Lab - (IV)

Submitted to: Mam Ayesha

Submitted by: Sadia Shabbir
Roll number : BS-PHY-E-22-05
Semester: BS phy 4th evening
Experiment No. 01
Calculation of Planck’s constant by using photoelectric
effect
 Objectives:
1. To demonstrate that light can cause the emission of electrons from a
material’s surface.

2. To investigate the relationship between the intensity of light and the

number of emitted electrons.

3. To study how the energy of the emitted electrons depends on the

frequency of the incident light.

4. To determine the threshold frequency of light required to cause

photoemission.

 Abstract:
• In this experiment we Measure Planck's Constant Using the Photoelectric
Effect.

• First of all we arrange apparatus as we arrange photoelectric effect

apparatus.

• Then we incident different wavelength photon and calculate stopping

voltage of electrons that's emit due to photo electric effect. The electrons
then flow through the phototube to the collector and create a current flow.

• A voltage called the stopping voltage or stopping potential is applied to

prevent the flow of photoelectrons.
  Apparatus:

• Light source

• Digital voltmeter

• Ammeter

• Vacuum photo tube

• Filters of different colors

 Introduction:
• When light strikes a metallic surface, electrons are emitted from the
surface. This effect is called the photoelectric effect. The emitted
electrons, called photoelectrons, have varying kinetic energies that are
primarily dependent upon the frequency of the light that strikes the
surface.

 Procedure:
• Plug in and turn on the light source. Place the light source directly in front
of the opening to the phototube.

• Note down the wavelength of the filter and insert it in the slot above the
phototube.

Insert the red color filter (635nm)

• Set light intensity switch at strong light Voltage direction switch at *-*
• Display mode switch at current display.

• Adjust to de-accelerating voltage to 0 V and set current multiplier at

X0.001.

• Increase the de-accelerating to decrease the photo current to zero.

Take down the de-accelerating voltage (Vs) corresponding to zero current of

635nm wavelength.

• Get the Vs of other wave lengths, the same way.

• (Repeat for at least 2 distances say 40cm and 30cm).

 Observations and calculations

• From graph Vs (stopping potential) vs v (frequency) hex slope of graph
hex AVs/Av h=1.6x10-19 x 0.366 Substituting the values of AVs and Av
from graph h can be found, h = 5.85x10-34 Joule-sec.

 Standard value of h = 6.62x10-34 Joules-sec.

 Results:
When light shines on a metal, electrons can be ejected from the surface of
the metal in a phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect. This process is
also often referred to as photoemission, and the electrons that are ejected
from the metal are called photoelectrons.

 Conclusion:
 1) The number of ejected electrons is proportional to the intensity of the
incident light
2) Whether electrons are ejected is dependent on the frequency of the
light
3) The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons depends o n the
frequency of the light
4) At low intensities, electrons are ejected immediately.

 Precautions:
The instrument should be kept in dust proof and moisture proof
environment, if there is dust on the phototube, color filter, lens
etc.
Clean it by using absorbent cotton with a few drops of alcohol.
The colour filter should be stored in dry and dust proof
environment.
After finishing the experiment remember to switch off power and
cover the drawtube with the lens cover provided. Phototube is
light sensitive device and its sensitivity decrease with exposure to
light and due to ageing.
Experiment No. 02
To measure the wavelength of sodium light by using
Michelson interferometer
 Objectives:
The aim of the Michelson interferometer was to measure accurate length
changes of a sample due to tension or compression . It was also used to
guide light between the individual components of an optical circuit
integrated into a common substrate, leading to compact rugged systems
with excellent optical performance .

 Abstract:
The interferometer monochromatic light from extant.ed source divided Into
the equal amplitude beam by by beam spitters.One beam travel towards the
fix mirror and other beam move movable Miror. The interferometer pattern
shift dark to light or vice versa of each The unknown wavelength of the
incidert light, A, can be calculated using The Michelson interferometer
equation mÀ: 2nd where, m is the umber of Fringes recorded as the scanning
mirror of the Michelson interferometer Moves through the distance.

