Bacteria

By :Dr.Drona pokhrel
Bacteriology :
• Bacteria are unicellular, prokaryotic, ubiquitous,simplest microorganism.
• Discovered by :A.V leeuwenhoek
• The term bacterium was given by :Ehrenberg
• Father of microbiology :louis Pasteur,( gave the germ theory of
disease,discovered pasteurization,fermentation )

• Father of Bacteriology :Robert Koch (proposed Koch’s postulates,

discovered mycobacterium.)

• Father of antiseptic surgery : joseph lister .

Size of bacteria
• Average size range :2-10 um
• Smallest bacterium :Dialister pneumosintes
• Largest bacterium :Beggiatoa mirabilis
• Longest bacterium :bacillus butschii

Q )why bacteria as considered as plants ?

-having rigid cell wall .
Shape of bacteria
Shape of bacteria
• Baccillus :rod shaped
:very common
:usually flagellated
• Coccus : spherical or oval ,smallest bacteria .
:monococcus,diplococcus,streptococcus(in the chain )
,staphylococcus(graphes like ) ,sarcina(cubic )
• Vibrio: c or comma shaped. Eg :vibrio cholerae
• Spirillum : spiral shaped ,eg :Helicobactor pylori
• Spirochatae: eg:Treponema pallidium.
Flagella in bacteria
• Extracellular appendages for locomotion .
• Arises from blepharoplast ,do not contain tubulin proteins and
microtubules.
• Made of flagellin protein
• Absent of 9+2 arrangement .
• Atrichous : eg lactobacillus
• Monotrichous : eg vibrio cholerae
• Amphitrichous : eg Nitrosomonas
• Cephalotrichous : eg spirochaetae
• Lophotrichous : eg Azotobacter
• Peritrichous : eg. Escherichia ,clostridium.
Cellular organizations in bacteria
Fimbriae(pilli)
• Hollow ,non helical appendages
• Extensions of cell membranes and contain pillin protein .
• Helps in :facilitating the attachment of bacterial cell and helps in
conjugation .
• Present in gram –ve bacteria .
• Type I pilli : helps attachment of bacterial cell into host cell.
• Sex pilli :Helps in formation of conjugation tube
Capsule or slime layers(loose)
• Outer most layer .
• Made of : polysaccharides and amino acids
• S type bacteria : capsulated and virulent .
• R type bacteria :non capsulated and non virulent .

• Capsule act as osmotic barrier and reserve food during food scarcity .
Cell wall
Cell wall
• Non- cellulosic except (Azotobactor)
• Made of peptidoglycan or mucopeptide or murein .
• N-acetyl glucosamine (NAG) and N acetyl muramic acid (NAM) and
Some traces teichoic acid ,lipopolysaccharides.
• Peptidoglycan is thick in : gram positive bacteria

• Higher percentage of lipid is present : gram negative bacteria

• Teichoic acids :are present in gram positive ,protects from thermal
injuries .
Gram negative and gram positive bacteria
LONG PPT
Differences between gram positive and
negative
Positive Negative
• Peptidioglycan (80-90%) ,lipid (20%) • High lipid(80%),peptidoglycan (3-12%)
• Thick ,teichoic acids • Thinner
• Fimbrae /pilli: absent • Fimbrae /pilli present
• Mesosomes prominent • Mesosomes are rare or absent
• Non capsulated and usually found in coccus • Usually capsulated and found in bacillus form
• Produce exotoxin • Produce endotoxin
• Non virulent and non pathogenic • Virulent and pathogenic

• Eg:streptococcus ,clostridium ,staphylococcus • Eg:salmonella ,Escherichia ,pseudomonas ,

Cell membrane /plasma membranes
• It is semi permeable with lipoproteins,phospholipids without sterols
• Presence of respiratory enzymes .
• Cell membrane is invaginated at certain places into cytoplasm in the
form of convulated or finger like : mesosomes /chondriosome
,bacterial mitochondria )

