money to found
gentlemen, numbers almshouses, schools and hospitals.
esquires)
Gentry Landed incomes
Prominent increased,
in local
government
(by 1570)
especially after
1570 Problems in the regions
Served as England under Elizabeth I was relatively unified and peaceable,
MPs although there was trouble in Ireland and one serious
rebellion in England – the Northern Rebellion of 1569 (which
Growing quickly collapsed). That the aristocracy largely abandoned
mercantile and
professional their fortified castles and built comfortable country houses
classes in towns, suggests social stability and order.
with political
influence;
sometimes
bought landed Ireland
estates and
entered ranks of Elizabeth’s government wanted to impose English control in
Mostly lived the gentry
in rural areas both religious and secular matters. Elizabeth was proclaimed
Low
Some families Supreme Governor of the Church of Ireland in 1560. However,
‘married up’,
standards of increasing social Ireland was largely Catholic, spoke mostly Gaelic and had
living mobility customs and laws that differed from England’s; this made it
Population Widening gap
growth Bulk of between rich
population and poor (60%
of population at KEY CHRONOLOGY
or below poverty
line) Ireland
Decline in real 1569–73 Rebellion against English rule in the south
wages
Increase in
1579–82 Rebellion linked to a Spanish incursion into County
landless poor Kerry. Brutally suppressed
1595 Earl of Tyrone led rebellion in Ulster, linked to
Anglo-Spanish War
Poverty and poor relief 1598 Rebels victorious at the Battle of Yellow Ford; Tyrone
The increase in the numbers of poor impelled further measures and allies controlled most of Ireland ‘beyond the
to relieve poverty, since destitution and vagrancy were seen as Pale’ (with Spanish support)
potential sources of crime and disorder: 1599 Earl of Essex sent to Ireland as Lord Lieutenant.
• 1572 – Act required local ratepayers to pay a rate for the Essex made a truce with Tyrone (against orders)
relief of their own poor. and returned to court; on expiration of the truce,
• 1576 – Act required towns to make provision for Tyrone moved south, hoping to link up with a
employment for the deserving poor. Spanish army
• 1597/8 – Act provided a code for poor relief establishing 1601 Over 3000 Spanish troops landed in support of the
overseers of the poor. rebellion; rebels were defeated by the new Lord
• 1601 Elizabethan Poor Law – created a national system Lieutenant, Lord Mountjoy
for poor relief based on the parish (poor relief would be 1603 Peace concluded, following Elizabeth’s death
conducted on a local basis until 1929):

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

difficult to enforce Protestantism. The behaviour of English Religious Religious/succession-

incomers and the frequent use of martial law soured relations related
The north was
with the Irish lords. religiously more The presence of Mary, Queen
conservative of Scots in England gave
The troubles were a financial drain on the English Crown as well than the south hopes for an alternative
and disliked future
as destroying and impoverishing much of Ireland, leaving a legacy the Elizabethan (A sub-conspiracy would have
of bitterness among the native population. settlement brought about a marriage
between Mary, Queen of
Scots and the Duke of Norfolk
Wales Motives – Westmorland’s brother-in-
law)
By Elizabeth’s reign, Wales was well integrated into England, for Northern
although some linguistic and cultural differences remained. Rebellion,
• The Council of Wales and the Marches continued to police 1569–70
the border so conflict there was no longer an issue.
• The Welsh language (widely spoken among the Welsh Political
people) was no longer used in government. Nevertheless, Leaders resented
their exclusion Economic
the Book of Common Prayer and the Bible were translated
from their The north was
into Welsh, and Welsh dictionaries and grammars were traditional economically
published. aristocratic role in deprived, breeding
the north resentments
• Much of Wales remained poor.

Scotland
For the most part, England remained on reasonable terms with
The rebels marched as far as York, before heading northwards
Scotland, where the Protestant Lords of the Congregation held
again and taking Barnard Castle, in the county of Durham.
sway.
However, they suffered from a lack of clear objectives,
When rebellion broke out in the north of England in 1569, some disorganisation and poor leadership. They did not get a mass
of the English rebel leaders evaded capture by escaping into popular following and they failed to gain foreign support.
Scotland. Moreover, when the grip on power of the Protestant The Crown acted decisively and sent a force north, at which
lords in Scotland was uncertain, the English position was less the earls disbanded their forces and fled into Scotland. A
secure. Nevertheless, order was mostly maintained by the subsequent rebellion in Cumberland was also put down.
border lords while the Council of the North based in York also
The government ordered mass executions of the rebels;
tried to curb lawlessness on the border.
Northumberland was executed in 1572 and Westmorland
exiled to the Spanish Netherlands. The Crown took over the
Social discontent and rebellions rebel leaders’ lands.
The rebellion revealed the London government’s lack of
Elizabeth’s reign was mostly a period of social stability. comprehension of the differences between north and south
However, there was still religious division, particularly after and of the problems of managing the localities. The Council
Elizabeth’s excommunication in 1570 which ultimately led of the North was reconstituted in 1572, under the Earl of
to the introduction of the recusancy laws in 1593. These Huntingdon, an outsider with no local ties, who owed his
imposed punishments on those who refused to attend influence entirely to Elizabeth. Otherwise, the Crown mostly
Anglican services. relied here, as elsewhere, on the Lord Lieutenants and JPs who
There was also economic discontent which led to sporadic took responsibility for defence and order.
food riots. The ‘Oxfordshire rising’ of 1596, for example, was
provoked by high food prices after a harvest failure. It was led SUMMARY
by four men who were desperate enough to seize weapons and
march on London. The authorities responded harshly to such • The structure of society changed little under Elizabeth,
incidents, although they were genuinely concerned about the except that the gentry class increased in size and wealth
poor, giving rise to the poor law legislation. and a consumer class began to arise from the landed,
mercantile and professional classes.
• The gap between rich and poor continued to widen, but
The Northern Rebellion, 1569–70 a succession of poor laws attempted to alleviate poverty
The Northern Rebellion took place mainly in Durham and the by introducing nationwide measures for poor relief.
North Riding of Yorkshire in 1569, with a subsequent rising in • The kingdom was generally peaceable and social order
Cumberland in 1570. It was headed by the leading northern was maintained, although repeated rebellion in Ireland
nobility, the earls of Northumberland and Westmorland, and proved difficult and costly.
was largely a ‘noble’ rebellion. Motives included those shown in • The only serious rebellion, the Northern Rebellion
the following diagram. of 1569–70, was geographically limited and quickly
suppressed.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Define the following words and terms, in relation to Elizabethan society, and write a sentence to Using these terms
show your understanding of each in context: correctly in an exam
• vagrancy question will help
you to demonstrate
• undeserving/impotent poor your understanding
• martial law of key concepts.
• almshouses
• house of correction
• poor relief
• parish

ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW EXAMINER TIP

Never assume the
A ‘Rebellion sparked by religious belief was more dangerous to rulers than courtly reader shares your
LEVEL
conspiracies in the years 1536 to 1569.’ Assess the validity of this view.
understanding
a Underline the key words and dates in this question. Which terms will require clarification? of key words in
essay questions.
b Below is a two-column plan, with a row for each of the 4 monarchs: In this essay you
would need to
Rebellion sparked by Courtly conspiracies clarify how you will
religious belief judge whether an
action/ behaviour is
‘dangerous’.

1536–47
REVIEW
For the various
rebellions and
courtly conspiracies,
look back to Chapter
1547–53
10 for the Pilgrimage
of Grace, Chapters
13–14 for opposition
in the time of
Edward VI, Chapter
15 for details of
1553–58
Mary’s reign as
well as this chapter
for the Northern
Rebellion.

1558–69

• Record in the chart examples of each of the 2 forms of opposition and whether these posed a
significant threat or not.
• Decide which type of opposition posed the greater danger.
• Make a judgement and write an introduction to this essay, setting out your view and clarifying
what you understand as ‘dangerous to rulers’.

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW

A ‘Rebellions against Tudor rulers were totally ineffective in the years 1536 to 1569.’
LEVEL
Assess the validity of this view.

Whatever judgement you choose to adopt in response to an essay question, you will always need to
show ‘supported’ argument in your essay. Comments should be supported by relevant, precise and
specific evidence.
a Support each of the following arguments with at least two pieces of evidence:
• Rebellions were ineffective.
• Rebellions had some effect.
b Choose an example from the evidence you provided in part a, and write a supported paragraph
to this essay based on the argument you find most convincing. You could argue either way, but
your paragraph should use the evidence you would have included in your essay to back the
argument.

PLAN YOUR ESSAY EXAMINER TIP

Be careful in cases
A To what extent was the transformation of society under Elizabeth I accomplished like this where
LEVEL
without any social disorder? there are 2 terms
This will activity help you write a conclusion to an essay. When you answer an essay question, make to assess – in this
sure you leave enough time to write a conclusion that provides a substantiated judgement. case, social disorder
and transformation.
a Provide 2–3 pieces of evidence to substantiate each of the following judgements: Make sure that
both elements are
addressed in your
answer.

There was a ‘transformation of society’

under Elizabeth

There was not a ‘transformation of society’

under Elizabeth

There was no social disorder

There was social disorder

b Write a conclusion to this essay based on one of these 4 judgements. Make sure your conclusion
summarises the arguments you would have made in your essay.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

22 Economic development in Elizabethan England

RECAP
Trade
Trade grew considerably during Elizabeth’s reign. Nevertheless, foreign trade was surpassed in value
by internal trade. For example, although export of coal to France increased, there was an even greater
growth in the shipping of coal from the River Tyne to the River Thames to supply the London market.
External trade involved:
• a flourishing cloth trade with the Netherlands: however, in the 1580s, the main markets for
English wool moved from the southern to the northern Netherlands, as William Cecil encouraged
trade with (Protestant) Amsterdam rather than with Antwerp which was under (Catholic) Spanish
control
• a broadening of overseas markets: there was an increase in trade with the Ottoman Empire;
trade links were established with India and trading routes extended into Russia; a wider range of
foreign luxury goods was imported in return
• three expeditions by John Hawkins: to Guinea, in Africa, from 1562; he acquired slaves to
transport to South America in exchange for other goods, and was backed by London merchants
and prominent courtiers, including the Earl of Leicester; Elizabeth gave support (selling ships),
but the third expedition suffered a Spanish blockade in Mexico in 1568 – Hawkins’s activities
worsened relations with Spain, but even Elizabeth saw the potential gains in riches abroad
• the formation of a number of trading companies: these had varying degrees of success in
widening England’s trading interests (see table).

Date Company Area(s) with which it Degree of success

was set up to trade
1555 (under Muscovy Company Russia and northern Failed in the long term to
Mary I) Europe compete effectively with the
Dutch
1579 Eastland Company Baltic Had limited success
1581 Turkish Company (became Ottoman Empire Reasonably successful
the Levant Company)
1600 East India Company Asia In the short term, found it
difficult to compete with the
better-funded Dutch East
India Company

By 1603, these were still relatively modest organisations. However, there was a significant change in
that all except the Eastland Company were joint-stock companies owned by their shareholders – this
model would determine future capitalist development.

Exploration and colonisation

Colonial activity in North America was inspired by different events, as shown in the following diagram.

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

Causes

1580: Return of Sir Francis Explorer Humphrey 1584: Charter granted to Raleigh’s success in gaining
Drake from a three-year Gilbert and clergyman Sir Walter Raleigh (Gilbert’s investment from Sir Francis
circumnavigation of the Richard Hakluyt, author half-brother), to establish Walsingham and others
globe; this showed the of A Discourse of Western English control over
potential of sail and the Planting (1584); both territory in North America
opportunity to acquire new highlighted the potential of
trading lands North America

1584 – expedition to Roanoke Island

Foundation of colony named Virginia (in honour of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen)

Results

Further expeditions, 1585 and 1587; all failed to establish a Problems of native hostility and insufficient support from
permanent settlement England, which was embroiled in war with Spain

Prosperity and depression

Prosperity
• Agricultural production increased overall (although bad harvests provided interruptions to this
trend).
• Cloth-making in rural areas increased; but some old-established cloth towns, such as Stamford
and Winchester, declined.
• New urban settlements developed, thriving on a broad range of manufacture (e.g. Manchester
and Plymouth).
• London grew and provided a market for internal goods (e.g. coal from Newcastle upon Tyne).
• Shipbuilding and its associate ports grew and prospered with the growth of trade.
• The south-east flourished, followed closely by Norfolk, Suffolk and the ‘inner West Country’
counties of Somerset, Gloucestershire and Wiltshire. (The poorest counties were those of the
north and in the West Midlands.)
• Legislation to regulate trade and industry proliferated. This was a sign of the government’s
awareness that the taxes and duties which could be levied on manufacturers brought wealth to
the country as a whole:
• Acts to regulate trade in cloth, leather, coal, iron, grain and timber
• two Navigation Acts to promote the use of English ships
• Statute of Artificers (1563), to fix prices, regulate wages, restrict workers’ freedom of movement
and control apprenticeships (this replaced a number of the functions of the old guilds).

Depression
Despite the many signs of growing prosperity, harvest failure could be disastrous; four successive
bad harvests 1594–97 led to some serious poverty. By 1596 real wages had collapsed to less than half
the level of nine years earlier, and 1596–97 saw a subsistence crisis. Distress was widespread, but
particularly bad in the far north, where people died of starvation, both in remote rural areas and in
Newcastle (to which the poor and needy from further afield gravitated).

SUMMARY
• During Elizabeth’s reign trade increased and its patterns changed, with mixed success.
• Prosperity and depression varied across the country, with the north of the country faring less
well than the more prosperous south.

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APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Based on the previous 2 chapters, summarise the results of economic change in the years 1558–1603 This table would
using the following table. be useful for an
essay addressing
consequence and
Trade Exploration and Industry Agriculture demanding an
colonisation evaluation of the
nature of economic
development. It
is important that
you can follow
developments over
an extended period
Successes and for breadth essays.
achievements

REVIEW
You may find it
Failures and
helpful to look back
limitations
at Chapter 20.

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Look at the summary table you have just compiled of the results of the economic changes 1558–
1603. Then look back the social changes described in Chapter 21.
a Make a list of the key social changes on the left hand side of a sheet of paper.
b Then on the right hand side write which economic changes might link with them.

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

EXTRACT ANALYSIS

EXTRACT A

The cities were filled with poor who led passive, unpleasant lives. Rogues and unemployment
were accepted as part of the seamier side of life. The unemployed were deemed potentially
dangerous and both local and national authorities took action accordingly. Ultimately it was
accepted that responsibility must be taken for the all the poor including the able-bodied,
but the numbers rarely exceeded five per cent of the population. Those that were supported
were absolutely destitute. Many others were kept from this state by charitable bequests or
loan funds for tradesmen set up by wealthy townsmen. Merchant interest dominated in this
area and it stemmed from a mixture of pangs of conscience and fears of social disturbance.
Whatever the key motive, the government was in control of the situation. It was only at times
of dire distress that the average working man reacted violently and this was usually within
reasonable bounds. Both poverty and vagrancy were fairly well contained and did not create
a dangerous national situation.
Adapted from John Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England, 1971

Read the extract.

a Look at the list of statements below: does the extract support or oppose each of them?
• Poverty was prevalent in Tudor towns.
• The government always accepted the need to take responsibility to help the unemployed.
• Merchants acted purely out of fear of threats to their social position.
• Charity kept many people out of destitution.
• The poor were out of control in the Tudor period.
• Poverty was addressed both at the local and the national level.
• The poor behaved with a surprising lack of violence.
b Explain the overall argument of the extract in relation to poverty and vagrancy in Tudor times
and find 1 piece of contextual evidence to support and 1 to challenge this argument.

