UNIT CHRISTIANITY I

Structure

21.0 Objectives
2 1.1 Introduction
2 1.2 Sources and Beliefs
21.2.1 The Founder of Christianity
21.2.2 The Biblical Concept of God
21.2.3 The Biblical Concept of Body, Soul and Salvation
21.2.4 Organisation and Communion
2 1.3 Teachings of Christianity
21.3.1 Purity of a Person and the Moral Deeds
21.3.2 Forgiving Sins and Evils
2 1.3.3 Evangelisation and Baptism
21.4 Christian Social Order
2 1.4.1 Universal Brotherhood .
2 1.4.2 Egalitarian Outlook
2 1-43 Service of Underprivileged
21.5 The' Church and the Wider World
21.5.1 Adaptation to the World
2 1.5.2 Civil Authority
21.5.3 Society's Impact on Church
2 1.5.4 Sects and Sub-divisions
21-6 Christianity, Modem Society and Social Evolution
2 1.7 Christianity in India
2 1.7.1 Advent of Europeans
21.7.2 Christian Population
2 1.7.3 Denominations and Sects
2 1.7.4 Missionaries and Welfare Activities
21.8 Let Us Sum Up
21.9 Key Words
2 1.10 Further Readings
2 1.11 Answers. to Check Your Progress

21.0 OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of this unit are to acquaint you with the religious belief system
and social order of Christianity. After reading this unit you should be able to

discuss the chief sources and beliefs in Christianity

examine the teaching of Jesus Christ
explain the Christian social order
describe Christian view on the Church and the world
. discuss various aspects of Christianity in India.

21.1 INTRODUCTION
As indicated, India is a plural society. One of the significant elements of this
plurality is that of the religious belief systems and religious practices. Religion is an
important dimension of group fonnation. The world view and the behaviopl patterns
of a social-groupare largely shaped by their religious practices and beliefs. Christianity
is an important world religion. A sizeable section of the Indian population follows
Christianity. It will be sociologically significant to analyse and know the basic tenets
of Christianity and social organisation of its followers.
 In Unit 17 of ESO-02 we discussed the Christian social organisation with special Christianity
reference to India. In this unit we shall introduce you to the basic tenets of Christian
religious belief. We also will introduce you briefly to the socio-religious aspects of
Christianity in India. After reading this unit, you should be able to know the Christians
belief system and about their life on earth and hereafter. The Christian way of life
and the ideal Christian society are also- discussed in this unit. How the faith of
Christians is nourished and how they derive spiritual inspiration about the consequences
of the adaptation of the Christian community to the world, and some broad ideas
about Christians in India are discussed at length in this unit.

Though the Christians are heavily eoncentrated in the countries of the European
and American continents, the followers of Christianity are found in almost all the
countries of the world. They are subdivided into a large number of churches and
denominations based on organisational and doctrinal differences. These subdivisions
can be subsumed under the three broader categories of (1) the Roman Catholic
Church, (2) the Eastern Orthodox Church and (3) the Protestant denominations.
The first two categories date from the early period of Christianity and the third
category of churches sprung during the last few centuries owing their origin to
dissident w u p s from the parent bodies. The basic elements of Christianity described
in this lesson are, however, common to all the above categories of churches.
I Besides these Christian churches, there are centain cults such as Christian Science,
Jehovah h Mtnesses, Mormonism or "Latter-day Saints", the Unz$cation Church
or "Moonies" and so on, which though akin to Christianity, differ from the Biblical
Christianity in important respects.

I n describing Christianity from the sociological perspective, in this lesson, some of

the functions which a religion is expected to perform will be kept in view. These
functions include the assistance which religion provides the individual in gaining
added power and satisfaction, the explanation of the problem of evil, the offer of
the hope of better life in the future, the formulation of a plan for salvation, the
improvement of the quality of the present life and an outline of an ideal soceity.
1

I 21.2 SOURCES AND BELIEFS

Christianity is the religion founded by Jesus Christ, but it has its roots in the Judaic
&ition. It is counted among the revealed or divinely inspired religions. The divinely
inspired religious precepts are contained in the holy book of the Christians known
as the Bible. The Bible is divided into two books: the Old Testament and the.New
Testament. Most of the books of the Bible are written mostly by different authors
at different points of time starting from the ancient times. The books of the Old
Testament dealing with the period before the birth of Jesus Christ were originally
I
written in Hebrew and partly in Aramaic, and the books of the New Testament
dealing with the life and teachings of Jesus and the Acts of his Apostles which
depict the formative period of Christianity, were originally written mostly in Greek
or partly in Aramaic. The first four New Testament books telling of the life, death
and resurrection of Christ are known as the Gospels.