 Apparatus:
 Beam splitters
 Two mirrors
 Detector
 The pin hole
 Introduction:
A precision instrument that produces Interference fringes by splitting a light
Beam into two parts and then recombining Them after they have traveled
differently.

 Procedure:
It takes in a light wave as input

Deconstructs it into two identical waves via a Half-silvered mirror

Sends each light wave halve in different directions perpendicular to each

other

And later recombines them to produce and interference pattern.

  Diagram:

. Fig 2. Michelson interferometer

 Observations and calculations

  Observations and calculations:

 Conclusion:
The speed of light is independent of the speed of the light source and
therefore of the light.
Experiment No. 03
Determination of charge to mass ratio (e/m) of an electron
using a nareow fine beam tube.
 Objectives:
The electron charge to mass ratio was an experiment that was used to
calculate the ratio of the electron’s charge to its mass. A beam of electrons
was used that was subjected to a magnetic field that caused it to shift
direction.

 Abstract :
The aim of this lab was to determine an experimental value for the charge-
to-mass ratio e/me of the electron. In order to do this, an assembly
consisting of Helmholtz coils and a helium-filled fine beam tube containing
an electron gun was used. Electrons were accelerated from rest by the
electron gun at a voltage of 201.3 V kept constant across trials. When the
accelerated electrons collided with the helium atoms in the fine beam tube,
the helium atoms entered an excited state and released energy as light.
Since the Helmholtz coils put the electrons into centripetal motion, this
resulted in a circular beam of light, the radius of which was measured by
taking a picture and using photo analysis.

 Apparatus:
• Electron gun

• Helmholtz coil

•A helium filled vaccum tube

 Schematic diagram:
  Procedure:
1. If you are working in lighted place hood over the e/m apparatus.

2. Flip the toggle switch up to e/m measure position.

3. Turn the current adjust the knob for the Helmholtz of position.

4. Connect your ammeter voltmeter and power supply to the main control
parmel.

 Observations and calculations:

• A charge particle is moving in a magnetic field experience a magnetic
force. F = qvxB....(1)

In this experience the electron beam will be perpendicular to magnetic field.

The equation can be written

F = evB....(2)

e- charge of electron field since beam of electron is perpendicular to

magnetic field electron moving in a circular path.

F = mv²/r....(3)

Compare equation (2) or (3)

evB = mv²/r

eBr= mv

Taking square in both sides

(eBr) ^ 2 = (mv)^2

e/ m = 2v / (R ^ 2)

Is a potential.

Using a Bio-Savart law magnetic field produce near the axis of Helmholtz
coil.

B = 8N / 5 * R * sqrt(Ruo)

µ0= permeability of free space.

Μο = 4π × 10-7 Ν/A2

1.6×10-19/9.1×10-31=1.75×10-11c/kg
  Conclusion:
The accepted value lies within the range of the experimental value and gives
a percent error of 5.17%

 Precautions:
1.Electron gun filament voltage 6.3v.

2.Helmholtz coil ≤ 2A.

3.Accelerating voltage.

4.150≤≥300

5.Adjust accelerating (AC) voltage (150).

6.Helmholtz coil current con not exceed 2A.

7.Adjust the coil current So the beam radius Successively.

8. Now apply voltage 200v and 250.

9.Not all the radius.

10.Calculate the average of radius of coil by By measuring.

Experiment no. 04
To study the magnetic behaviour of a magnetic material
(B.H curve)
 Objectives:
To Study B-H curve and to find out the values of coercivity, retentivity and
saturation magnetisation ofexperimental material. (commercial Nickel).

 Abstract:
The B-H curve, also known as the magnetization curve or hysteresis curve, is
a graphical representation that describes the magnetic properties of a
material. It shows the relationship between the magnetic field strength (H)
and the magnetic flux density (B) of a material.

 Apparatus:
Set up for B-H curve, experimental material (commercial Nickel), CRO,
connecting leads.