KEY QUESTION REVISION SKILLS

One of the Key Questions asks: You may find it
useful to equip
How did English society and economy change and with what effects?
yourself with sheets
a Create a mind-map to show how English society and economy changed during Elizabeth’s reign. of A3 paper and
Colour code your map to indicate which changes were largely beneficial (green) and those which card, for producing
were harmful (red). mind-maps like
b Use your diagram to assess the extent of social and economic change and write a three-sentence this, so that you
summary. have plenty of
space to write what
you want. These
can then serve as
posters in your
workroom.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

23 Religious developments and the ‘Golden Age’

of Elizabethan culture
RECAP
Religious developments
The majority of the population supported the royal supremacy and after the legislation enacting
the Elizabethan religious settlement of 1559, there was broad acceptance of the ‘via media’. Most
worshippers accepted the changes which occurred in their parishes as churches lost some of their
statuary and plate, and plain Communion tables were erected. It is hard to know how ordinary people
felt about all this and the more rural the community, the more conservative it was likely to be. However,
there were some who had strong religious convictions and actively worked against the settlement.
These included:
• recusants (Catholics who paid fines rather than attend Anglican services)
• Puritans (a new group, opposed to all Catholic practices, which emerged in the 1560s).
From 1570, when the Pope excommunicated Elizabeth, the English Church became more Protestant
and those who failed to conform could be punished. Nevertheless, a Puritan faction grew and
contained:
• Presbyterians, whose ideas derived from Calvinism and who wanted to remove the bishops
• Separatists, who were dissatisfied with the pace of Protestant reform and wanted to go further.
Similarly, the Catholic faction became more active:
• it linked up with movements on the continent for counter-reformation in the 1570s and 1580s
• it supported the activities of English priests trained abroad (e.g. at Douai from 1568) and Jesuits who
came to England to reconvert it (these were harshly treated by the authorities).
Harsh penal laws against Catholics and the 1588 defeat of the Spanish Armada, which reduced the
perceived threat of Catholicism, helped Puritans reconcile themselves to the Elizabethan settlement
in the later years of Elizabeth’s reign. By the time of the queen’s death in 1603, religion was no longer a
serious political issue and the ‘godly’ Puritans were accepted within the Church.

Religion in
England in 1560s

Anglicans Puritans Catholics

Accepted religious Wanted further reform Tolerated until 1570
settlement to remove remaining Increasingly persecuted
‘Catholic’ practices after 1570 and
practised in secret

Presbyterians Separatists
Wanted greater reliance Small, extreme sect
on the Scriptures for Wanted to separate
church authority, and an entirely from the
end to the office of bishop established Church

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

Puritanism Separatism
Puritanism arose after the 1563 Convocation of Canterbury Separatism was the most extreme form of Puritanism. Its
failed to go further in its reform of the Church. adherents wanted to separate from the Church of England
altogether and create independent church congregations,
1566: the Vestiarian controversy occurred when
without the queen as Supreme Governor.
Archbishop Parker issued his Advertisements making
certain vestments compulsory. This angered some The movement emerged in the 1580s but had only small
Protestants (Puritans), particularly in London, and some followings, for example in Norwich and London.
Puritan ministers were deprived of their livings.
1593: Act against Seditious Sectaries (members of sects
1583: Archbishop of Canterbury, John Whitgift issued Three which had separated from the Church of England) brought
Articles. These demanded acceptance from the clergy of: arrests of separatists. The leaders of the London movement
were tried and executed for circulating ‘seditious books’.
• the royal supremacy
• the prayer book
• the Thirty-Nine Articles.
Few Puritan clergy were prepared to break with the Catholicism
Church by refusing the Three Articles. Initially, Catholics were tolerated but:
1595: The Lambeth Articles, approved by Whitgift, • they had to pay recusancy fines if they failed to attend
reaffirmed the fundamentally Calvinist beliefs of the Anglican services (many outwardly conformed, despite
Church of England and proved acceptable to both their inner beliefs)
Puritans and their opponents. • all (except one) Catholic bishops refused to conform to
the 1559 Oath of Supremacy
• many Catholic intellectuals went into exile; some priests
survived as private chaplains to Catholic nobles.
1571: Following Elizabeth’s excommunication (1570), the
publication of papal bulls in England became treasonable.
Presbyterianism 1575–85: Catholic priests trained abroad came to England
Presbyterianism was a Puritan sub-set which developed to uphold and spread Catholicism. They operated in
after the Vestiarian Controversy. It attracted some important secret from the country houses of Catholic gentry and
supporters, including the Earl of Huntingdon and the Earl of aristocracy. Some were trained at a new college in Douai
Leicester, but was generally a fringe movement in London, (Spanish Netherlands), from 1568.
the south-east and parts of the East Midlands.
1580: Jesuit priests also arrived, led by Robert Parsons
1572: The Admonition to Parliament by John Field and and Edmund Campion. (The latter was captured and
Thomas Wilcox (London clergymen) demanded greater executed in 1581.)
reliance on the authority of the Scriptures and church
1581: Act to Retain the Queen’s Majesty’s Subjects in their
government by ministers and elders rather than bishops.
Due Obedience made:
(Its authors were imprisoned.)
• non-allegiance to the queen or Church of England
1583: Some Presbyterians stood out against the Three Articles.
treasonable
1584 and 1587: Peter Turner and Anthony Cope, • saying Mass punishable by a heavy fine and imprisonment
respectively, introduced bills in Parliament to replace the • the fine for non-attendance at church £20 per month.
Book of Common Prayer with a new prayer book stripped
The missions had limited success. Fifteen Catholic priests
of ‘popish’ elements. Neither bill was passed.
were executed in 1581–82 and a further Act in 1585 made
Late 1580s: Presbyterianism declined as Parliament’s it treasonable for Catholic priests to enter England.
rejection of Cope’s proposed prayer book suggested Catholicism became more of a ‘country-house religion’
further reform was unlikely. than the popular faith it had been in the 1560s.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

The culmination of the English Renaissance and the ‘Golden Age’

of art, literature and music
Many aspects of English culture flourished in Elizabethan England. The patronage of queen, courtiers,
nobility and gentry ensured that the arts thrived. Some courtiers, such as Sir Philip Sidney and Sir
Walter Raleigh, even composed poetry themselves. Many of the arts celebrated the Virgin Queen. Plays,
paintings and literature became propaganda for Elizabeth, who was sometimes known as ‘Gloriana’.
The ‘high’ culture of the elites also transformed popular culture. Increased educational opportunities
led to the emergence of a literate audience, and Shakespeare’s plays, for example, appealed to all
sections of society.
Around 30 grammar schools were established in Elizabeth’s reign and increasing numbers of young
noblemen attended Oxford and Cambridge – not necessarily to acquire a degree but to perfect their
cultural education. (This replaced the more traditional ‘apprenticeships’ in the household of another
noble.) It was in such a context that the Elizabethan ‘Golden Age’ was able to flourish.

Miniature
portraits
The most distinctive
Portrait feature of Elizabethan Drama
painting painting; influential In London,
Remained important painters included public theatres
(sitters included the Hilliard and Oliver such as the Globe and
queen, courtiers, and the Swan competed for
members of the gentry plays by dramatists such as
and mercantile Shakespeare and Marlowe,
classes) who also had plays performed
Art at Court
Theatre companies, e.g. The
Lord Chamberlain’s men (for
whom Shakespeare wrote),
Country house- enjoyed support of
building courtiers
Architects (e.g.
Smythson) became
important

Architecture Literature

Popular
music
Instrumental music
and song thrived
Official bands in many
towns Music
Ballads and drinking
songs (often bawdy)
popular
Prose and poetry
Prose literature less
widely read (though many
Puritans read Foxe’s ‘Book of
Secular music Martyrs’)
Flourished, especially Two most important writers
at court were Sir Philip Sidney (Arcadia)
Included madrigals (part-songs and Edmund Spenser
for mixed-voice choirs), e.g. by (The Faerie Queen)
Morley and Weelkes – notably the Religious music Sidney aimed to modernise
1601 ‘Triumph of Oriana’ honouring Preserved by Elizabeth in the the English language; he
the queen face of Protestant reform also revived the sonnet
More intimate music (e.g. for lute Church music produced by Tallis in English poetry
and solo voice) provided by and Byrd (Byrd also composed
Dowland, with Renaissance in secret for Catholic patrons)
overtones

SUMMARY
• By the end of Elizabeth’s reign England had been transformed both religiously and culturally.
• Religious disagreements between religious conservatives and those who wanted further reform
(the Puritans) had subsided, while Catholicism survived essentially as a minority religion. The
Elizabethan Church was generally accepted.
• Elizabeth’s reign also demonstrated a great flowering of culture.

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
Copy out the list below and decide which religious group or groups shown in the diagram ‘Religion in It is worth taking
the 1560s’ (page 116) would agree with each statement. time to learn the
• The Church should have bishops. names and beliefs of
the many religious
• There should be a state Church. groups flourishing
• Brightly coloured vestments should not be worn by clerics. in England at this
time. You can then
• The Pope is not the spiritual head of the Church.
use the names with
• The Bible and services should only be in Latin. confidence in your
• The Church should be governed by ministers and lay elders. essays.

KEY QUESTION EXAMINER TIP

One of the Key Questions asks: When considering
change in this
How far did religious ideas change and develop and with what effect?
period of history,
To consider this question, it would be helpful to reflect on the material in this chapter and complete it is always useful
the following chart: to remember that
the religious ideas
Area of impact Influence of religious ideas of individuals and
groups will play
a varying part.
Sometimes they
are the prime
Religious settlement movers of change,
but at other times
they are almost
forgotten and more
circumstantial
factors predominate.
Understanding the
place of religious
ideas can add
weight to your
Foreign policy arguments.

REVIEW
For further detail on
religious ideas, look
back at Chapters 6,
12, 14, 16 and 18.

Popular culture

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 REVISION PROGRESS

KEY QUESTION REVISION SKILLS

One of the Key Questions asks: When revising
the topic of the
How far did intellectual ideas change and develop and with what effect? Elizabethan Golden
Consider this key question again. Age take care to
ensure that the
a Each of the following are ways in which Elizabethan rule encouraged the arts. Write a sentence focus is on historical
to explain each of them: issues rather than
• the context of Elizabethan peace and stability long descriptions of
various works of art.
• patronage
• propaganda.
REVIEW
b Each of the following are alternative reasons to explain the flourishing of the arts. Write a
sentence to explain each : Use your knowledge
gained from Chapters
• growing numbers of schools and increased literacy
18–23, which cover
• demand from all classes. Elizabethan foreign,
social, economic and
c Write a sentence giving your judgement as to whether Elizabeth herself was the main reason or
religious policies,
not for the Elizabethan ‘Golden Age’.
to help you answer
this question. Also,
Chapters 6, 12, 14
and 16 will remind
PLAN YOUR ESSAY you of religious
changes before
A How important were government policies and actions in the decline of Catholicism Elizabeth’s reign.
LEVEL
in England between 1558 and 1603?

When tackling how important a factor was in leading to a historical development, you should ask
yourself – was it very important, not particularly important or not at all important?
You can provide a balanced analysis by considering the ways in which this factor was important and
balancing these comments against the ways it was not – so arriving at a substantiated judgement.
Alternatively, you might want to consider the importance of other factors and compare these with
the factor given in the question. Often you will want to combine the two approaches.
One way of sorting out your ideas is by making a chart like this one:

The decline of Government Weaknesses Tolerance Other

Catholicism policies and of Catholic because of alternative EXAMINER TIP
actions Church ‘via media’ factor All good essays
should show
Important balanced analysis.
Thinking your
essay questions
Not important through carefully
before you begin
writing will enable
Overall you to provide
conclusions sound judgement
and support it
effectively.
a Re-read this chapter and consider the alternative factors you could put forward. You can
add any others in the last column. You will need to re-read Chapters 17 and 18.
b In your chart, insert evidence for ‘important’ and ‘not important’ for each factor, and complete
the last row to show your overall conclusion about each factor.
c Think about the judgement you will put forward based on your completed chart.
d Now write your essay.

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

24 The last years of Elizabeth

RECAP
The political condition of England by 1603
England had enjoyed broadly effective and successful government during most of Elizabeth’s reign.
However, royal authority and the quality of administration declined during the 1590s, because of:
• diminishing talent following the death of Elizabeth’s long-standing ministers (Leicester 1588;
Burghley 1598)
• increasing factional rivalry in government as younger courtiers sought power; the conflict
between Essex and the Cecil faction – involving the Essex ‘rebellion’ of 1601 – illustrated the
problems
• problems of an aging queen who could no longer control her courtiers as effectively as in the past
• anxieties over the succession
• economic problems.
By the time of her death, in 1603, Elizabeth was not as popular as she had been, and the prospect of a
new king was welcomed.

The economic condition of England by 1603

England had enjoyed considerable economic growth during the 16th century, with the expansion of
trade and industry.
By 1603 some of the structures that would contribute to England’s commercial domination within
Europe in the 17th century had been established – e.g. trading companies to challenge Spanish/
Portuguese/ Dutch domination, and the beginnings of an interest in the Americas.
Domestic demand thrived. Cottage industries such as nail making, hosiery, soap manufacturing and
brewing flourished, and total production rose substantially during Elizabeth’s reign.
Although inflation was a problem, the stability of the Elizabethan era did much to aid commercial
prosperity.

The state of society in England by 1603

England remained socially divided, with huge differences in living standards between the wealthy few
and the poor majority. Nevertheless, in contrast with many continental societies, the nobility were
subject to taxation and for the majority of the time, most people could be fed. The lives of those at the
lower end of society were still highly dependent on uncontrollable forces such as the weather, orders
and taxation demands from central government and the localities, and the problems of wartime.
However, many survived through thrift, multiple employments and hard work. There was only one
subsistence crisis, in the 1590s. The distress of those years led to the reforms of the poor law enacted in
1598 and 1601; these limited the worst effects of poverty, at least for the deserving poor.

The state of religion in England by 1603

By the end of Elizabeth’s reign, there was a broad consensus surrounding the Church of England, which
ensured a substantial degree of religious unity.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

Church of England
Catholicism
(Anglican Church)

Most people could

identify with/
accept the
Anglican Church

Popular Catholici Puritanism had fa

sm ded;
had declined most Puritans had
become assimilate
d
within the mainstre
am
Church
English Catholics
divided
between a majority
who
tried to be loyal to
both
Crown and faith an Separatism had
da
minority who soug virtually
ht
a Catholic successio disappeared
n

KEY CHRONOLOGY
Political developments 1563–1603
1563 Statute of Artificers
SUMMARY
1566 Vestiarian Controversy
• By 1603, the glories associated with the earlier years 1569–70 Northern Rebellion
of Elizabeth’s reign had faded and faction-fighting and
rebellion damaged her government.
1570 Pope Pius V excommunicates Elizabeth
• The reign had brought continued economic growth and 1585 Start of Anglo-Spanish War
some social improvement. 1588 Spanish Armada
• Although Elizabeth’s later years saw increased 1601 Poor Law
persecution of Catholics, the Elizabethan religious
1601 Essex ‘rebellion’
settlement came to be widely accepted and the Puritan
threat had been contained. 1603 Death of Elizabeth

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 THE TRIUMPH OF ELIZABETH, 1563–1603 S B 183–241

APPLY
APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE EXAMINER TIP
To consider the success of Elizabeth I as Queen of England, review the Key Chronology of political This activity will
developments given on page 122. help you to both
a Create 9 revision cards: on each card, write 1 political development, and points to explain the prioritise relevant
development and its significance. Write corresponding date(s) on the back. For example: information and
ensure chronological
Front of the card Back of the card understanding. Both
skills are essential
Development: Date:
for essay questions
What is it? in examinations.
•
•
• REVIEW
Significance:
• To check the
• detail, look back at
• Chapters 18–23.

b Sort the 9 cards into a ‘diamond 9’, ranked by importance for the development of Elizabeth’s
England. REVISION SKILLS
c Re-sort the cards in chronological order to test your understanding. (You will be able to check The ‘diamond 9’
this by turning them over.) is a useful way of
prioritising detail.
Look back to page 53
ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW to remind yourself of
how it works.