21.2.1 The Founder of Christianity

Central to the Christian faith is the identity of its founder, Jesus Christ. Christ was
a.historica1 figure born about 2,000 ago. He lived a short span of 33 years
and his public life covered only the last three years during which he healed people,
performed miracles, even raising people from the dead, and taught his disciples how
to live lives that would be pleasing to God. But the most remarkable feature of
Jesus' life, according to Christian belief, is that after he was crucified, dead and
buried, he rose again on the third day and appeared to his Apostles and disciples
before ascending into heaven. Jesus claimed that he was son of God and behaved
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Religious Pluralism-I1 as such by forgiving sinners on his own authority, which was a sore point with the
Jewish religious leaders. But his disciples believed that he was God. Therefore, one
of the basic tenets of the Christian faith is the belief that Jesus Christ Is true Man
and true God.

During his lik Jesus made many disciples and followers. They, however, did not
form themsevles into a separate community or church. It was obvious that until his
death and resurrection Jesus did not complete his religidus mission. As a matter of
acq the arrest of Jesus by his enemies and his ignominious death on the cross came
as an apparent anticlimax to the work of propagating his faith. On the day befor
his death, when Jesus was arrested, his Apostles who were his constant compani
panicked and deserted him. Even his favourite Apostle, Simon Peter who was
0d
following him from a distance, denied having known Jesus when questioned by
others on three occasions. The Apostles who believed in Christ as the Son of God
were disenchanted when he seemed powerless at the hands of his enemies. At his
death they hid themselves for fear of being apprehended.

After the third day Jesus rose from the dead. From then on until the fortieth day
when, according to the Bible, Jesus ascended into. heaven, he appeared to his
Apostles and other disciples several times. It is during that time, having accomplished
his mission, Jesus commissioned his Apostles to spread his faith to all nations
saying: "All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go
and make disciples of all nations, baptising them in the name of the Father and of
the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have
commanded you. And surely I will be with you always, to the very end of the age"
(Mathew 28: 18-20).

Jesus on Ule cross, with his mether Mary in the foreground.

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 Christianity
211.2.2 The Biblical Concept of God
In this context it may be pointed out that the Biblical concept of God is rather
complex. God is one but has revealed Himself in the Bible as three persons - the
Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Such a conception of God is described as
the mystery of the Unity in Trinity .and Trinity in Unity, According to the Bible
Jesus is God, the Son, born of the Virgin Mary who conceived by the Holy Spirit.
The incarnation of Jesus as man, according to the Bible, is a part of the divine plan
lbr the atonment of the sins of mankind.

In order to understand why it was necessary for God to become man so as to save
mankind, one needs to know that the Bible teaches about the origin of sin and evil
in this world. According to the Bible, God created heaven and earth and he made
Adam and Eve the first ancestors of mankind in his own image. But Adam and Eve
were disobedient to their creator thereby bringing sin and eve1 into this world. As
a result all mankind became heir to the original sin and lost the privilege to be
regarded as children of God. It was only the suffering and death of a sinless man,
Jesus, which could atone for the sins of mankind. And God so loved mankind that
he sent his only beloved son to save mankind from eternal damnation. Jesus is
therefore called the Saviour of mankind. The Bible states that whoever believes in
him will be saved (John 3: 16).

21.2.3 The Biblical Concept of Body, Soul and Salvation

The Bible teaches that man has body and soul; whereas the body perishes with
death, the soul survives eternally. Salvation in Christianity means the survival of the
soul or the individual personality in a happy existence in heaven after death. Contrary
to the belief in the transmigration of souls, Christianity teaches that human beings
live only once on the earth and so have only one chance to make sure of a happy
after-life. Although the original sin-condemned man to eternal damnation, Christ's
suffering has redeemed mankind. But any individual can attain salvation only if, he
or she were to accept Jesus as Saviour. The Bible is clear on this point in quoting
Christ's own words: "1 am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to
the Father except through me" (John, 14:6). This and other references in this lesson
are in the Books of the New Testament in the Bible.