• In photosynthetic bacteria ,plasma membranes give rise to vesicular

thylakoids rich in bacteriochlorophylls and bacterioveridins.
• Also helps during binary fission
Cytoplasm
• Homogenous with genetic and extra genetic materials
• Ribosome :70s (50s +30s).
• Several ribosomes are held together by mean of messenger RNA
forming :polyribososmes
• Absence of membrane found cell organelles like plastid
,mitochondria,centrioles ,ER,GB.
• Food materials : glycogen , oils ,volutin granules
Genetic materials
• True nucleus is absent ,nuclear apparatus ,membrane are absent .
• Genetic materials is also known as :genophore /incipient nucleus
/nucleoid /prochromosome /nucelar equivalent .
• DNA : ds circular DNA
• DNA is naked (without histone protein )freely scattered in
cytoplasm)
Extra genetic materials
• Plasmid : extrachromosomal DNA found in bacteria (self replicating)
• (all the episomes are plasmid but all the plasmids are not episomes)
• Lederberg used the term plasmid .
• R plasmid :resistance to antibiotics
• Nif plasmid:N2 fixation
• F plasmid : fertility factor .
• Episomes :extrachromosomal DNA which can replicate autonomously
or can integrate with bacterial DNA chromosome .
Nutrition in Bacteria
• May be autotrophic ,heterotrophic and symbiotic
Autotrophic
Photoautotrophic
• Source of energy is : sunlight
• Source of carbon is atmospheric carbondioxide
• Photosynthetic pigments are found in :lamellae embedded in cytoplasm
• Only photosystem I is found .(remember: photosystem I and II are found in
cyanobacteria )
• Photosynthesis in bacteria is anoxygenic as they used H2S instead of H2O and
produce sulphur .

• Photoautotrophic bacteria have :Bacteriochlorophyll a,b and Bacterioverdins

• Purple sulphur bacteria (chloromatium)
• Green sulphur bacteria (chlorobium )
Chemoautotrophic bacteria
• Lack of photosynthetic pigments .
• formation of food material by : chemosynthesis
• Source of energy :oxidation of inorganic substance
• Co2 from atmosphere and H2 from different inorganic compounds .
• Iron bacteria : eg Leptothrix
• Sulphur bacteria : eg Begigiota
• Nitrifying bacteria: eg Nitrosomonas and Nitrobactor
• Hydrogen bacteria : eg Hydrogenomonas
• Methane bacteria: eg methanomonas
Heterotrophic bacteria
• Parasitic bacteria :obtain food from host body

• Saprophytic bacteria :obtain food from dead and decay materials .

• Symbiotic bacteria :make symbiotic relationship with other organism

,like rhizobium with root nodules of legumes .
Respiration in bacteria
• Obligate aerobic :
eg,azotobactor,baccilus
(live only presence of oxygen only)
• Obligate anaerobes : eg clostridium
(live only in the absence of oxygen)
• Facultative aerobes : eg chlorobium
(live in absence of oxygen but they can live in presence of oxygen as
well.)
• Facultative anaerobes : eg pseudomonas
(live in presence of oxygen but they can live in the absence of oxygen as
well.)
Reproduction in bacteria
• Vegetative ,asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction
vegetative
Binary fission:most common method .
:usually common in coccus .
: takes 20 min and number become
2*n where n is number of divisions .
:in favourable conditions
: so also called fission fungi
Budding : rare ,common in bacillus .
Asexual reproduction
Endospore formation :
• Thin walled and highly refractile
• Highly resistant (heat resistant ) single spore formed inside the bacterial
cell .
• Resistant is due to calcium,dipicolinic acid and peptidoglycan .
• Reproduction without multiplication :
• ( also called vegetative or perennating spores )

• Endospore is common : bacillus form .

Sexual reproduction
• True sexual reproduction is absent ,no meiosis,no zygote ,no diplod
stage .
Transformation
• Genetic combination occurs without body contact .