A ‘The economy of England was in a much stronger position in 1603 than it had been in
LEVEL
1558.’ Assess the validity of this view.

a Completing the change and continuity chart below will help you to assess the degree to which EXAMINER TIP
the economy was strengthened (or otherwise) between these dates:
Situation Situation In an essay you
in 1558 in 1603 should substantiate
your argument
Trade and commerce: • • with some precise
• • examples. In a
• • Positive
Agriculture: • • changes question like this,
• • it is important to
• • compare directly
Continuity between the dates
given, and distinguish
Trade and commerce: • • between ‘trade and
• • commerce’ and
• •
Agriculture: • • ‘agriculture’.
• •
• •

Trade and commerce: • • REVIEW

• •
Negative • • To remind yourself
changes Agriculture: • • of the economic
• • situation at the
• •
beginning of the
period, look back
at Chapters 16, 18
b Use your diagram to help you to decide whether the economy got stronger, stayed the same, or and 22.
worsened.
c Write a conclusion to this essay, offering a judgement on the view given.

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 REVISION PROGRESS

EXTRACT ANALYSIS REVIEW

To remind yourself
EXTRACT A
of the context of
Elizabeth’s reign,
There were two reigns of Elizabeth I, each with distinctive features. Her ‘first’ reign ended
look again at
about 1585, with the dispatch of an English force to the Netherlands. This reversal of
Chapters 18–23 as
the queen’s non-interventionist policy was followed by the trial and execution of Mary,
well as this chapter.
Queen of Scots, and the outbreak of war with Spain and the French Catholic League.
Mary’s execution resolved one political and constitutional crisis but caused another. The
costs and casualties of the resulting war was high and England was often threatened with
conquest. The crown’s poverty and the competition for patronage kindled factionalism EXAMINER TIP
and sparked Essex’s attempted coup. The turmoil created by rising prices and bad You should spend
harvests caused resistance to the crown’s fiscal and military demands. This triggered around 15 minutes
an authoritarian reaction with an obsessional emphasis on state security and fear of on this exercise.
religious nonconformity. There was also a change of personnel between Elizabeth’s ‘first’ As always, begin
and ‘second’ court with the deaths between 1588 and 1590 of four key men – Leicester, your answer with
Warwick, Mildmay and Walsingham. a summary of the
Adapted from John Guy, The Reign of Elizabeth I: Court and Culture in the Last Decade, 1991 overall argument
and then look at any
sub-arguments. All
a Comprehension: Read the extract carefully. should be supported
and criticised
• Pick out 3 key turning points between the ‘first’ and ‘second’ reign of Elizabeth.
with reference to
• Pick out 2 other references that are factually correct. the text and your
• Summarise the overall view of this extract. own contextual
knowledge, and
b Evaluation: Write an answer to the question: With reference to this extract and your you should arrive
understanding of the historical context, assess how convincing the argument is, in relation to at a substantiated
Elizabeth’s ‘second’ reign (1585 to 1603). judgement.

EXAMINER TIP
These 4 activities
will ensure your
awareness of all
the major elements
of the Component
1 Breadth Study
exam paper:
appreciation of
the Key Questions;
REVISION SKILLS appreciation of key
topic areas; specific
Now that you have completed your revision of The Tudors: England 1485–1603, you should extend
understanding of
and add to the revision activities suggested in this guide to encompass the whole of the content.
chronology linked to
These are:
the major themes.
• Key Question cards (Chapter 1).
• Revision chart of change and continuity – adapt the general subject headings to each
monarch’s period, e.g. ‘Society in the reign of ...’ instead of ‘English society at the end of the
15th century’ (Chapter 6). REVIEW
• Revision chart to show the state of the country in 1553, 1558 and 1603 (Chapter 8).
You will need to look
• Colour coded thematic timeline (Chapter 16).
back through the
whole of the Revision
Guide to complete
these activities.

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EXAM PRACTICE

A Level extracts sample answer

REVISION PROGRESS

REVIEW
On these Exam Practice pages, you will find a sample student answer for an A Level extracts question.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the answer? Read the answer and the corresponding
Examiner Tips carefully. Think about how you could apply this advice in order to improve your own
answers to questions like this one.

Using your understanding of the historical context, assess how convincing the REVISION SKILLS
A
LEVEL
arguments in these three extracts are in relation to Elizabeth I’s rule in England. The A Level exam
30 marks paper will have one
extracts question
which you must
EXTRACT A
answer. It will be
Elizabeth brought real dramatic talent to the role of Virgin Queen and freed herself from some of made up of three
the restrictions of her sex. But the production in which she starred ran for 45 years: she had no extracts with
understudy and she had to appear in every show; it was a constant strain. Her performances were different views on
not flawless; she disliked her part in her early years when she hoped to marry Dudley; she was bored a common theme.
with it in 1579 when she thought of marrying Alençon, and she could not quite carry it off in her last This question is
decade. She lost confidence in the interpretation of the part in 1585 and allowed her leading man to worth 30 marks
persuade her into a more aggressive version for foreign audiences. But hers was an award-winning unlike the essays
performance. The metaphor of drama is an appropriate one for Elizabeth’s reign, for her power was which are each
an illusion. She projected an image of herself which brought stability and prestige to her country. worth 25 marks.
Unlike the AS
Adapted from Christopher Haigh, Elizabeth I, 1988
extracts question,
you do not need to
EXTRACT B compare the value
of the extracts but
It is easy to be taken in by Elizabeth’s love of theatricality. Elizabeth’s political aims and style of
simply comment,
government were more complex than her image makers and admirers have admitted. In addition,
in turn, on how
her popularity with her subjects can no longer be taken for granted, especially during the last
convincing the
decade of her reign. Nonetheless her achievement as a ruler should not be underestimated. Despite
arguments are.
enormous difficulties and several major crises, she survived as monarch with her Protestant
Look back at page 6
religious settlement intact, while her realm was preserved from successful invasion and the
for details on how to
civil wars which afflicted her neighbours, Scotland, France and the Netherlands. Fifteen years of
master the extracts
warfare created stresses certainly but not the financial collapse or large scale political unrest which
question.
often came in the wake of war. The stability and security which England enjoyed owed much to
Elizabeth’s firm but flexible leadership, and her conservative and relatively cautious policies.
Adapted from Susan Doran, ‘Elizabeth I’, The Historian (No. 54), 1997

EXTRACT C
In the making of the cult, images and presentation were as important as policies and patronage.
Elizabeth certainly capitalised on all the qualities commonly attributed to her sex and the court
was the natural setting for the cult of Gloriana with its conspicuous displays in the queen’s honour.
The queen was also always anxious to reach out to the nation at large, hence the royal progresses.
It is certainly true that many contemporaries equated the monarch’s fame with the emergent
English nation. After the triumph over the Armada, Elizabeth I became enshrined in the myths of
the Virgin Queen and Gloriana, as the symbol of England’s greatness. However, there is more to
the successes of Elizabethan England than Elizabeth’s leadership. Moreover, England in 1603 still
had unresolved constitutional problems between queen and Parliament and grave economic
difficulties with over 40 per cent of the population living below subsistence level. The queen’s
subjects had suffered unrelieved taxation for two decades, so the Elizabethan age ended for many
in despair and disillusionment.
Adapted from John McGurk, The Tudor Monarchies 1485–1603, 2010

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 REVISION PROGRESS

Sample student answer EXAMINER TIP

Extract A argues that the queen relied on drama during her This identifies (at least in part) the interpretation
in the extract and applies some contextual
rule in England. It claims that her image brought ‘stability and own knowledge to consider its strengths and
prestige’ to the country despite occasions when she failed to live limitations. However, it is slim in relation to the
content of the extract and the limitations are
up to her role. Certainly, Elizabeth relied on image, as shown by
purely seen in terms of what is omitted. There is
the mass manufacture of her portrait as the Virgin Queen, and her also no overall judgement given.
ability to make effective speeches was shown at Tilbury before the
Armada and by the Golden Speech in the previously disastrous
last Parliament of 1601. However, Elizabethan rule depended on
more than this. Walsingham prevented many Catholic plots against
her. Her armed forces were successful against the Spanish and the
Irish rebels at the end of her reign. The extract is persuasive and
illustrates the argument with evidence; but it is limited because
it overlooks other elements which gave the country stability and
prestige.
Extract B argues that stability and security came from
Elizabeth’s ‘firm but flexible leadership’ and her ‘cautious policies’. EXAMINER TIP
It has some balance, admitting her loss of popularity in her later This paragraph misses some key points
years, especially among the Essex faction and those hard pressed in the interpretation and focuses only on
the comments relating to the later years of
by taxation paying heavy taxes on monopolies. It is true that the Elizabeth’s reign. It offers some own knowledge
last fifteen years of warfare exacerbated her problems. However, to support and criticise but, again, much is left
unsaid and undeveloped.
these were due to a decline in her leadership and the dominance
of the Privy Council which implemented the death warrant for
Mary, Queen of Scots and pushed Elizabeth into war with the
Dutch. So, while this extract is well supported by evidence, it
provides only a limited explanation of circumstances by the end of
her reign.
Extract C takes a negative view of Elizabeth’s reign. It paints EXAMINER TIP
a gloomy picture of England by 1603, pointing out the economic This shows some understanding of the
and constitutional problems that she left at the end of her reign interpretation of Extract C but the application
of contextual knowledge is limited, and there is
which left many in despair. However, the extract is convincing no explicit criticism of the view given.
because it talks about how the image of Gloriana became a
symbol of England’s greatness, which was certainly the case in,
for example, the paintings produced to glorify England’s victory
against the Armada. It suggests images and presentation were as
important as policies, which may be an exaggeration but which is
corroborated by knowledge of Elizabeth’s popularity in her earlier
years. The decline in image would therefore seem to account for
the deterioration in her rule after the Armada.

126
 EXAM PRACTICE: A LEVEL EXTRACTS SAMPLE ANSWER

OVERALL COMMENT
This answer shows some awareness of how to respond to the question and some understanding of
what each extract has to say. However, it is very limited in development. The overall interpretation
of each extract is not succinctly defined at the beginning of each evaluation so it is not always clear
that the whole extract has been properly understood. There should also have been reference to
sub-arguments and interpretations. Still more importantly, very little contextual own knowledge
has been used to assess the strengths and limitations of the extracts in relation to the question. This
answer would therefore be placed in Level 3.

OVER TO YOU
Take 5 minutes to read and plan your answer and 50 minutes to write it. Then review your answer
using the following checklist. Have you:
Identified the overall interpretation of each extract at the beginning of each evaluation?
Identified sub-arguments and interpretations?
Referred explicitly to the detail in the extracts?
Applied your own knowledge to support and to criticise interpretations?
Given a clear judgement on how convincing the argument is at the end of each of the three
evaluations?
Now check Chapters 17–24, especially Chapter 23. Are the details in your answer factually accurate?
Have you missed any issues you should have raised?

127
 Activities: Suggested answers
The answers provided here are examples, based on the information provided in the Recap sections of this Revision Guide. There may be other factors which are relevant to each
question, and you should draw on as much own knowledge as possible to give detailed and precise answers. There are also many ways of answering exam questions (for example, of
structuring an essay). However, these suggested answers should provide a good starting point.

Chapter 1 prerogative rights – rights or powers which Key Question

the monarch could exercise without requiring the
You should create 1 flashcard for each individual.
Apply Your Knowledge consent of Parliament
personal monarchy – a monarchy in which
Problem:
the political power and influence of an individual
A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View
• Yorkist opponents depended on their relationship with the monarch Was Henry VII an expert financial manager?
• Few allies in important positions Chamber – the private areas of the court; also a Yes:
• Weak claim to the throne key department for the efficient collection of royal
• Replaced Court of Exchequer by the Chamber
revenues; remodelled in 1495 into the Privy Chamber
Actions: • Revived feudal dues
Privy Chamber – created by Henry VII, the close
• Henry dated his reign from the day before Bosworth • Gained income from effective foreign policy
personal servants of the monarch; its members had
so those who had fought against him could be
direct access to the monarch • Used bonds and recognisances
treated as traitors under Acts of Attainder.
Act of Attainder – an act declaring a landowner No:
• Henry appointed his main supporters to key positions.
guilty of rebelling against the monarch • Empson and Dudley’s financial expertise important
• Henry arrested the Earl of Warwick, he was crowned
tonnage and poundage – the right to raise Should Henry be praised for increasing royal income?
before Parliament met to show his claim was by
revenue for the whole reign from imports and
hereditary right, and he married Elizabeth of York to Yes:
exports
exploit the union of the houses of Lancaster and York.
extraordinary revenue – money raised by the • Made Crown more independent of Parliament by
not needing to call it for raising taxes
A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View king from additional sources as one-off payments
when he faced an unforeseeable expense of • Left no debts for son
Factors to show that Henry’s claim was insecure: government No:
• There were always other claimants to the throne feudalism/feudal aid – medieval system by
who launched rebellions and de la Pole was at large. • Provoked rebellions
which the nobility held lands from the Crown,
• While the children of Henry had a strong claim originally in exchange for military service; feudal • Alienated nobility – his main supporters
through having Elizabeth as their mother, Henry’s aid was the right of the Crown to tax tenants for Conclusion: An expert financial manager but
own claim was unaltered and insecure. the knighting of the eldest son, the marriage of the prioritised increasing finances over political security
Factors to show that Henry’s claim became secure: eldest daughter or to ransom a lord which may not deserve praise

• Many of the rival claimants were killed or imprisoned b These terms could be used to explain and comment Your judgements might suggest:
by 1506. on political authority and government (courtier, • Henry was an efficient financial manager – he
magnate, prerogative rights, personal monarchy, appointed Empson and Dudley and ‘managed’
• Henry’s marriage to Elizabeth of York strengthened Chamber, Privy Chamber, Act of Attainder,
his claim as unifying the 2 houses. finances.
feudalism), maintenance of law and order (bonds
Changes that occurred during Henry’s reign and recognisances, Act of Attainder) and Crown • Financial benefits may be outweighed by the
revenue (tonnage and poundage, extraordinary political problems; if Henry’s methods caused
• Henry married Elizabeth of York in 1486 rebellions, they may be considered to be counter-
revenue, feudal aid).
• Earl of Lincoln defeated and killed at the Battle of productive –provoking discontent and rebellion.
Stoke in 1487 AS
LEVEL Plan Your Essay • Whether Henry deserves praise depends on your
• Perkin Warbeck was executed in 1499 view of what was important to the king.
a Successes of financial policies:
• Edmund de la Pole was made Henry’s prisoner in 1506 Try to support your judgement with precise evidence.
• Revenue from Crown lands increased
AS
LEVEL Improve an Answer • Profits from feudal dues increased (increase in Chapter 3
profits from wardships, feudal aid granted in 1504)
Answer 2 is the better example because:
• Revenue increased from customs revenue Apply Your Knowledge
• it avoids narrative description (tonnage and poundage), pensions from other
• it begins with a clear comment on the question powers, profits of justice (including fines and 1485–95: Anglo-Scottish relations were tense – poor
• it contains clear and wide-ranging information with income from bonds) 1495–96: James IV provided a small army to invade
further analytical comment. Failures of financial policies: England – close to bottom line
• Henry’s financial demands made him unpopular 1497: Truce of Ayton – neutral
Revision Skills with landowners upon whom he depended for 1502: Truce of Ayton – a little better than neutral
You should produce your own set of revision cards for support
1503: James IV married Margaret Tudor – strong
this activity. • Caused disagreement with Parliament (in
1504, had to agree not to raise any more funds A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View
Chapter 2 through extraordinary revenue)
a You should produce a mind-map for this activity. For
• Weakened government (Empson and Dudley
an example of a good mind-map see pages 12 and 64.
Apply Your Knowledge unpopular with other key ministers)
b You may conclude that dynastic motives outweighed
• Raising of extraordinary revenue helped cause
a courtier – a person who attends a royal court as a economic ones, as Henry was willing to jeopardise
rebellions in 1489 and 1497
companion or adviser to the monarch economic motives for dynastic goals as in Burgundy.
Issues raised:
magnate – a member of the higher ranks of the
nobility • Financial issues (increase in Crown’s finances) A
LEVEL Improve an Answer
bonds and recognisances – a bond bound an • Political issues (unpopularity of Henry and his Some of the problems with this answer:
individual to behave in a certain way, or to pay a ministers, tensions with Parliament)
• Overall it is too dogmatic and generalised – it lacks
sum of money if they failed to do so; a recognisance • Social issues (social distress, leading to rebellion) balance and precision.
acknowledged a debt or other obligation which
b You should use the points you have identified in
could incur a financial penalty
part a of this activity to help you plan your essay.