The unfolding of the scheme of salvation in Christianity also establishes the

link between the Old and the New Testament of the Bible. The Old
Testament is an essential part of the Jewish tradition. Jesus Christ wds a
Jew who followed the Jewish tradition whick provides the point of reference
for his teaching. The basic link between the Old and the New Testament
lies in the fact that the Old Testament is always looking forward to One
who was to come about, whom there are several promises, prophecies are
descriptions which are fulfilled in Jesus. So from the point of ~ i e wof
Christians, the New Testament bears witness to the unique event foreseen
in the Old Testament. Moreover, the Old Testament is a constant reminder

21.2.4 Organisation and Communion

The organisation of the early churches was based on the belief in Jesus as the
'Risen Lord'. In the beginning the Christians gathered daily for their worship, but
in due course, one day in a week called the 'Lord's day' (Sunday) was set aside
r:

Religious Pluralism-II for the worship service. This practice is generally followed in the Christian churches
even today. The core of the worship service consists of religious instruction; preaching,
prayer and the breaking of bread. The breaking of bread or the 'Lord's Supper'
has a special significanae in Christian worship. This practice follows from what
Jesus did at his last supper with his Apostles on the night before his death. He took
bread, gave thanks 'and bmke it, and gave it to his Apostles syaing, "This is my body
given for you; this is remembrance of me". In the same way, after the supper he,
f
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took .the cup, saying, "This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured
!.! out for you". (Luke 22 : 19, 20). This incident syrnbolises Christ's suffering and
death on the cross which is the central act of salvation, freeing mankind from sin.

The replication of the 'Lord's Supper' at the worship is believed to realise once
again, Christ's presence (called the living presence). In the eating of the bread and
drinking of the wine a direct and intimate union with Christ is achieved. This part
of the worship service is also known as Communion or Eucharistic . . rite.

;
g In general, the religious services of Christians are mainly aimed at Worshipping God
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in spirit and truth (John 4"24), that is, worshipping the Father through Jesus and in
the power of the Holy Spirit.

Check your Progress 1

1") Indicate the relationship between the Old and the New Testaments of the Bible
;
re in about eight lines.

k ....................................................................................................................
1:
i

....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
1:. ....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
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1, ....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................

1:; hi) Narrate the concept of body and soul as depicted in Christianity in about five
lines.
4
....................................................................................................................
:a ....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
1; ....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
hi) Jesus rose from the dead after the
a) fifth day
b) fourth day
I c) third day
d) second day ,
 ' Christianity
21.3 TEACHINGS OF CHRISTIANITY
Although Jesus did not reduplicate the Judaic tradition, he abrogated some of the
Jewish conventions, gave a radical twist to the old ethical principles and spelt out
the fundamental principles of the ideal social order.

21.3.1 Purity of a Person and the Moral Deeds

Among the archaic Jewish practices which Jesus brushed aside, reference may be
made to the rituals to ward off pollution. When the Jews complained that his
disciples did not adhere to their traditional custom of ritual "cleaning" of hands
before meals, Jesus called the crowd to him and said, "Listen to me, everyone, and
understand this. Nothing outside a man can make him 'unclean' (Mark 7 : 14,15).
Jesus thus teaches the important truth that it is not outside rituals or ceremonies or
eating of special foods that make a person clean before God. It is the purity of a
person's heart and mind that makes one clean in God's sight.

According to his instructions the norms of proper conduct are not to be anchored
on the morality of this world but rather on the other-wordly criteria of hlfilling the
will of God and of pleasing Him. 'Therefore, a Christian is not supposed to expect
reciprocity or popularity from his good deeds; his rewards come from wheat pleases
God to bestow upon him both in this and the outer world.