• Genetic material of one bacterial cell goes into the another bacterial
cell.
• Experiment was done by :Griffith on Diplococcus pneumonae

• When R types and S strain (heat killed) is mixed non capsulated R

type is converted to capsulated type .non capsulated R type is
transformed into capsulated type .
Transduction
• Genetic material of one bacterial cell goes to another bacterial cell
with the help of vectors (bacteriophage ).
• Experiment is perfomed Zinder and Lederberg .on salmonella
typhinerium.
Conjugation
• Discovered by Lederberg and tautam ,experimented in Escherichia
coli.( shows sexual dimorphism)
• cell with sex pilli (F plasmid ) is F+ and without that is F- cell (
recipient )
Archaebacteria (oldest living fossils )
• Heterogenous group of prokaryotes living in most extreme
environmental condition .
• Cell wall lacks peptidoglycan and muramic acid
• Methanogens : obligate anaerobes that produce methane

• Halophiles :salt loving bacteria

• Thermoacidophiles :high temperature and acid loving bacteria ,found

in hot springs
Rickettsia
• As compare to bacteria rickettsia have : smaller size ,smaller genome
,
Longer generation time.
• Considered as link between bacteria and virus .
• Rocky mountain spotted fever ,typhus fever ,Q fever are caused by
rickettsia .
Actinomycetes
• Also called actinobacteria or ray fungi
• Connecting link between bacteria and fungi
• Richest source of : antibiotics
Mycoplasma
• Smallest ,simplest ,unicellular free living without cell wall .
• Also called PPLO(Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism ).
• Also called joker of plant kingdom (due to lack of cell wall)
• Contain both DNA and RNA : DNA is ds stranded and its linear (never
circular)
• Resistant to the antibiotics like penicillin .
Disease caused by mycoplasma
• Little leaf of brinjal .
• Bunchy top of papaya .
• Citrus greening ,clover dwarf .
• Mycoplasmal urethritis
• Atypical pneumonia
Economic importance’s of bacteria
• Helps in nitrogen cycle .some bacteria helps in nitrogen fixation and some
in nitrification and ammonifications .

• Dairy industries : eg lactobacillus helps in making curd

• Decomposer in ecosystem: due to saprophytic nature ,they are main

reducers /scavenger of our ecosystem.

• Used in genetic engineering : plasmid used as vectors .

• Retting of fibres (for easy extraction of fibres) eg Bacillus subtilis
• Antibiotics : different antibiotics are obtained
• Curing of tea and tobacco leaf (flavouring ) eg Bacillus
megatherium