128
 ACTIVITIES: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

• The first sentence refers to the question partly but • The Church had its own courts. • The Intercursus Magna and treaties like that with
suggests that there will be no examination of • Leading churchmen such as Morton and Fox were Spain did open up trade. However, the openings he
other aims. important government administrators. forged with Venice for example were very limited.
• Precise supporting evidence is lacking – which • The Church had a major spiritual role in people’s • Increasing customs revenue was a key aim of
marriages? When? Was the future Henry VIII always everyday lives via the parish church. Henry VII’s as part of trying to make himself
the succession he was considering? Also the ‘twice’ financially secure.
section is not precise. Examples of the nobility’s importance to society:
• England was a much smaller state than Spain
• Its claims are too broad – for example, ‘all of the • Nobility served the Crown as part of government. and so it was likely on pure size it would be
leading powers in Europe’. Scotland was not a • The 50–60 leading peers sat in the House of Lords. smaller. This may not be a fair criticism.
leading power and no marriage involved the HRE. • They controlled important regional councils on the • Dynastic concerns did dominate foreign policy;
• It mostly focuses on the question at the end but is borders. however generally Henry did assist economic
too assertive and there is some drift. • They were higher in the feudal system than the growth and was far more proactive than his
gentry. predecessors or immediate successors.
Key Question • They were large landowners and wealthy. Extract B summary: Henry’s policies showed
1485–1509: ‘economic wisdom’ that allowed further economic
• They had military power. growth. His main policies were to concentrate trade
• Brittany: Allowed to become part of France for in English ships and to expand international trade.
dynastic and financial reasons A
LEVEL Plan Your Essay When he failed to achieve fixed traditional trading
• Burgundy/Netherlands/HRE: Improved – trading Key points might include: rates for English merchants he used treaties to gain
agreement trade with individual countries. His investments in
• Both were important politically – they held leading
• France: Improved – financial gains the cloth trade increased trade and tax revenue.
political positions in the regions and were important
• Spain: Improved by marriage but still in the in the House of Lords. • Economic growth did occur but the investment
balance in the alum trade was the only example of
• However, the power of the nobility was under attack
encouraging manufacturing directly
• Scotland: Improved by marriage and treaty from Henry VII with bonds and recognisances, for
example, and churchmen were often used as councillors. • The cloth trade was important and did have an
• Ireland: Improved to having a reasonable level of
economic impact on ordinary people especially in
control • Economically both were very important as major
the South East of England in towns like Lavenham.
The rest of the chart should be completed in a similar landowners.
Extract C summary: Henry did not really have a
fashion. • Both had areas of specific strength – the Church had
policy of ‘economic nationalism’. He did encourage the
a major influence on people’s spiritual lives but the
cloth trade actively but he only acted against foreign
Chapter 4 nobility had potential military power.
merchants for financial or dynastic reasons. His actions
Your judgement may well depend on what you consider ‘greatly assisted’ commercial revival but it made little
AS
LEVEL Apply Your Knowledge was the most important – the spiritual influence of impact to his income from customs.
the Church on everyday life in an age when everyone
a and b Your answer should include examples of • The Hanseatic League dominated trade to the
seems to have been sincere believers, or the military and
both actions which weakened or did not weaken the Baltic and so this was a market which Henry failed
political power of the nobility.
nobility. These could include: to open up.
• The rise in the woollen cloths exported (cited
Reduced noble powers: Chapter 5 in Extract B) supports his view that there was
• Used bonds and recognisances: to make the economic growth.
nobles financially dependent on their good Apply Your Knowledge • Much always depends on how statistics are
behaviour towards the king
a and b Navigation Acts (1485 and 1489): these expressed. As a percentage, customs revenue
• Limited the numbers of retainers: reduced their limited the movement of certain goods to England to increased by 15%; this is far more impressive
power to raise armed forces English vessels to boost shipbuilding and profits for than the way Elton represents the increase.
• Used spying network: made it hard to plot English merchants. b A A good answer will identify the overall
LEVEL

against Henry The embargo on trade with the Netherlands (1493): argument of each extract clearly and will both
• Used lesser magnates to govern: meant the although this harmed trade, Henry wanted to force the support and criticise this argument using relevant
nobles had less control over government rulers of the Netherlands to stop supporting Warbeck. contextual own knowledge. It is also likely to look
• Dated his reign from the day before Bosworth: The depression in the cloth industry (1493–1496): at sub-arguments and interpretations within the
left those lords who had fought against him in a this harmed cloth workers, the merchants and the farmers extract to provide a rounded and convincing
vulnerable position who kept sheep to supply the trade with wool. judgement on ‘how convincing’ the extract is.
AS A good answer will evaluate each extract in
• Used Acts of Attainder to take estates: could be Intercursus Magna (1496): this ended the trade LEVEL

used either to remove the power of magnates or embargo and aimed to open up and regulate trade with the way suggested for A Level but will need a clear
at least threaten to do so Flanders. judgement as to which one is more convincing
based on the detail of the extracts and own
Maintained noble powers: John Cabot’s discovery of Newfoundland (1497): knowledge. Extract A is more balanced than
• Did not create many new peers: preserved the this voyage was intended to find new fishing grounds to Extract B, and its view of the dominance of dynastic
status of existing peers to influence government help Bristol merchants in particular. influences is also supported by the Intercursus Malus
in the House of Lords and ambitious new men Weston’s expedition to the New World (1499): this and the Earl of Suffolk in 1507.
were kept under Henry’s control was another voyage trying to find trading opportunities
c Your judgement is likely to be that the nobility in America. Chapter 6
was weakened during Henry VII’s reign but not Sebastian Cabot’s journey to find a ‘north-west
completely so. passage’ to Asia (1508): this was an attempt to find Apply Your Knowledge
• The nobility retained their political position in a short cut to Asia around the north of America to
encourage trade. Humanists
Parliament.
• were probably few in number as it was only an
• They retained their control over regional A
LEVEL To What Extent? intellectual movement
councils.
You should produce a mind-map for this activity. For an • were drawn from the educated elite
• Most had not lost their estates and so had the
potential to be strong again. example of a good mind-map see pages 12 and 64. • influenced a minority of the educated nobility and
gentry; however, humanists patronised educational
How Important? Extract Analysis institutions which influenced the children of
the wealthy and humanist ideas were spread by
Examples of the Church’s importance to a Extract A summary: Henry’s commercial policy was printing
society: a very limited start to the development of trade. He
did open up new markets but this did not produce Religious orders
• The Church was a great landowner. extra customs revenue for him. Shipping and the • large numbers of men were monks (1% of
• Leading churchmen sat in the House of Lords. cloth trade did expand but they were small-scale in population) or friars
• The Church’s influence varied by area – the Bishop of comparison to other countries. Expansion of trade
Durham controlled a palatinate. was always secondary to dynastic considerations.

129
 • they were drawn from a wide section of society, • Old ideas were also circulated due to education b As well as considering the Pope’s opposition, you
especially friars and printing. would also need to examine other reasons for the
• they were often remote (like Cistercian monasteries) The balance between changes and continuities: break with Rome, including:
or in decline (like the friars) – but the latter did work You should have found it very easy to list 2 continuities. • Henry VIII’s need for a son
among lay people The impact of the changes had not really taken • Henry’s belief that he had religious grounds for
root – yet. Clearly continuity was far more important the divorce
A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View than change under Henry VII.
• Charles V’s control over the Pope and his
a Examples of the Church being stable: relationship to Catherine of Aragon
Revision Skills
• There was no other organised Church in England • Thomas Cromwell’s encouragement
except the Catholic Church. You should produce a chart using your own
judgement to select the most important key facts • Anne Boleyn’s decision to sleep with Henry and
• Its teaching could be seen as a successful form of for each entry. try for a son.
indoctrination and propaganda.
A Plan Your Essay
• It was bolstered by the religious orders which
included large numbers of people.
Chapter 7 LEVEL

a Enforcing law and order: Successes – Chancery

• The Church was an essential part of daily life so Apply Your Knowledge and the Court of Star Chamber were used to uphold
people accepted it. fair justice. Failure – Wolsey’s efforts were rarely
• The Church’s teaching about the threat of hell Henry VII: effective.
and purgatory greatly influenced behaviour. • Fought hard to get rid of pretenders Increasing royal authority: Successes – royal
Examples of the Church not being stable: • Was prudent with money courts increasingly used; local law officers and
regional councils increased authority outside
• There were Lollards who attacked the Church • Oppressed the nobility London; minions in Privy Chamber more controlled
who wanted the Bible to be read in English. • Used councillors but never had a chief minister by Eltham Ordinances.
• Humanism was gaining a growing influence. Henry VIII: Raising finance for the king: Success – royal tax
• The monasteries were often remote from people • Fought for glory and enjoyment commissioners; reformed Privy Chamber’s finances.
and the number of friars was in decline. Failure – Amicable Grant.
• Spent heavily on war and entertainment
• There was some criticism of the Church. Resolving the ‘King’s Great Matter’: Success –
• Jousted with the nobility
• Printing allowed the spread of new ideas like did get the Pope to hold a legatine court. Failure –
humanism which challenged the Church’s teaching. • Used a chief minister to help him govern could not get the Pope to rule in the king’s favour.
• The Church’s traditional ceremonies were under threat. b Enforcing law and order: Limited success despite
A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View good intentions.
Possible judgement:
a Henry VII’s aims: Increasing royal authority: Success – the power
• Lollards were a small minority and in decline. of the nobility was clearly reduced although they
• wanted to be prudent with money
• Humanism only gained an influence among the remained important at court.
• wanted to control the nobility
educated. Raising finance for the king: Failure – despite
• wanted to have close personal control of
• On balance, most people accepted the Church the successes, the failure of the Amicable Grant was
government
and gave money to it. a humiliating blow to the king and emphasised the
Henry VIII’s aims: king’s problems in raising money.
• Anti-clericalism was not widespread.
• wanted to be a warrior king Resolving the ‘King’s Great Matter’: Failure –
• Few people were literate but in the long run
humanist education would have an impact. • wanted good relations with the nobility although this seems to have been an impossible
• wanted to control government, through dilemma without breaking with Rome, this led to his
b A good introduction will:
ministers removal from office and ultimate failure.
• Make clear that the Church had many strengths
Shared aims: c Possible sentence starters:
at this point. This might be linked to the fact
that there was only one international Church • wanted to retain control over the nobility • Wolsey’s actions as Lord Chancellor were
throughout western Europe under the Pope, intended to improve the fairness of justice…
• wanted to be stable financially
who also did not interfere much. • While fairness was an important aim, increasing
• wanted to establish the succession the power of the Crown was even more so after
• Mention areas where there was some
challenge to the Church. This could be • wanted good relations with other countries the era of overmighty nobles…
supported by mention of the Lollards, the • wanted to promote trade • Despite increasing royal authority, Wolsey was
humanists, and the development of printing b Your answer may include the idea that clearly the not able to convert this into improving the king’s
and education. two Henrys were very different in approach – but finances effectively…
• Emphasise that, in broad terms, much remained any monarch would share some political aims. Both • Wolsey’s failure in the Amicable Grant was
the same. This could be linked with the lack of wanted to control the nobility and both excluded outweighed ultimately by his failure to resolve
education and literacy at the time. them. Both wanted to establish the succession. what became the king’s main aim – the ‘King’s
The introduction will need to convey a judgement. However, their aims in foreign, economic and Great Matter…
This is likely to state that the Church was largely financial policies were very different. You are likely • Wolsey certainly had successes in his aims but
stable and the premise of the quotation is largely to conclude that although they shared some similar these were undermined by his failure to deliver
acceptable despite there being some threats. political aims, these differences are too great to on the king’s key concern…
support the second part of the quotation in the
Key Question question. Extract Analysis
a Change:
• Humanists had gained ground among some
Chapter 8 a Overall argument highlighted in yellow.
b Useful references highlighted in purple.
socially important people. A
LEVEL Apply Your Knowledge The changes in government under Cromwell were
• New ideas circulated more due to changes in revolutionary, if that term may be applied to any
education and printing. a The timeline should include the following changes which profoundly affect the constitution
approximate dates for the key turning points: and government of a state even when no systematic
Continuity:
• Henry decided that Catherine would not have and entire destruction was involved. The essential
• The Church as an institution remained intact.
more children – c1525 ingredient of the Tudor revolution was the concept
• The Church commanded the support of the vast of national sovereignty which Cromwell summarised
• Henry decided that Wolsey would not get the
majority of the population. in the Act of Appeals of 1533 by using the phrase
divorce – c1529
b Impact: ‘this realm of England is an empire’. Previous kings
• Henry forced the English Church to pay a fine of like Edward I had claimed to rule an empire but the
• Only relatively few people were affected and £100,000 for the crime of praemunire –c1531
while they did have some influence there was no meaning here is different. Instead of a claim based
• Henry decided that he must start the process of on ruling a large extent of land, the Act said that
question of anything but reforming the Church
the break with Rome to ensure the succession – Henry was the ‘one supreme Head and King’. The
from within as yet.
Jan 1533