In doing moral deeds or giving charity, a person should not draw attention to oneself
so as to be honoured by others; God rewards such deeds done in secret (Mathew

21.3.2 Forgiving Sins and Evils

Jesus impresses upon his followers that let along murder, even the expression of
anger against others amounts to sin and that God does not accept prayers and gifts
unless we first reconcile ourselves with each other (Mathew 5 : 21-23). So also'
God forgives the sins of persons who forgive others who sin against them (Mathew

It is the way of the world to pay back the agressor in his own coin. But Jesus tells
his followers, "Do not resist an evil person. If someone strikes you on thr right
cheek, turn to him the other also" (Mathew 5 : 38,39). So also, consider what Jesus
has to say, "But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you,
that you may be the sons of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on
the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous (Mathew

These precepts of Jesu's seem to be so unreasonable and impractical. But his own
conduct during the most trying time of his life is a telling demonstration of his
preaching. When Jesus was falsely charged and sentenced to death, he neither
resisted his captors nor defended himself before the court. What is more, when he
was crucified during his dying moments, he uttered from the cross these stunning
words of mercy to his enemies: "Father, forgive them, for they do not know what
they are doing" (Luke 23 : 24). Thus Jesus not only taught his followers a new way
of life but also in his exemplary life showed how it could be accomplished.

21.3.3 Evangelisation and Baptism

Christ's mandate to his'disciples to spread his message of love and foregiveness
throughout the world is considered to be an obligation on the part of all Christians
to do likewise. The act of spreading the gospel of Christ is termed evangelisation.
However, the decision of accepting the message or of becoming a convert to
Christianity, should be left to the persons who receive the message, which is
regarded as the work of the Holy Spirit.

The acceptance of the Christian faith by renouncing their old religious beliefs and
practices meant for the converts a rupture from their old communities as well. So
the new Christians formed themselves into communities or churches of their own.
The churches drew people fiom different religious and ethnic groups, who were
welded into a new Christian identity. The new recruits to the faith were admitted
with a simple ceremony called Baptism.

Check Your Progress 2

1) According to Christian thought the norms of proper conduct are to be anchored

a) on the moality of this world
b) on the other wordily criteria without hlfilling the will of God
c) on the other wordly criteria of fulfilliing the will of God
d) on self-interest.

2) The act of spreading the gospel of Christ is termed

a) Universalisation
b) Christianisation
c) Evangelisation
d) Spiritualisation

3) What is the significance of Lord's Supper in Christianity? Answer in about five

lines.

21.4 CHRISTIAN SOCIAL ORDER

Social order of every religious group is orginised based on certain principles. These
principles provide the base of togetherness and commonness of ideas and coexistence.
It would be interesting to see how the Christian social order is organised. From the
teachings of Jesus it is possible to identify some of the basic principles of the
Christian social order.

21.4.1 Universal vrotherhood /

The fundamental principle of the ideal society according to Jesus is the idea of
universal brotherhood. But just as the justification and motive for the ideal conduct
stem from the desire to please and fulfil the will of God, the basis of universal
brotherhood is also the love of God. The idea that the love of man flows from the
love of God was made clear by Jesus when he was answering a question by a
Jewish jurist. In replying to the question, "Teacher, which is the greatest commandment
in the law7'? Jesus replied: "Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with
all your soul and with all your mind". This is the first and the greatest commandment.
 And the second is like it. 'Love your neighbour as yourself. All the Law and the Christianity
Prophets hang on these two commandments' (Mathew 22 : 35-40). The term
neighbour used in this context, as Jesus explained (Luke 10 : 28-37) transcends the
traditional connotation of spatial proximity, but embraces the broader meaning of
fellowmen/women irrespective of the spatial or social connections. The love of
fellowmen is not ordinarily ingrained in social structures which always made a
'distinction between 'we' and 'they'. It is the love of God which makes the
Christian ideal of loving one's fellowmen~women,attainable.

21.4.2 Egalitarian Outlook

A second important principle of the Christian social order is the egalitarian outlook,
The Christian church brought together people from different races, cultures and
classes and forged a new spirit of coherence, unity and equality among them. Paul,
the most prominent among the organisers of the early church emphasised, "There
is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in
Christ Jesus' (Galatians 3 : 28). The early Christians who were liberated from the
fetters of their former communities, addressed one another brothers and sisters,
shared their provisions or contributed their income generously for common use and
formed themselves into an egalitarian community.

The egalitarian ideal is further supported in the new kind of leadership and authority
enjoined upon his followers by Jesus. Ordinarily, a leader tries to wield his power
and authority to command compliance by persons whom he leads, and people seek
the office of leadership for the privileges which accrue from it. But Jesus taught
that all power and authority comes from God and the function of the leader is to
serve the people under his charge.