Harmful effects of bacteria

• Poisoning of food :eg clostridium botulinum cause botulism ,salmonella
food poisoning
• Biological weapon:eg Anthrax spores
• Denitrification of soil : reduce the fertility of soil
Human disease caused by bacteria
• Syphilis treponema palladium
• Plague(black death) yersinia pestis
• Tetanus clostridium tetani
• Typhoid salmonella typhi
• Tuberculosis mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Cholera vibrio cholerae
• Meningitis Neisseria meningitis
• Anthrax bacillus anthracis
• Food poisoning clostridium
Plant disease caused by bacteria
• Citrus canker xanthomoans citri
• Black root of crucifers xanthomonas compestris
• Crown gall disease agrobacterium tumefaciens
• Wilt of potatao/tomato pseudomonas solanacearum
• Q)little leaf of brinjal is caused by
a) bacteria b)virus
c)fungi d) mycoplasma
Q)Archaebacteria contains
a) pseudomonas b)cyanophyceae
c)methanogens d) green sulphur
Q)When milk is heated at 62degree Celsius for 30 min the cooled the process
is
a)sterilization b)pasteurization
c)nitrification d)freezing
Q)Thermoacidophilus are found in
a) cattle dung b) hot springs
c) brine solution d) fresh water
Q)Bacterial cell divides in every minute,it takes one hour to fill up a cup
.how much time it will take to fill half of cup ?
a)59minutes b)30minutes
c)60minutes d)29 minutes
Q)Bacterial cell divides in every minutes ,it takes one hour to fill a cup
.how much time it will take to fill 4 cups ?
a)59 minutes b) 62 minutes
c)60 minutes d)61 minutes
Q)A bacterium divides in every 20 minutes .how many bacteria will be
formed within 3 hours ?
a)18 b)36
c) 256 d) 512
Q)Cell wall of bacteria doesnot contain
a)murein b)chitin
c) amino acids d) sterols
Cyanobacteria(blue green algae )
• Close to gram negative bacteria and most successful prokaryotic
groups.
• They are oxygenic photosynthetic groups .
• Found in alkaline soil,moist rocks,water ponds ,streams ,lakes.
• Some found in symbiotic association : eg Anabena with azolla,Nostic
with Anthoceros ,coralloid roots of cycas
• Never heterotrophic
• Cyanobacteria living inside protozoans : cyanallae
Nostoc cellular structure
• Thallus is present in the form of colony
• Ball like colony is surrounded by: muciligenous sheath /gelatinous
sheath.
• Colony consists of many straight or twisted filaments .
• Each filaments are called :trichome ,unbranched and appears as
beaded structure .
• Presence of thylakoids and unstacked .
• Photosynthetic pigments are :chlorophyll a,xanthophyll.c
phycoerythrin.c phycocyanin,carotens .
• Cell wall is two layered : outer layer is made of cellulose and inner is
made of peptidoglycan .

• Protoplasm is differentiated in to outer chromoplasm and inner

central centroplasm.

• DNA is naked .
• Reserve food material :cyanophycean starch
• Pyrenoids are : are absent
• Red colour of red sea is due to : Blue green algae (trichodesmium
erythrium

• (sea becomes red due to :red algae )

Reproduction in blue green algae
• Sexual reproduction is absent
• Mostly by vegetative or asexual reproduction .
• Fragmentation : colonies broke due to some disturbances and small
filaments detached and form new colonies .
Hormogonia :
• motile filaments produced from broken filaments near to the
heterocyst ,during favourable condition ,.its common method of
reproduction
Akinete or arthrospores
• Resting spores . Formed during unfavourable condition .
• Non motile thick walled spores . Dense thicked walled cells within
filaments
• High amount of reserved food materials
Heterocyst
• Thick walled specialized for N2 fixation .
• Sometime they helps in reproduction as well,
• Thick walled cells within filaments having
Polar bodies

Endospores :heterocyst cell goes irregular division

And forms thin walled spores known as endospores .
Later they germinate by bursting walls of heterocyst.
Economic importance
• Single cell protein(SCP) : eg ,spirulina ( highly rich source of protein)
• Biofertilizers :Anabena ,Nostoc helps in nitrogen fixation
• Prevention of growth of mosquito larva: eg some species of anabena
,Aulosira can prevent the growth of mosquito larva

• Spoilage of drinking water .

• Responsible for water bloom .
• Rainy season road becomes slippery due to BGA.
Q)Which of the following has polar bodies in both ends ?
a)akinetes b) hormogonia
c)heterocysts d) none
Q)The cell wall of cyanobacteria has
a) outer peptidoglycan and inner cellulose
b)inner peptidoglycan and outer cellulose
c) single layer of cellulose
d)single layer of peptidoglycan
Q) The most primitive in the following are
a)cyanobacteria b)bryophytes
c)gymnosperms d)monocots
Q)Nitrogenase found in nostoc in
a)vegetative cells b)akinetes
c)heterocysts d)both in akinete and
heterocysts.
Q) Cyanobacteria of great nutritive value
a)gleocapsa b) scytonema
c) anabaena d) spirulina
Q) The earliest known oxygenic photiosynthesizers are
a) photoautotrophic bacteria
b)archaebacteria
c)chemoautotrophic bacteria
d)cynaobacteria