130
 ACTIVITIES: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

royal supremacy over the Church virtually replaced c Your introduction might: • The Scots were still at war with England after
the Pope in England by the king but the Reformation • Show (briefly) you understand why there was an 1543. The chance of a marriage between
statutes demonstrate that the political sovereignty issue with Edward VI’s succession in 1547 – and Edward and Mary, Queen of Scots which would
created in the 1530s was a parliamentary one. how this manifested itself. have strengthened England enormously had
Cromwell’s administrative reforms – like the Privy been lost.
Council – provided the machinery for the new state • Show you understand both why parliamentary
legislation and other factors might play a role in • Henry’s strategy of developing an alliance with
he had started to construct. Charles V against the French backfired in 1544
ensuring his succession.
c You should use the points you have identified in when Charles made a separate peace with
the earlier parts of this activity to help you plan • Give your judgement in relation to the question. France. England failed to pursue Protestant allies
your essay. and was diplomatically isolated.
Extract Analysis
Other factors, e.g. the failures of domestic
Revision Skills a By the end of the 1520s, domestic politics replaced opposition:
You should produce a chart using your own judgement foreign policy as Henry VIII’s top priority. It is not • The leading Catholics had either made their
to select the most important key facts for each entry. known when precisely he determined that he must stands alone – like More – or stayed relatively
sacrifice Catherine of Aragon to the cause of acquiring loyal to Henry until late in his reign – like the
a male heir but, by 1529, Henry was devoting the bulk
Chapter 9 of his energies and those of his ministers towards
Duke of Norfolk’s family. The Pilgrimage of Grace
had 40,000 supporters but was not a rebellion
obtaining a papal annulment of his marriage. The to remove the king, only to make him change
Apply Your Knowledge ‘King’s Great Matter’ became the pivot around which policies.
Most important: Succession foreign policy turned. Clement was still paralysed by
the sack of Rome. Wolsey suggested war with Spain • Henry’s use of factionalism after 1540 and
Why? All of Henry’s actions at home and abroad were in 1528 but the nation lacked the means to wage ultimate support for the Protestant reformists
dominated by this – 5 of his marriages and the break it. Having failed utterly to secure the annulment who would favour his son who was brought up
with Rome revolved around succession. He married by diplomatic means, Wolsey was dismissed as a Protestant and was the nephew of their leader
Catherine of Aragon to have a son with powerful chancellor by Henry in October 1529 and replaced Edward Seymour.
relatives; the annulment’s importance 1525–34 was by Sir Thomas More. However, when Charles made • The removal of potential claimants to the throne
only because he needed a son. Military glory by peace with France and England in 1529, England was from outside the Tudor family.
gaining lands in France was important – this is why he reduced to its previous and futile policy of trying to
fought the war in France 1544–46 when very ill. Other • Henry’s popularity as a chivalric monarch who
promote French hostility toward the Emperor as a generally enjoyed the support of the nobility
factors like Scotland were only important for short means of pressuring Charles on the divorce issue.
periods. whom he treated well at court.
b From 1529 at the latest, Henry’s foreign policy b and c You should consider how you would approach
Then: Annulment; Military glory was dominated by his domestic policies and your own argument for this activity.
Then: Land in France; Attempting to outdo Francis I, in particular the need to obtain a male heir by
Conquest of Scotland divorcing Catherine of Aragon. However despite
Then: Alliance with Protestants; Control of Ireland replacing his chief minister, events abroad outside Chapter 10
his control meant Henry could only continue to try
Least important: Trade to rouse the French against Charles V as an unlikely Apply Your Knowledge
Why? Unlike his father, Henry VII, the acquisition of way of trying to get the divorce.
a) Social change
money only really mattered to Henry as a means of c • The statement that ‘domestic politics replaced
achieving his goals. While he did not actively discourage Nobles and gentry: Gentry class grew enormously,
foreign policy as Henry VIII’s top priority’ can be
trade, his wars interfered with trade and taxes, and later often buying Church land
challenged because, as the extract admits, ‘the
on inflation put a burden on his people. bulk of his energies and those of his ministers’ were Urban elite: Growing numbers in commercial and
devoted to a foreign policy objective – obtaining a professional activities
A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View papal annulment. Town workers: Increasing numbers due to
a Parliamentary legislation: • The implication that the Pope would not act migration from the country
Acts of Parliament which determined the because he ‘was still paralysed by the sack of Peasants: Prosperous peasants became
succession: Succession Acts of 1534, 1536 and 1543 Rome’ can be challenged as not being the whole copyholders or yeomen
described what should be the order of succession on explanation. The Pope also would not act because
Social structure
Henry’s death, eventually re-legitimising Mary and to allow the annulment would question the
actions of his predecessor. This would undermine Nobles and gentry: Henry still relied on these 2
Elizabeth.
a core Catholic belief in the Pope’s authority in the groups
Other Acts which prevented challenges to the Church. Urban elite: Still considered below the landed
succession: Such as the Treason Act of 1534.
• The view that England’s foreign policy was interests even if they could become MPs
Acts relating to religion which would make reduced to simply promoting French hostility Town workers: Still largely below the urban elite in
a Catholic succession difficult: 1532 Act of towards the Emperor can be questioned, ‘as other terms of income and status
Supremacy. strategies were adopted’, such as promoting good
Peasants: Most stayed as self-sufficient farmers in
Other factors: relations with France in order to gain support and
rural communities
Actions of individuals: Henry’s decision to annul seeking academic support in Europe in favour of
the king’s case. b This is your choice, but many historians think that the
his marriage to Catherine. The securing of control of
gentry experienced the greatest change.
the regency by reformers under Edward’s maternal
uncle, Edward Seymour, ensured there was no
AS
LEVEL Plan Your Essay
possibility of Edward being usurped.
A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View
a Strengths of Henry’s international position
Henry VIII’s will: The will of Henry specified the 1534–47: a You might choose to prioritise the statements
line of succession. However, wills lacked the legal like this:
• There was no immediate prospect of a crusade
force of Acts of Parliament, as was illustrated in 1553 except briefly in 1538–40 due to the enmity of 1 Monastic estates of 2 million acres (16% of
when Edward VI’s will was ignored and the existing France and the Holy Roman Empire. England and Wales) were sold. This allowed
Acts of Succession were followed. the growth of the gentry class and of some of
• Henry had spent largely on the military,
Securing peace at the end of the reign: the peasant class.
mustering a large army of 42,000 soldiers to
Making peace with France in 1546 on relatively invade France in 1544. 2 The gentry families of England and Wales
favourable terms meant that there was not the rose to 5000 by 1540. This meant that the
prospect of a regency government facing foreign • Scotland was ruled by his nephew to 1542; when
position of the nobility was under threat which
warfare. relations deteriorated, the Scots were defeated
would later challenge the social system.
in 1542; Scotland was ruled by Mary, Queen of
Gaining noble support for the Tudors: The Scots, an infant. 3 The population of England and Wales rose
French war had been seen as a way of gaining noble from 2.1 million to 2.9 million. This showed
support as they wanted to be involved in a war as Weaknesses of Henry’s international position
that despite inflation and bad harvests, England
part of their military role. 1534–47:
was probably still prosperous. This suggests that
b You should choose your own judgement for this • England was a much weaker state than either the economic growth of the gentry was part of a
activity. France or the Empire. wider growth.

131
 4 Enclosure and engrossment turned many capitalist class; the 40,000 people involved show it Strengths:
peasants into labourers or migrants. This was a mass movement; Captain Poverty letters and • There is some awareness of the differences
contributed to the growth of the wealth and tenant grievances. between Henry VII and Henry VIII.
estates of the gentry at the expense of peasants. Evidence that would contradict the author’s • There is some relevant knowledge about the
5 The closure of 900 monasteries ended argument: The timing of the rebellion coinciding wool trade and the Intercursus Magna.
their charitable functions. The impact of with the dissolution; economic causes may simply
this was severe but tended to be localised to the be fear of poverty, not the rise of capitalism; some b A good introduction would:
vicinity of the monastery itself. This affected only peasants were gaining from the economic changes; • set out the argument of the essay
parts of the country; the growth of the gentry most peasants remained subsistence farmers; the • clearly explain Henry VII’s approach to both trade
was universal. role of feudal nobility in leading the rebellion. and exploration
6 Some peasants became yeomen or Evidence to support other views/ • consider the term ‘build on’
copyholders and capitalist farmers. interpretations/arguments: The timing of the
However, the vast majority of peasants remained rebellion with the dissolution of smaller monasteries;
subsistence farmers. This suggests only a minor the Pontefract Articles suggest religious and political Chapter 12
change, unlike the growth of the gentry which motives; the involvement of court members.
had impacts on other groups. Evidence that would contradict other views/ Apply Your Knowledge
b Based on the prioritisation above, you might interpretations/arguments: Pontefract Articles Erasmus: Humanist. He was the leading thinker of the
conclude that the key social change was in fact the were drawn up by leaders; many of the articles were humanist movement who influenced English humanists
closure of the monasteries, because it facilitated the economic demands. The dissolution was a catalyst like More and Fisher when he was Professor of Greek at
rise of the gentry and of some peasants as well as but not the underlying cause. Cambridge University.
harming the poor due to the loss of its charitable c Your answer should show your understanding of More: Humanist. The leading intellectual in England
functions. This would lead many poor people to part a, supported and criticised by the evidence who became Lord Chancellor; he wanted to reform the
migrate to towns to look for work and equally may collated in part b above. Church from within but was executed for not being
have contributed to the rise of secular education
prepared to swear his support for Henry’s reformation of
because monasteries no longer served this purpose. AS Improve an Answer
LEVEL the Church.
c One way of structuring your essay might be:
a The first sentence is not giving the overall Cranmer: Protestant/reformist. Member of a
• to begin with the rise of the gentry, as this interpretation and is incorrect in detail. The answer Protestant group at Cambridge who rose to be
is in the question, and show its political and does reach a judgement, concluding that the extract Archbishop of Canterbury because he was willing to
economic influence in a paragraph clearly shows the impact of economic factors on the support the annulment and the marriage of Henry to
• to explain how the rise of the gentry was in large Pilgrimage of Grace, but does not give the whole Anne Boleyn.
part due to the closure of the monasteries and argument based on the growth of capitalism, nor Cromwell: Protestant/reformist. Cromwell organised
to develop the other ‘lesser’ consequences of does it explain why the extract is convincing. the Reformation for Henry and managed the
the closure; these might be combined into 2–3 b Strengths: introduction of an English Bible and the closure of
paragraphs and explained Catholic monasteries.
• Shows some understanding of content.
• a ‘balancing’ paragraph looking at the more minor Gardiner: Catholic conservative. Along with the Duke
unrelated changes and justifying their lesser priority • Provides a limited judgement at the end.
of Norfolk, he led the conservative faction which led the
– for example that they affected fewer people Weaknesses: reaction against Protestant changes after 1539 with the
• a summary of the argument in a judgement • There is no own knowledge shown in the Six Articles.
supported by a key piece of evidence response.
• Goes through the source merely repeating
A
LEVEL How important?
Extract Analysis in a different order what is said rather than You should produce your own diagram for this activity,
While the accumulation of capital by the wealthy commenting on interpretations and then using your own judgement to show as many factors as
merchants and gentry through the seizure of land by supporting these views. you can.
enclosure and engrossment continued, capitalism was • There is a lack of precision in its understanding
secured by legal changes and the peaceful exploitation of the views. Key Question
of the class who did not own land. However, there was a and b Key developments 1509–29
opposition, such as the Pilgrimage of Grace. This appears
to have been a reactionary, Catholic movement of the
Chapter 11 Political: Accession of Henry VIII; Wolsey as chief
north, led by the still half-feudal local nobility and aimed minister and a cardinal.
against the Reformation and the dissolution of the Apply Your Knowledge Economic and social: Some population growth
monasteries. But if the leaders were nobles, the mass Henry VII: Trade: and urban migration; resistance to paying Amicable
support for the rising indicated a deep discontent and Grant. Growing impact of humanist educational
• Navigation Acts support for merchants
the rank and file largely came from the dispossessed and institutions.
from the threatened peasantry. The government had no • Trade treaties
Intellectual ideas: Humanists called for a reform
standing army to fight the rebels and was saved only by Henry VII: Exploration: of the Church from within; Lollards and Protestants
two things. One was the support of the south and east. • Support for Cabot and Weston demanded changes to an English Protestant faith.
The other was the extreme simplicity of the rebels, who
entered long negotiations with the government, during Henry VIII: Trade: Opposing religious groups: Lollards still
which their forces melted away and they were easily • Continued support for wool trade and merchant in existence; in a Cambridge-based group of
dispersed. adventurers Protestants in the 1520s.
a Purple highlighter marks the distinctive view • No trade treaties Key developments 1529–40
on social change and how feudal society was Political: Dismissal of Wolsey, ultimately replaced
Henry VIII: Exploration:
undermined: the introduction of capitalism led to by Cromwell until his execution in 1540. Changes
land being acquired by the rich and the peasants • Little encouragement except to Thorne increasing power of Parliament (the ‘Tudor
being turned into rent-paying tenants or landless a Trade mattered more than exploration for both of revolution in government’).
labourers. Protest against this change came from the them. Economic and social: Continued population
dispossessed.
b Henry VII encouraged trade and exploration more growth and migration; enclosure and engrossment
Yellow highlighter represents the sub-arguments than Henry VIII. proceeded; closure of the monasteries.
and views: this change was brought about by
Intellectual ideas: Conflict between Catholics and
engrossment and enclosure, legal changes and AS
LEVEL Improve an Answer humanists who believed in papal authority. Rise of
peaceful exploitation. The Pilgrimage of Grace was
a Weaknesses: education and printing.
a protest against this change under the guise of a
religious revolt. • Some dates and detail (length of rule) are Opposing religious groups: Protestants grew
irrelevant. in number partly in combination with the Lollard
b Evidence to support the author’s argument:
movement, and became influential in what was still
Detail the failure to control engrossment and • The meaning of some sentences is unclear (e.g. essentially a Catholic Church. Some persecution of
enclosure and possibly the impact of the dissolution ‘He encouraged Cabot to discover Newfoundland ...’). Protestants after 1538.
of the monasteries leading to the growth of a • There is no direct judgement on the question.