21.4.3 Service of the Underprivileged

Yet another major principle of the ideal society according to Christ's teaching is the
concern and commitment for the service of the underprivileged. During his lifetime
as man, Jesus showed great compassion for people in distress. Exhorting his followers
to do likewise, he pointed out that the heavenly king namely God, would apply
I reward those who took care of the poor, the strangers and the oppressed. Acts of
kindness done to such people were equivalent to showing kindness to God Himself.
I

The ideal society in Christianity, which stands for universal fellowship, equality of
members, a service oridented leadership and a speical solidarity with the disadvantaged
sections, is ultimately based on the belief in and love of God. Such a society is
I termed the reign of God or the kingdom of heaven.

Activity 1

Based on your observation and experience of the Christian society write a

note of about two pages on the 'Christian Social Order in our Society".
. Exchange your note, if possible with your coleamers at the Study Centre.

21.5 TRE CHURCH AND THE WIDER WORLD

The church plays a key role in the Christian society. It determines largely the
Christian world view. It is of great sociological significance to see how the church
encounters itself with the wider society and the world. The church is the actualisation
of the ideal society according to the teachings of Jesus. At the same time, it has
to function within the wider society whose values and patterns of social relations
are inconsistent with the Christian social order. Right from the beginning, the Christians
were painfully aware of this contradiction and had to suffer on account of it. While
Religious Pluralism-IT regarding the ideal Christian society as the heavenly kingdom, they referred to the
existing social order as the worldly society or the 'world'.

The disjunction between the church and the 'world' (wider society) raises several
questions; how does the church adapt itself to the 'world'? What impact has the
church made upon the world? What impact the world has made upon the church?
Indeed, these are the sociological issues of adaptation and assimilation.

21.5.1 Adaptation to the World

In its adaptation to the 'world', there is no question of the church's accepting the
world totally in spirit and in fact, for that would amount to a negation of the

Jesus in the centre of the photo, with vignettes from his life and
teachings depicted all a m d him.
Christian ideal. It was also not possible to reject the world totally as that would Christianity
involve in a head-on collision with the powefil political and religious authorities
leading to a bloddy revolution which is against the spirit of Christianity. The early
church actually took course in between the two extremes. It rejected the world in
spirit but accepted it in fact. In a sense this approach agreed with what Jesus did;
he did not try to destroy the old order but attempted to transform it. It was,
however, implied that the Christian way of: life was superior to the wordly life and
should there be serious conflict between God's commandments and the civil law,
a Christian is obliged to obey God rather than man (Acts 5 : 29).

21.5.2 Civil Authority

In the compromise that was struck between the church and the 'world', it was
recognized that the political powers and civil authorities were ordained of God and
hence merited obedience (Romans 13: I), and the Christians carried out their civil
obligations including the paymenhof taxes faithfully. Similarly, although everyone is
considered equal in Jesus Christ, as a seeming accommodation to the prevailing
patriarchal and feudal practices, the wife was enjoined to obey the husband and the
slave to obey the master, although the persons in authority, were also required to
treat their subordinates with love and consideration (Ephesians 5:2-25, 65-9).

With the spread and gaining influence of the church, Christian values and ideals
began to percolate into the larger society. The humanitarian ideas of liberty, equality
and fraternity which gained acceptance in the Western civilisation, owe their origin
to the teachings of Jesus.

21.5.3 Society's Impact on Church

If the Church has influenced the wider society, sometimes the latter also has had
its impact upon the former. This happened in Europe especially during the Middle
Ages when the entire European society became Christian and the Church acquired
considerable political and economic power. In that process the church became
infected with wordly values.

21.5.4 Sects and Sub-divisions

The complex form in which the Christian church finds itself at present with its many
subdivisions can be attributed to the rise of pressure groups when the parent bodies
deviate too much from the biblical path. Such dissident pressure groups which are
called sects are either (1) integrated into the parent body or (2) they secede or are
expelled from the main church, when the dissident groups establish churches of

i) The first type of phenomenon is represented by the monastic movements of the

4th, 5th and the 6th centuries, which were attempts on the part of some of the
members to live in line with the teachings of Jesus when the parent bodies (the
Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches)were more inclined to the wordly
life. The monastic movements were ultimately integrated into the parent bodies
which underwent a renewal as a result.