 Introduction:
A precise knowledge of various magnetic parameters of ferromagnetic
substances and the ability todetermine them accurately are important
aspects of magnetic studies. These not only have academicsignificance but
are also indispensible for both the manufacturers and users of magnetic
materials.The characteristics which are usually used to define the quality of
the substance are coercivity, retentivity,saturation magnetisation and
hysteresis loss. Furthermore, the understanding of the behaviour of
thesesubstances and improvement in their quality demand that the number
of magnetic phases present in asystem is also known.A B.H Curve plots
changes in a magnetic circuit’s flux density as the magnetic field strength is
graduallyincreased. The resulting shape indicates how the flux density
increases due to the gradual alignment of the Magnetic domains.

 Procedure:
When an empty pickup coil is placed in the solenoid field, the signal will
only be due to the fluxlinking with coil area on CRO it will be only a
horizontal straight line representing the magnetic field H.Thus without a
sample in the pickup coil a good horizontal straight line is a proof of
 completecancellation of signals at the input. From unknown values of H
And the corresponding magnitude of e.

 B.H curve:

Hysteresis loop.

 Observations:
Calculate the areala) of B-H curve by counting the number of squares inside
the loop. Also measure the value of (Bm) of the loop.

Now plot a graph taking log(Bm) along X-axis and logla) along Y-axis.

Result:
i) The B-H loops drawn for the given Feromagnetic material are enclosed
herewith.

() The Steinmetz law for energy loss in hysteresis

Cycle is verified.

 Precautions:
It should have:

High relentivily

High coercivity

High permeability.
Experiment no: 05
X-ray diffraction (XRD)
 Objective:
• Relationship between structures of engineering materials

• To understand the classification of crystals

• To understand mathematical description of ideal crystal

• To understand Miller indices for directions and planes in lattices and

crystals

• To understand how to use X-Ray Diffraction for determination of crystal

geometry

 Abstract:
X-ray powder diffraction is one of the most potential characterization tools
and a nondestructive technique for characterizing both organic and inorganic
crystalline materials. The method previously used for measuring phase
identification, quantitative analysis and to determine structure imperfections
of samples from various disciplines such as geology, polymeric,
environmental, pharmaceutical, and forensic sciences. In recent years, the
applications have become extended to characterize carbon based materials
and their composite properties. X-ray diffraction is used widely for
quantitative analysis of geological samples but studies which document the
accuracy of the methods employed are not numerous.

 Apparatus:
X-ray diffractometers consist of three basic elements:

 an X-ray tube
 a sample holder,
 an X-ray detector
  Introduction:
• It is a non-destructive analytical techniques used to study the structure,
composition and physical properties of materials.

• Bragg’s law is used to explain the interference pattern of X-rays.

• It is commonly known as X-ray diffraction or X-ray wave interference.

 Procedure:
I. We will examine a Ni powder sample on a Panalytical Alpha-1 XRD
instrument.
II. First, choose the mask to fix the beam size according to your sample
diameter. The beam must not have a footprint larger than the sample
at the smallest θ value (typically ~ 70-100). For a sample of width ε,
the beam size should be < ε sinθ.
III. Load the sample in the sample spinner stage and lock the sample into
position. The sample spinner helps to spatially randomize the exposure
of the sample to the X-ray source.
IV. Choose the angle range for your XRD scan. For example 15-90 degrees
is a typical range.
V. Choose a step size, i.e. the increment in 2θ, and integration (counting)
time. Generally a 0.05 degree step size and 4 seconds integration is
the default for a wide angle scan.
VI. Once all the peak positions are determined through this initial scan,
subsequent scans can focus on a narrower scan range around specific
peaks using a smaller step size in angle if higher resolution data from
those peaks are desired.

fig2. Illustration of Bragg’s law

  Conclusion:
X-Ray diffraction allowed us to observe more detailed strain data than
conventional methods, and the full strain tensor was computed for a variety
of strain levels

The percent of strain on each component of the material was found. While
the polymer portion of nacre constitutes less than 5% of the material by
weight, it carries between 6.5 and 16.5 percent of the load.

This could explain the high toughness exhibited by Nacre.