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 ACTIVITIES: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

Key developments 1540–47 A

LEVEL To What Extent? Chapter 14
Political: 1540–47 government dominated by
factionalism between reformists and conservatives. a Continued: None of his key aims was completely Apply Your Knowledge
Eventually reformists dominated in 1547 and 2 continued.
You should produce a mind-map for this activity. For an
leading conservatives – Duke of Norfolk and the Earl Partially continued: Somerset carried on war
example of a good mind-map see pages 12 and 64.
of Surrey – arrested for treason. Henry died. against Scotland (military glory/conquest of
Economic and social: Inflation and rise of the Scotland/succession); Northumberland abandoned
the war.
A
LEVEL Extract Analysis
gentry and yeomen due to sales of ecclesiastical land.
Failed or ignored: Boulogne [land in France] was a Extract A key statement: ‘But when all that is
Intellectual ideas: Henry’s supremacy over the
given up; annulment was not relevant now; crusade said, in the majority of English villages, men breathed
Church not publicly questioned. Protestants control
became unlikely. easier for the accession of a Catholic queen.’
the future king’s education. Rise of non-monastic
education. b A good answer would: Extract A main argument: Despite the clear
influence of Protestantism on the people, most
Opposing religious groups: Reformist faction • Consider Somerset’s need to maintain his
people were still Catholic in belief in 1553.
under pressure and several prominent Protestants position and thus to gain victories in foreign
arrested. wars to sustain his position. Extract B key statement: ‘It is probably true
that most people were not committed to either
c Your answer might refer to the following: • Consider Northumberland’s need to distance
Protestantism or Catholicism, or even thought in
1509–1529: The economic and demographic growth himself from Somerset’s actions and restore the
such hard and fast terms.’
of towns and the rise of education led to a more literate economy by ending the war.
Extract B main argument: The reformists had
population able to read the ideas of the humanists • Consider that times had changed, so key aims
some impact but it is unlikely that a real divide
and even the Protestants. Increasing frustration over like gaining the annulment and avoiding a
between 2 differing religious groups existed.
the ‘King’s Great Matter’ led to some hope of progress crusade no longer really applied; also Mary,
among Protestants in reforming the Church. Queen of Scots’ escape and marriage made Extract C key statement: ‘The machinery of
union with Scotland impossible, especially with coercion and supervision deployed by Edwardian
1529–40: The ‘King’s Great Matter’ gave the
French troops now present there. governments was so effective that for most parishes
opportunity for Protestants – especially Cromwell who
passive resistance to reformist changes was simply
replaced Wolsey – to shape the new Church which
not an option for a largely Catholic population.’
Henry decided to develop. Parliament’s increased role Key Question
(the ‘Tudor revolution in government’) allowed greater Extract C main argument: The population was
scope for middle-class Protestants in the Commons to Your spider diagram may contain the following points, still largely Catholic in 1553 but was forced to adopt
be heard. The closure of the monasteries increased the for example: Protestant practices.
secularisation of education and the publication of a Effective b Extract A – support: The rapidity with which
printed English Bible allowed the spread of new ideas. • There was no challenge to Edward’s rule during his most churches adopted Catholic practices and
1540–47: The education of the future king as lifetime decorations; the support for Mary Tudor to replace
a Protestant gave Protestants great hope for the Lady Jane Grey, a Protestant.
• All rebellions during Edward’s rule were ultimately
future, despite Henry playing the 2 factions off defeated Extract A – criticise: It is virtually impossible to
against each other. The sale of ecclesiastical land establish evidence of people’s opinions.
reinforced the opposing religious groups because it • Northumberland did improve the royal finances and
reorganised the Poor Law in 1552 Extract B – support: Absence of widespread
made it very difficult to restore one of the bastions
popular protest.
of traditional Catholicism – the monasteries. Not effective
Extract B – criticise: Survival of Catholic beliefs and
• Edward’s age – he ruled from the ages of 9 to 15 and
AS
LEVEL Plan Your Essay so needed regents to rule for him
practices and Catholics welcomed the return of their
Church under Mary.
a You should produce a mind-map for this activity. For • The differences over religion – he was a Protestant
Extract C – support: The loss of chantries shows
an example of a good mind-map see pages 12 and 64. when most of his subjects were Catholic
the determination to attack Catholicism and force
b, c and d Using your mind-map, plan your essay: • Conflict – England was at war with Scotland them to adopt Protestant practices.
• Address the factor in the question – lack of Extract C – criticise: John Hooper’s comment
leadership – first, giving examples in support A
LEVEL Improve an Answer about the resistance of the people to change does
e.g. the unwillingness of leading Catholics not fit with the picture of coercion.
to oppose the king directly and also refer to a The paragraph considers the legacy of Henry VIII to
the governments of Somerset and Northumberland. c You should produce your own conclusions for this
individuals like More.
It looks at the main things that Henry actually did activity. Extract A has some evidence but one major
• Evaluate the other types of factors and comment as ruler but it does not show how significant these assertion at the end. Extract B points out that it is hard
on their importance. would be to the governments which followed. to gauge the impact but supplies virtually no evidence.
• Ensure you make your overall view clear in the Instead it should have evaluated how his legacy Extract C may be more convincing since it is based on
introduction, substantiate it in the essay and affected the governments of Somerset and a detailed study of churchwardens’ accounts.
repeat it in the conclusion. In this way you should Northumberland.
show sustained judgement. b One of the most significant legacies Henry VIII Key Question
left was the problem of the relationship between Method of governing: Somerset ruled dictatorially
Chapter 13 the government and religion. While the Church but Northumberland at the start ruled through the Privy
was run by the king and monasteries had been Council. Somerset called himself Lord Protector but
Apply Your Knowledge closed, many Catholic practices remained, such Northumberland called himself Lord President of the
as services largely in English and priests not (Privy) Council.
Henry VIII died (1547) being allowed to marry. This satisfied neither
Attitude to Scotland: Somerset wanted to continue
• Hertford had control of the dominant faction and so Catholics nor Protestants. Moreover, not ruling
the war but Northumberland made peace. He
was able to control the Regency Council. with a chief minister after Cromwell’s execution
abandoned English garrisons in Scotland.
had allowed the two religious groups to develop
Earl of Hertford (later Duke of Somerset) became Attitude to France: Somerset wanted to retain
factions which struggled for power both during
Lord Protector (1547) Boulogne but Northumberland returned Boulogne to
and after Henry’s death. Although Henry wanted
• Hertford as Duke of Somerset created enemies; this to leave the legacy of a balanced Regency the French.
was exploited by Dudley. Council, his destruction of the Norfolk family Religious policy: Somerset was a more moderate
Dudley (later Duke of Northumberland) became and his favouring of the reformists in his dying reformer than Northumberland. Comparison of the 2
Lord President of the Council (1550) months left a legacy to be exploited – by both prayer books shows this.
Somerset and Northumberland – in creating Economic policy: Somerset spent highly on war
• Edward’s terminal illness; he wanted to be succeeded
a reformist government with increasingly but Northumberland reduced expenditure. Somerset
by a Protestant.
Protestant prayer books. However this also debased the coinage but Northumberland improved the
Edward wrote the Devyse, naming Lady Jane meant that the conservatives in Henry’s carefully
Grey as his successor (1553) administration of royal finances and ended the wars.
crafted and balanced Regency Council needed
• When Edward died, Northumberland proclaimed careful management, as in the case of the Earl of Social policy: Somerset’s policies on enclosure and
Jane as queen but the public rose up against him. Southampton, who was courted and then rejected taxes provoked rebellions but Northumberland did
by both Somerset and Northumberland. not encounter rebellions. Northumberland’s poor law
Mary became queen (July 1553) regulated assistance for the poor.

133
 Chapter 15 themselves the leading regents in turn; Somerset of 20 years of movement towards Protestantism.
failed to deal with rebellions and Northumberland Protestant opposition in Parliament and Wyatt’s
A
LEVEL Plan Your Essay misjudged popular opinion in 1553. Rebellion were serious but they were overcome.
‘made all the key decisions herself’ – the c Married priests: Why? The issue of married priests
a Key elements of Henry’s treatment of Catherine
decision to marry Philip of Spain, to go to war with was a relatively minor one. (Many priests seemed to
could include the following:
France, and to restore the Catholic faith. have been prepared to give up their wives!)
• Henry had his marriage with Catherine dissolved
‘had she been spared’ – her attempts to
against her will by Protestants; impact – Mary
would want a successful marriage to a Catholic as a
re-establish the Catholic Church and deal with Key Question
heresy did not have a real chance to be consolidated
reaction to her mother’s treatment by Protestants. Advisers
in less than 5 years.
• Henry blamed Catherine for his failure to have Role: Gave personal advice to Queen Mary.
a male heir and had Mary – his daughter with Key Question Influence: Renard influenced her towards the Spanish
Catherine – excluded from the succession; marriage. Pole strongly advised on religious issues.
impact – Mary would realise the importance of a Foreign policy only:
male heir to ensure a Catholic succession and so Helped to govern England effectively? Gave
• Restored papal supremacy rise to opposition because it seemed that foreign
the marriage was based on the need for a child
• Paget and others hoped to gain credit from a influences were dominating and the Spanish marriage
rather than anything else.
military expedition to France was a failure in terms of succession and retention of
• Henry’s action against a Spanish princess Calais. Paul IV’s personal animosity to Pole after 1555
Succession only:
soured Anglo-Spanish relations which was not hampered good government; although his policies
favourable for Mary’s marriage. • Executed Lady Jane Grey and imprisoned Elizabeth
did try to improve the Church, he supervised the
b and c Other points which might appear on your • Refused to marry English suitors campaign of burning heretics which caused problems.
spider diagram could include: Overlap: Privy Council
• Philip was not treated well personally by the • Married Philip II of Spain in 1554 Role: To give official advice to Queen Mary and
English – they prevented his coronation as king administer the system of local government.
• Followed him into war against France to retain his
and Mary was protected under a Treason Act
alliance despite the harm to papal relations Influence: Mary had a large Privy Council including
while he was not. Significance: 4
many Catholic supporters to assist moderates like
• This was not a love match. Mary was only Apply Your Knowledge Paget – but Mary largely ignored her Privy Council, for
concerned about a male heir; Philip with example in her unalterable decision to marry Philip II.
aggrandisement. Significance: 1 a One possible opening sentence providing a
judgement could be: Mary’s foreign policy between Helped to govern England effectively? They
• The marriage was opposed by many English 1553 and 1558 was intended to help her gain and were not given much chance to do this. However,
people due to foreign influence – Wyatt’s retain her husband and so help the succession; this despite some factionalism and self-seeking like that
Rebellion was an example of this. Significance: 3 would seem to have been more important than of Paget, they were experienced and helped draft
• Mary was 37 when they married and so the her other main objective: to restore Catholicism important legislation about the Church and society.
chances of having a male heir – one of the main in England. Parliament
goals of the marriage which would make it b Your answer could include 4 pieces of information
successful – were small. Significance: 2 Role: To advise the monarch of the views of the
from the following: leading landowners and merchants of the country
Your judgement could be that the marriage failed • The decision to marry Philip II shows the and to make binding laws.
ultimately because of Philip’s lack of interest in Mary importance of both the roles of succession and
and the length of time they were separate. Mary’s Influence: Some opposition to the restoration of
foreign policy, as he was the leading Catholic Catholicism and would not agree to the surrender of
age was also important while other factors were less monarch in Europe.
so because while it put pressure on the marriage it monastic lands. Blocked Philip’s coronation.
did not lead to its ending. • The importance of both is also shown by her Helped to govern England effectively?
willingness to face the opposition of both Depends on your viewpoint; they delayed and
d You should produce your own essay plan for this Parliament and the people in Wyatt’s Rebellion.
activity. You may well decide that the treatment of limited Mary’s policies to restore the Church. Many
her mother had only an indirect effect on the failure • However, the decision to go to war against useful Acts passed on social and economic matters
of Mary’s marriage and that other factors were more France jeopardised her religious objectives and had good relations with the monarch.
important. as the Pope supported France, but she was Philip II
desperate to retain Philip’s interest in her so that
Role: As husband of the queen, would enjoy
A
LEVEL Improve an Answer she could get pregnant.
personal influence but had no legal role.
• The importance of the succession over religion
The reigns of Edward VI and Mary provide a vivid Influence: Led her into the wars against France and
in her mind is shown further by the decision to
contrast between the two forms of government. Edward hostility to the Pope.
continue the war despite the Pope’s subsequent
as an infant had to rely on two regents, the Dukes Helped to govern England effectively?
decision to remove Pole as a legate.
of Somerset and Northumberland, whose periods Although his powers were limited, his influence
of government almost led to disaster. They tried to • The war was still continued despite the loss of
helped to create a rebellion, limited the restoration
exploit their position for their own advantage one way England’s last possession in France, Calais.
of Catholicism and led to heavy expenditure on war
or another and they showed the problem of ruling by c Your should write your own paragraph using the and the loss of Calais.
ministers when the ministers were self-seeking and earlier parts of this activity to help you.
plainly incompetent. On the other hand, Mary was a Mary
Role: The ultimate decision maker.
much more effective ruler of the country. She never
employed a chief minister and so, despite qualms about
Chapter 16
Influence: Despite her gender and lack of
her capacity to govern as a woman, she ultimately experience and training, she played an important
made all the key decisions herself. Her decisions, taken Apply Your Knowledge role in government. All the key decisions were hers.
on the whole, were far better than those of Somerset a Possible order of importance: Helped to govern England effectively? Unlike the
and Northumberland and had she been spared beyond
1 Shortness of the reign views of earlier generations, many historians see her as
her 42 years, her decisions would probably have had
2 Protestant opposition an able ruler constrained by problems like the papacy
time to become far more effective and permanent. This
which were out of her control. She did allow others to
clearly shows that in the latter part of the period at least, 3 Ownership of former Church lands influence her due to her desire for a successor.
monarchs were far more effective rulers than ministers.
4 Lack of papal support
a Yellow highlighter marks the opinions.
b Purple highlighter represents the supporting evidence.
5 Reaction to persecution Apply Your Knowledge
6 Influence of Church reformers You should produce a mind-map for this activity. For an
c ‘periods of government almost led to disaster’
– Somerset’s disastrous war; Northumberland’s 7 Succession problems example of a good mind-map see pages 12 and 64.
attempt to change the succession. 8 Need to repeal reformist legislation
‘They tried to exploit their position’ – Somerset 9 Married priests Revision Skills
and Northumberland both made themselves dukes. b Shortness of the reign: Why? Mary’s key difficulty You should produce a timeline using your own
‘self-seeking and plainly incompetent’ – proved to be the brevity of her reign. In only judgement to select the most important key events. For
Somerset and Northumberland both made 5 years, she had little chance to reverse the impact an example of a good timeline, see page 9.

134
 ACTIVITIES: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

Chapter 17 • Importance: They drafted the legislation and also Economic:

they managed the Puritan opposition in Parliament • High taxes
Apply Your Knowledge to push for more Protestant changes.
• Inflation due to war and earlier debasement
Elizabeth herself
a You should copy the diagram 3 times. Effects:
• View: Elizabeth may have wanted a Protestant
b Consolidate her position • Poor Law 1555 to address poverty
settlement and was pushed into a more Catholic
Yes: Accepted by Privy Council; accepted by people settlement by the opposition. • Encouragement of arable farming
Settle religious issues • Importance: It is doubtful whether the settlement • Recoinage planned
Yes: Compromise accepted by many was exactly what Elizabeth wanted (she did not like Elizabeth I to 1563
married priests for example). However, once in place
No: Compromise disliked by many Social:
in 1563 she enforced it.
End war with France • Continued problems of vagrancy and lack of help for
Yes: Peace treaty 1559 at Câteau-Cambrésis Chapter 18 the poor
No: Tempted back into war in 1562 and lost Calais Economic:
permanently Apply Your Knowledge • Inflation
c You will probably rank ‘consolidating her position’ • Demands for higher wages
Events in red are start points, events in green are end
as the most feasible aim and ‘settle religious issues’ Effects:
points.
as the least feasible due to the depth of differences
over religion. 1534: Acts of Supremacy and Succession – start of break • Recoinage
with Rome and subsequent religious discord. • Legislation – Poor Law 1563
Apply Your Knowledge 1540: Execution of Thomas Cromwell for heresy – start Overview
of rise of factionalism and Henry VIII’s weak government.
You should produce a timeline using your own Social:
judgement to select the most important key 1547: Accession of Edward VI– start of the reigns of an
infant and then a woman (the first since Matilda). • Growing vagrancy and poverty
developments. For an example of a good timeline, see
page 9. 1558: Accession of Elizabeth I – end of the short reigns • Rise of gentry
of Edward and Mary. Economic:
A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View 1559: Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity – end of the • Inflation
a You should select or formulate your own first religious dispute to an extent. • Rising taxes
sentence for this activity. 1563: Thirty-Nine Articles – end of the religious Effects:
b Your introduction should start with the opening dispute as it gave clarity and permanence to the Church
• Discontent
sentence that you chose in part a. It might show settlement in terms of belief.
an awareness of the nature of the religious • Beginnings of social legislation
divisions and the impact that they had made over Apply Your Knowledge • Recoinage
20 years. The nature of the religious divisions • Peace policies to reduce costs and so improve
a 1558 should be on the extreme left; 1547 halfway
might include: economy
between the pendulum and the left-hand side; 1549
• A basic understanding of the two groups – and 1564 halfway between the pendulum and the
reformists and Catholics. right-hand side; 1553 on the extreme right. A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View
• The supremacy of the monarch or the Pope over b The biggest change is between Northumberland a You will notice that the benchmark for a crisis varies
the Church. and Mary because he was very reformist and she between the very serious and the less serious. The
• The use of English in the Bible and services. was a traditional Catholic. definition you choose will influence the answer. If the
• The teachings of the Church over such issues as c Elizabeth’s religious settlement is moderately benchmark is low, e.g. arguments in the government
transubstantiation and purgatory. Protestant. It is called the middle way because about policy, then there is a greater likelihood that
it is roughly half way between a Catholic and a you can demonstrate there was a crisis.
• The existence of institutions like monasteries
Protestant Church. b 1540 was the end of Thomas Cromwell and
and chantries.
the rise of factional government – this hints at
The impact that they had had might include: rebellions Key Question weak government as a criterion; 1563 marks the
such as the Pilgrimage of Grace, the Western Rebellion consolidation of Elizabeth’s religious settlement,
and the Wyatt Rebellion which all had some religious Henry VIII from 1540
suggesting a reduction of the profound religious
overtones; the execution of heretics, most notably Social: differences.
under Mary; the removal of politicians from power like • Rise of the gentry
Thomas Cromwell or the Duke of Northumberland; c This will be based on your own view of what
arguments over the succession. • End of charitable role of monasteries constitutes of a crisis.
Economic: d The judgement is your own choice. Most historians
Key Question • Rising land market reject the idea of a mid-Tudor crisis and point to the
positives in government during this time, using a
Radical clergymen and MPs • Inflation and debasement high benchmark to define crisis.
• View: Viewed the settlement as too Catholic but Effects:
favoured more Protestantism. • Undermined role of nobility Chapter 19
• Importance: Many radicals entered the Church • Increased social distress for the poor
and pushed for change from within after 1559 Apply Your Knowledge
although they were not an organised party. Helped Edward VI
to influence the Protestant prayer book. Social: a One key point to notice is that your mind-map has
links between problems. For example, in 1587 and
Catholic bishops and Conservative peers • End of charitable function of chantries
1593 Wentworth was imprisoned for raising issues in
• View: Viewed the settlement as too Protestant and • Growing numbers of vagrants Parliament about both religion and succession.
opposed the Uniformity bill. Economic: b ‘royal prerogative’ – refers to rights or powers
• Importance: Catholic bishops helped to block • Royal financial administration improved which the monarch could exercise without requiring
the first proposals for a settlement in the House of the consent of Parliament (such as marriage and
Lords but they were removed and unable to block • Enclosure continued
succession)
changes like the Thirty-Nine Articles and the new Effects:
Book of Common Prayer. Conservative peers also • Poor Law 1552 to address poverty Apply Your Knowledge
played a major role in making the settlement more
favourable to Catholics. • Rebellions due to enclosure a Suggested methods:
William Cecil and the mainly Protestant Privy Mary • Used royal Secretary (Cecil) and privy councillors
Council Social: to manage the House of Commons (you may
• Bad harvests and disease have subdivided this into several points)
• View: William Cecil and the Privy Council wanted a
more Protestant settlement. • Growing numbers of vagrants • Only called Parliament when monarch wished

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 • Refused assent to bills monarch did not like Case against: English pirates had long been
A
LEVEL Improve an Answer committing acts of aggression against Spain; a kind
• Used the Speaker to control debate
a Parts are irrelevant (for an essay on the success of surrogate war, not fought in Spain or England.
• Punished MPs and Lords of Elizabeth’s management of the Privy Council): 1587: Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots
• Banned areas of debate ‘although he was not a leading civil servant … and
rumours abounded about their relationship. She had Case for: Gave Philip the excuse for the Armada;
b The most effective methods were the first 3 on the ended chance of a Catholic succession in England.
list above and arguments could be advanced for a portrait of him in her bedroom bearing the words
each of them. The 2nd might have been considered “My love”.’ Case against: Execution a pretext – the critical
the most effective although the queen had to call b For the most part, Elizabeth managed the Privy change was the need to deal with the nuisance
parliaments when she needed laws or taxes. Council effectively from 1558 to the mid 1580s, England presented to trade and to the counter-
both in managing Parliament and in controlling reformation (see Chapter 23 for more on the latter).
c The first reason in the list above (using the royal
Secretary and privy councillors to manage the House factionalism, although the Privy Council did not 1588: Spanish Armada
of Commons) should be considered a continued always do as she wished. Case for: First direct attempt to conquer England
problem, since it depended on the personality of the c You should use the points you have identified in the by Spain.
Secretary and management of the Privy Council. earlier parts of this activity to help you write your Case against: Armada was the end result of crucial
paragraph. changes beforehand; it was more of a consequence
Key Question than a watershed.
Maintaining a working relationship Chapter 20 b Based on the evidence above, you might conclude
Issues well managed: that the statement is broadly valid – i.e. that as
• Generally positive, with agreement over most issues
Apply Your Knowledge this marked the start of actual armed conflict
between the 2 states, it is the key watershed as
e.g. overseeing local government Erik of Sweden it committed first Elizabeth and then Philip to
Problems: For: Same religion as Elizabeth intervention. However, the other dates do mark
• Some disagreements e.g. over religion and Against: Sweden is distant from England and would changes in the relationship and indeed the whole
execution of Mary, Queen of Scots not have been a very helpful ally relationship is one of steady deterioration, and it is
hard to see any specific point which stands out as
Working together to provide constructive Robert Dudley a watershed.
advice For: Same religion as Elizabeth
Issues well managed: Against: Cause faction fighting; bad reputation due to Key Question
• Well managed e.g. with a balance between Dudley first wife’s death
and Cecil – the factions agreed over religion Improvement or deterioration in relations with France,
Philip II of Spain Spain and Scotland:
Problems: For: Ruler of a powerful state – a useful ally • relations with France improved
• Damaging competition between factions remained. Against: Different religion from Elizabeth; like Mary,
Leicester and Cecil were rivals and fell out over the • relations with Spain got worse
could lead Elizabeth into war
queen’s potential marriage • relations with Scotland improved
Archdukes Ferdinand and Charles
Management of Parliament How the succession was secured:
For: Members of a powerful ruling family in Europe
Issues well managed: • the Catholic heir was imprisoned and executed
Against: Different religion from Elizabeth
• The business of the house was managed well by • Elizabeth named James VI of Scotland as her heir
the Privy Council e.g. preparing bills. Debate in the Duke of Anjou (but only on her deathbed)
house was usually well controlled by the Speaker For: Supported by her chief minister • Cecil made arrangements for a smooth transition for
Problems: Against: Different religion from Elizabeth; could lead James when Elizabeth died in 1603
• Parliament was still able to develop legislation which Elizabeth into conflict in Europe Comparison – the better relations with Scotland and the
the queen opposed e.g. 60 bills were refused royal inheritance of James seem to overlap.
assent Key Question
• The Privy Council often managed Parliament in a Possible order: D, A, E, F, G, B, C. Revision Skills
their own interests e.g. to press Elizabeth to marry b A possible answer is that reasons revolving around a You should create your own timeline for this activity. For
in 1566 loss of power seem to have been the most important. an example of a good timeline, see page 9.
Loyalty about religion c Among the points you could mention are:
Issues well managed: • She could govern more effectively because she Chapter 21
• The issue of Catholics was well managed after could not be influenced by her husband into
1570 by agreed policies on repression e.g. the 1581 decisions which did not fit her policies. Apply Your Knowledge
Obedience Act • She could also govern more effectively because vagrancy – the crime of being an able-bodied person
Problems: she could stay above the Privy Council, and who took to the road and did not work
• The Northern Rebellion was supported by the Parliament and factionalism.
undeserving/impotent poor – these were poor
leading conservative on the Privy Council, the Duke • She would not govern as effectively as she people who could not help their poverty, like the old,
of Norfolk would face regular confrontation with the Privy the young and the disabled
Protection of queen Council and Parliament on the issue.
martial law – under martial law, the country is under
Issues well managed: • She would not govern as effectively as the issue the control of the army
of succession would be left open, which led to
• Plots against Elizabeth were dealt with effectively by Mary, Queen of Scots being her heir for a long almshouses – these are dwellings built out of charity
spies e.g. the Ridolfi Plot time and creating many problems. for the deserving poor, usually the old or the disabled
Problems: house of correction – this is the Tudor word for a prison
• The Privy Council sought to protect the queen and
A
LEVEL To What Extent? poor relief – money collected from local ratepayers to
her religion by leading her into dangerous foreign a 1569: Northern Rebellion pay for the care of the poor
conflicts e.g. war with Spain after 1584 parish – an area served by a church; it is usually the
Case for: Philip for the first time acted
Foreign policy against Elizabeth; because of this, the Pope same as a village or a town
Issues well managed: excommunicated Elizabeth in 1570, confident of
• The problem of a war against Catholic Spain was Spanish support. Plots followed.
A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View
avoided until 1584 but largely due to Elizabeth Case against: There was no active war between the a Rebellion sparked by religious belief was more
Problems: 2 nations, alternatively, Elizabeth had already soured dangerous to rulers than courtly conspiracies in the
relations by seizing some Spanish bullion ships in 1568. years 1536 to 1569.’ Assess the validity of this view.
• Dangerous interventions in foreign policy due to
the Privy Council’s support for Protestantism 1584: Anglo-Spanish War The terms ‘courtly conspiracies’, which means plots
e.g. in France in 1562–63 and in the Netherlands Case for: English and Spanish forces were left in based on noblemen at court, and ‘dangerous’ will
from 1584 direct confrontation. require clarification.

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 ACTIVITIES: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

b 1536–47: Henry VIII (later years) • Rebellions helped to remove Somerset. Failures and limitations: Four bad harvests 1594–97
Rebellion sparked by religious belief: • Failure to deal effectively with rebellions led to led to riots, disease and starvation, vagrancy and
the fall of Somerset. growing divide between rich and undeserving poor
• 1536 Pilgrimage of Grace – due to dissolution of
the monasteries and issues of supremacy • If they had any effect it was often the opposite Apply Your Knowledge
• Local disputes with other economic and social of what was intended – accelerated closure
of monasteries in 1536 and persecution of a The main social changes could include the growing
causes. Never a real threat to Henry, although
Catholics in 1569. gap between rich and poor, increased vagrancy and
40,000 rebels were involved
poverty, the rise of towns and the middle classes, and
Courtly conspiracies: b You should use the points you have identified in the
the continued rise of the gentry.
earlier part of this activity to help you write your
• 1536 Pilgrimage of Grace may have been the paragraph. b The main economic links are: the growing gap
outcome of a courtly conspiracy by supporters of between rich and poor and the increase in vagrancy
Catherine of Aragon, but was not a serious threat and poverty both link to the various failures in
to overthrow Henry
A
LEVEL Plan Your Essay agriculture and the decline in some towns; the rise
• 1547 Somerset’s plan to overturn Henry’s will – a There was a ‘transformation of society’ under of towns and the middle class links to the prosperity
succeeded but did not overthrow Edward VI Elizabeth: of key trades, growing international trade and the
• Growing numbers of gentry impact of government economic legislation.
1547–53: Edward VI
• Widening gap between rich and poor
Rebellion sparked by religious belief: Extract Analysis
• 1549: Western Rebellion – due partly to • Growing mercantile and profession class in
towns forming a consumer class a Poverty was prevalent in Tudor towns. Supports.
Somerset’s prayer book
There was not a ‘transformation of society’ The government always accepted the need to take
• Localised and other economic causes important
under Elizabeth: responsibility to help the unemployed. Opposes.
• Easily repressed, so no real threat
• Population growth continued Merchants acted purely out of fear of threats to their
Courtly conspiracies: social position. Opposes.
• Most people lived in the countryside
• 1549: Dudley’s plot to replace Somerset. This Charity kept many people out of destitution. Supports.
succeded but was not a threat to Edward There was no social disorder:
The poor were out of control in the Tudor period.
• 1553: Lady Jane Grey plot; a real threat but Mary • Only sporadic food riots Opposes.
was able to overcome it with popular support • ‘Oxfordshire rising’ was very small Poverty was addressed both at the local and the
1553–58: Mary I • A good deal of poor law legislation addressed national level. Supports.
Rebellion sparked by religious belief: social problems before they got out of hand The poor behaved with a surprising lack of violence.
• 1554: Wyatt’s Rebellion due to Catholicism There was social disorder: Supports.
• Localised with other economic causes • ‘Oxfordshire rising’ and Northern Rebellion b Overall argument: Poverty was only rife in towns
involved discontent from poverty and was contained effectively through charity and
• Reached gates of London but small in size, so not
• Irish rebellion showed discontent with growing legislation; the government was always in control of
a serious threat
English influence the situation.
1558–69: Elizabeth I (early years)
• Increasing vagrancy certainly led to claims of Contextual evidence supporting: The accelerating
Rebellion sparked by religious belief: range of social legislation of the government leading
rising crime and disorder and produced the Poor
• 1569: Northern Rebellion due to Catholics Law legislation to the Poor Law of 1597. The measures taken by parish
wanting Mary, Queen of Scots and restoration of authorities in Norwich for example shows that local
b You should use the points you have identified in initiative was also important.
Catholicism; localised and easily dealt with
the earlier part of this activity to help you write your
Courtly conspiracies: conclusion. Contextual evidence opposing: Poverty
• 1569: Duke of Norfolk’s involvement in Northern played a role in rebellions and risings and there
was certainly a great fear of a Tudor crime wave
Rebellion and plans to marry Mary, Queen of Scots Chapter 22 which often led to actual legislation. The existence
• Potentially dangerous but the duke lost his nerve of starvation and a growing gap between rich and
Evidence would suggest a greater threat from courtly Apply Your Knowledge poor may seem to undermine the idea that the
conspiracies than from rebellions. situation was ‘fairly well contained’.
Trade
You might include in your introduction:
• The danger to the leader came primarily from
Successes and achievements: External trade Key Question
flourished to both the Netherlands and new
potential loss of authority – only the courtly overseas markets; slave trade began; new trading You should produce a mind-map for this activity. For an
conspiracies had any real impact on the ruler’s companies formed and tended to become joint- example of a good mind-map see pages 12 and 64. Use
authority; when coupled with rebellions as stock companies with shareholders your mind-map to assess the question for this activity.
in 1536 and 1569 the threat was much less.
Failures and limitations: Trade to the
Courtly conspiracy did lead to the proclamation
of a temporary queen and the adjustment of Netherlands limited to the north; expeditions were Chapter 23
the leadership and style of government under not always successful; trading was relatively small
Edward VI. Exploration and colonisation Apply Your Knowledge
• The ‘danger’ to political authority from rebellions Successes and achievements: Successful The Church should have bishops: Catholics and Anglicans
caused by religious belief was minimal; there voyages of exploration including a circumnavigation There should be a state Church: Anglicans and
was in any case other causes of rebellions; also of the world; first colonial ventures were started and Presbyterian Puritans
the rebellions were localised, badly organised set a precedent for future development
Brightly coloured vestments should not be worn by
and often did not have as aims the overthrow of Failures and limitations: Many voyages of clerics: Puritans (including Presbyterians and Separatists)
the monarch. exploration failed; no permanent settlements
The Pope is not the spiritual head of the Church:
established
A
LEVEL Asses the Validity of This View Industry
Anglicans and Puritans (including Presbyterians and
Separatists)
a Rebellions were ineffective: Successes and achievements: Many towns grew The Bible and services should only be in Latin:
• No change of ruler occurred due to rebellions. in size and prosperity; key industries prospered, Catholics
• No change in the religious policy of the state such as cloth, coal and shipbuilding; taxes on trade
The Church should be governed by ministers and
resulted from rebellions. suggests its prosperity; government legislation to
lay elders: Presbyterians
promote industry
• Rebellions were always localised and only once
posed any sort of direct threat to the ruler. Failures and limitations: Some towns declined; Key Question
taxes and to a lesser extent regulations might have
Rebellions had some effect: limited trade Religious settlement: Protestant ideas lay behind the
• After the Pilgrimage of Grace, Henry recognised original intention of the settlement. Catholic ideas had
Agriculture
Mary as an heir to the throne and changed some to be accepted or allowed to a certain extent so that the
of his plans for tax and political changes for the Successes and achievements: Output increased Act of Settlement would be approved by the House of
Council of the North. overall Lords and be accepted by the mass of the people.

137
 Foreign policy: Belief in Protestantism led to support Weaknesses of Catholic Church 1603: Despite 15 years of warfare and
for Scottish Presbyterians against Mary, Queen of Scots, Important: problems with royal finances and bad
Dutch Protestants against Spain, and French Huguenots harvests, the growth of trade, town and
against the Catholic League. The Pope failed to show leadership and only industry over the period left England wealthy
excommunicated Elizabeth in 1570; the Catholics enough to survive these major problems
Popular culture: Popularity of Foxe’s Book of Martyrs were divided – there were two separate groups of
and English Bibles due to Protestantism. Religious music missionary priests. • Trade and commerce: Growing cloth-making
supported by Catholics and Anglicans despite criticism domestic industry in rural areas; coal industry
of Puritans. Rise of madrigals and part songs reflected Not important: Catholicism remained a strong growing to supply London especially; shipbuilding
Renaissance ideas as did the development of drama and international religion. growing to satisfy demands of defence and trade.
poetry. Tolerance of ‘via media’ Flourishing international cloth trade, especially
Important: The compromise was supported by with the northern Netherlands; broadening of
Key Question the majority of the population including many overseas markets; formation of trading companies;
Catholics – queen was only ‘governor’ of the Church; successful trading expeditions with the New
a The context of Elizabethan peace and stability: World by Drake and Hawkins.
Elizabeth’s avoidance of war and resolution of religious vestments allowed; moderate prayer book. Most
issues provided the stability where the economy could people knew only the Protestant form of service; by • Agriculture: Agricultural production increased
prosper and so the arts could be supported financially. Elizabeth’s death, very few people would remember overall (despite interruptions from bad harvests),
Catholic services. rising demand from abroad for wool; rising
Patronage: Elizabeth was a major patron of the demand in towns for wool and foodstuffs and
arts, including leading artists who produced many Not important: Many Catholics conformed only
temporarily hoping for a Catholic succession – shipbuilding yards for timber.
copies of her image, and Shakespearean plays were
performed at court and to the public. Queen Elizabeth never married and might die e.g.
1562 smallpox; the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots Extract Analysis
Propaganda: Elizabeth employed artists, musicians was the heir until 1587.
and writers to produce propaganda to support her a Turning points: English force dispatched to the
image as ‘Gloriana’. You should complete the rest of your chart based on Netherlands; trial and execution of Mary, Queen of
any other alternative factor you have chosen. Scots in 1587; deaths of 4 privy councillors 1588-90.
b Growing numbers of schools and increased
literacy: 30 more grammar schools were established c Your judgement might be that it was the success Factually correct: War with Spain and French
in Elizabeth’s reign so more people were literate of the ‘via media’ which was most important for Catholic League; costs and casualties of the war;
and aware of artistic values. The rise of towns and the decline of Catholicism. The compromise which England was often threatened with conquest;
prosperity among the middle class and skilled workers could be looked at as a government policy but Essex’s attempted coup.
meant that there were large enough settlements to was also a factor in its own right had a chance Overall view: Elizabeth’s reign can be split into 2
support the arts in towns – especially London – and a to establish itself and lessen the attractions of ‘reigns’ with very distinctive features, with the 2nd
large enough number of people able to support it. Catholicism. one being interventionist and characterised by crises
Demand from all classes: Workers and nobles alike d You should use your answers to parts a, b and c to faced largely with new privy councillors.
were drawn to differing art forms, particularly plays. write your essay. b The argument is convincing in that it makes points
c This is your own choice. Her patronage and the stability which can be supported by contextual evidence, e.g.:
of her rule were important but economic, technological Chapter 24 • The attempted invasions of England by Spain in
and social change was essential for an educated society 1588, 1596 and 1597.
interested in the arts to emerge. However it was only in Apply Your Knowledge • The disputes with Parliament over monopolies
her reign that a highly literate public emerged, leading and the queen having to give way over legal
You should produce your own revision cards, diamond 9,
to the flourishing of English plays and poetry. challenges to monopolies.
and chronological order for this activity.
A Plan Your Essay • 88 Catholics were executed between 1590 and
LEVEL
A
LEVEL Assess the Validity of This View 1603.
a Other factors might include: the decline in appeal It can be argued to be not convincing as it overlooks
a You should produce your own chart for this
of Catholicism as a result of passing time and a evidence which undermines or qualifies it e.g.:
activity.
new generation educated in reformed ways; action
in the reign of Edward VI; general prosperity and b and c You might decide that the economy of • Elizabeth had been interventionist on occasion
sense of well-being and loyalty under Elizabeth; the England was in a much stronger position in 1603 before 1585, sending troops to Scotland and
treasonable activities surrounding Mary, Queen of than it had been in 1558 (although it is perfectly France, and the actions of privateers does not seem
Scots making Catholicism unpatriotic. possible to argue the other way round). If so, you like non-intervention. The scale of intervention
could substantiate your argument with points may have increased but not the interventions.
b Government action and policies
such as: • Essex’s attempted coup had other causes than
Important: Elizabethan settlement provided for factionalism, such as his failure in Ireland and his
1558: England emerging from a time of
a ‘via media’ embracing many former Catholics; loss of the sweet wines monopoly, which seem
warfare and heavy debts
there were harsh penal laws against those who to have been the sparks.
failed to conform – 1559 Oath of Supremacy; 1571 • Trade and commerce: High levels of
publishing papal bulls became treasonable; 1581 unemployment in towns; inflation leading to • The deaths of 4 privy councillors would not
Due Obedience Act. 1585 – being a Catholic priest high wage demands; warfare interfering with necessarily mean a change in policy; the most
became treasonable; Catholicism was only found in trade; limited growth of trading markets abroad. important privy councillor, Burghley, only died
country houses. in 1598.
• Agriculture: Series of bad harvests 1555–56
Not important: In the 1560s many only conformed and prevalence of sweating sickness 1557–58
outwardly. Some evaded laws and we cannot be indicates economic problems; lack of arable land
Revision Skills
certain how forcefully they were maintained in all indicated by encouragement to convert land You should produce your own cards, charts or timeline for
parts of the country. from pasture. this activity. For an example of a good timeline see page 9.

138
Glossary
A F prerogative rights: describes those
Act of Attainder: declared a landowner feudal: the medieval system by which rights or powers which the monarch
guilty of rebelling against a monarch society was structured depending on could exercise without requiring the
relationships in which land was held consent of Parliament
Amicable Grant: ordered by Wolsey in
1525 to raise more money for war in return for some form of service purgatory: the state in which the souls
of the dead were purged of their sins
annates: revenue paid to the Pope G before they could enter the kingdom
by a bishop or other cleric on his
Gothic: the style of architecture of heaven
appointment, collected in England
and sent to Rome; also known as the prevalent in Western Europe in the
12th to 16th centuries, characterised
R
‘First Fruits’ (primitiae in Latin)
by pointed arches and large windows recognisance: a formal
anticlericalism: opposition to the
grace: the pure state a soul needed to be acknowledgement of a debt or other
Church’s role in political and other
in to enter heaven obligation which could be enforced by
non-religious matters
means of financial penalty
B H Renaissance: a cultural and intellectual
heresy: the denial of the validity of the movement which, beginning in Italy,
bond: a legal document which bound emphasised a revival of interest in
an individual to another to perform key doctrines of the Church
classical learning and the arts
an action or forfeit a specified sum of
money if they failed to do so
I
S
iconoclasm: the rejection or destruction
C of images associated with established Submission of the Clergy: the
values and practices formal surrender of the Church’s
Calvinism: ideas on Church doctrine and independent law-making function
organisation put forward in Geneva by Intercursus Magnus: the major
the French reformer John Calvin commercial treaty between England subsidy: historically, a grant issued by
and the Duchy of Burgundy which Parliament to the sovereign for state
Chamber: the private areas of the Court; needs
also a key department for the efficient restored normal trading links between
collection of royal revenues the two Supplication against the Ordinaries:
a form of petition directed against
chancery: the main court of equity in the M alleged abuses of ordinary jurisdiction
kingdom
magnate: a member of the higher ranks T
chantries: chapels where Masses for the of the nobility
souls of the dead took place tonnage and poundage: the right to
martial law: legal authority and political
common rights: denotes the legal right control exercised by military authority raise revenue for the whole reign from
of tenants to use common land, for imports and exports
example for keeping animals; the P transubstantiation: the Christian belief
exact nature of these rights varied that the substance of bread and wine
from place to place parliamentary sanction: an official
confirmation or ratification of a law was completely changed into the
E given by Parliament as the acclaimed substance of Christ’s body and blood
body of the state by a validly ordained priest during the
Erasmianism: the body of ideas consecration at Mass
associated with Erasmus and his perpendicular style: the dominant form
followers of church architecture in England from
the later 14th to the early 16th century,
extraordinary revenue: money raised
so-called because of its emphasis on
by the king from additional sources
vertical lines
as one-off payments when he faced
an emergency or an unforeseeable praemunire: a parliamentary statute
expense of government; this could enacted in 1393 to prevent papal
be made up of parliamentary grants, interference in the rights of the Crown
loans, clerical taxes, for example to make appointments to Church office

139
 Top revision tips for A Level History

The Tudors: England 1485–1603

The History revision tips on this page are based on research reports on History revision and on the latest AQA
examiners’ reports.

General advice
Make a realistic revision timetable for the months Eat healthily and make sure you have regular amounts
leading up to your exams and plan regular, short of sleep in the lead-up to your exams. This is obvious,
sessions for your History revision. Research shows but research shows this can help students perform
that students who break down their revision into better in exams.
30- to 60-minute sessions (and take short breaks in
Make sure your phone and laptop are put away at
between subjects) are more likely to succeed
least an hour before you go to bed. You will experience
in exams.
better quality sleep if you have had time away from
Use the progress checklists (pages 3–4) to help you the screen before sleeping.
track your revision. It will enable you to stick to your
revision plan.

Revising your History knowledge and understanding

Using a variety of revision techniques can help to Make sure you understand key concepts for this topic,
embed knowledge successfully, so don’t just stick such as royal authority, humanism and Renaissance.
to one style. Try different revision methods, such as: If you’re unsure, attend your school revision sessions
flashcards, making charts, diagrams and mind-maps, and ask your teacher to go through important
highlighting your notebooks, colour-coding, re-reading concepts again.
your textbook or summarising your notes, group
Identify your weaknesses. Which topics are easy and
study, revision podcasts, and working through the
which are more challenging for you? Give yourself
activities in this Revision Guide.
more time to revise the challenging topics.
Create a timeline with colour-coded sticky notes to
Answer past paper questions and check the answers
make sure you remember important dates relating to
(using the AQA mark schemes) to practise applying
the six Tudors Breadth Study key questions (use the
your knowledge correctly and accurately to
timeline on page 9 as a starting point).
exam questions.

Revising your History exam technique

Review the AQA mark scheme (page 8) for each exam Ask your teacher for the examiners’ reports – you can
question, and make sure you understand how you will find out from the reports what the examiners want to
be marked. see in the papers, and their advice on what not to do.
Make sure you revise your skills as well as your Time yourself and practise answering past paper
knowledge. In particular, ensure you know how to questions.
approach the extracts question. Practise identifying
Take mock exams seriously. You can learn from them
the overall interpretation in extracts.
how to manage your time better under strict exam
Find a memorable way to recall the How to master conditions.
your exam skills steps (pages 6–7) – it will help you
plan your answers effectively and quickly.

140
Notes:

141
 Notes:

142
Notes:

143
Topics available from Oxford AQA History for A Level

Tsarist and Communist Challenge and Transformation: The Tudors: England Stuart Britain and the Crisis The Making of aSuperpower: The Quest for Political
Russia 1855–1964 Britain c1851–1964 1485–1603 of Monarchy 1603–1702 USA 1865–1975 Stability: Germany 1871–1991
978 019 835467 3 978 019 835466 6 978 019 835460 4 978 019 835462 8 978 019 835469 7 978 019 835468 0

The British Empire Industrialisation and the Wars and Welfare: Britain in The Cold War Democracy and Nazism: Revolution and Dictatorship:
c1857–1967 People: Britain c1783–1885 Transition 1906–1957 c1945–1991 Germany 1918–1945 Russia 1917–1953
978 019 835463 5 978 019 835453 6 978 019 835459 8 978 019 835461 1 978 019 835457 4 978 019 835458 1

Religious Conflict and the International Relations and The American Dream: Reality The Making of Modern The Crisis of Communism: The English Revolution
Church in England Global Conflict c1890–1941 and Illusion 1945–1980 Britain 1951–2007 the USSR and the Soviet 1625–1660
c1529–c1570 978 019 835454 3 978 019 835455 0 978 019 835464 2 Empire 1953–2000 978 019 835472 7
978 019 835471 0 978 019 835465 9

RECAP APPLY REVIEW SUCCEED

France in Revolution The Transformation of

1774–1815 China 1936–1997
978 019 835473 4 978 019 835456 7

The Tudors: Democracy & Nazism: Tsarist & Communist: The Making of Modern
England 1485–1603 Germany 1918–1945 Russia 1855–1964 Britain 1951–2007
Revision Guide Revision Guide Revision Guide Revision Guide
978 019 842140 5 978 019 842142 9 978 019 842144 3 978 019 842146 7

Oxford AQA History for A Level Revision Guides offer step-by-step

Also available strategies and the structured revision approach of Recap, Apply and
in eBook format eBook
Available
Review to help students achieve exam success.

Order online at www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/aqahistory

2
Oxford AQA History
Written and checked by subject experts

The Tudors: England

1485-1603
REVISION GUIDE
RECAP APPLY REVIEW SUCCEED

The Oxford AQA History for A Level textbook series has been
developed by a trusted team of expert teachers and examiners led
by Sally Waller. This matching Revision Guide offers well-researched
revision and exam practice advice to help you master your AQA AS
and A Level History exam skills.

n Recap key events with concise points and clear diagrams

n Apply your knowledge with targeted revision activities that

test basic comprehension, then apply your understanding to
exam-style questions

n Review and track your revision with step-by-step guidance

on how to master exam questions, progress checklists, answers
guidance and Exam Practice sections

n Examiner Tip features the most up-to-date guidance based

on the latest examiners’ reports and identifies common exam
mistakes

n Boost your confidence on all AQA question types with revision

activities such as Extract Analysis and Key Question

n Perfect for use alongside the Oxford AQA History textbook series
or for independent revision.

This structured Revision Guide helps you recap, apply and review
your way towards exam success.

To see the full range of Breadth and Depth History textbooks

(including eBooks) and revision guides available in this series, visit
www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/aqahistory
eBook
Available

How to get in touch:

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