ii) The second type of phenomenon can be illustrated with the 16th century
Reformation movement in Europe, when several dissident groups left the Roman
Catholic Church and underwent a renewal as a result of that challange. The
PI-otestantchurches recognize the authority of the Bible alone, whereas the Roman
Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches also recognized their church traditions
as duthoritative, besides the Blble.
Religious Pluralism-I1

Thus the compromise between the church and the 'world' also leads to the
ever present processes of dissidence, renewal or secession. However, in all
these changes the Bible serves as the steadying force. Besides lending
stability to the churches, the Bible is also responsible for brirdging about a
basic unity in beliefs and values among the different churches. There are
however, differences among the churches in the interpretation of the Bible.
As a student of sociology, you should be interested to know the dynamics
of group formation. This section must have given you some insights on the
group formation in Christianity. You may also be interested to know the
institutional network through which the Christian society operates. You may
also be interested in the aspects of festivals and ritual of that society. To
know, all these aspects you may like to see Unit 17 of ESO-02.

21.6 CHRISTIANITY, MODERN SOCIETY AND

SOCIAL EVOLUTION
Christian movement delineated a condition for the selection of human beings and
also for the creation of a soceity for peaceful survival of human being based on
new values. Christianity has been one of the important factors of modernisation and
economic development through the societal values it has legitimised. However, at
every stage of the social evolution and modernisation as such, the Christian religious
system and its values stood in complex relations of interdependence with other
factors viz., economic and political institutions, the social institutions like family and
kinship, the system of stratification etc.

i) Institutionalisation

In this context it is essential to have an idea on the forms of Christian

institutionalisation. The first pattern of the institutioilalisation assumed that the
existence of the religious association of the Christian is essentially a separate entity
without stablished relations to the rest of the society. The example can be that of
the Pietistic sects.

The second type of institutionalisation is that of the Catholic Church. "This is

interpreted in the sense of an established church, which is the state religion of a
politically organised society". The church and the state are the distinct organisations.
Hence the church achieved a transcendental orientation and became to be concerned
eventually with its particular version of monasticism and to give the orders a kind
of primacy, over the secular priesthood. This in a sense gave by default a special
position to the secular political authority, since there was no papal monarchy to
match the secular.

The third type of institutipnalisation is that of the emergence of the Protstant sects.
Here the break is fundamentally with the sacramental system, making the "true"
Church invisible and salvation dependent, from the human side, on faith above.. .
The shift to the Protestantism essentially meant the abandonment of this tutelage
with its special kind of religious paternalism. The main branch of Protestantism,
i.e. the Calvinists, laid great emphasis on the wordly activism for the creation of the
kingdom of God on the earth.

The Protestant reform movement opened the door for modernisation and economic
development through its general trend of social and cultural change. The Protestant
followed science, trained in law. The reform movement of the Protestant became
intimately related to the development of nationalism - vernacular translations of
I

the Bible multiplied and some protestant areas achieved distinction very rapidly in Christianity
economic development - (Weber, W. 1972 : 246).

ii) Protestantism and Economic Development

Max Weber locates a casual link between the Protestant ethic and the development
of capitalism in Europe. In his famous treatise on The Protestant Ethics and the
Spirit of Capitalism Weber points out that the Puritian sects of the Protestantism
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rationalised their religious beliefs and values towards "this wordly asceticismW.This
rationalisation was possible through the concept of calling - (task set by God)
which was a product of Reformation movement. To Weber the major callings for
the Protestants of Puritian sects are:

a) There exists an absolute transcendent God who created the world and rules it, but
he is incomprehensible and inaccessibleto the finite mind ofman,

b) This all powerfil and dyusterious God had predestined each of us to salvation or
damnation, so that we cannot by our works after a divine which was made before
we were born,
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c) God created the world for his own glory,

d) Whether he is saved or damned, a man is obliged to work for the glory of God and
to create the kingdom of God on earth,

e ) Earthly things, human nature, and flesh belong to the order of sin and death anc.
salvation can come to man only through divine grace (Aron, 1967 : 22 1-222).

These callings helped the Calvinist Protestants to be self-disciplined, dedicated to

work, honest and follow the path of "this wordly asceticism". For them work is
worship and there is no space for idleness or laziness. This specific character of
Calvinistic belief accounted for the relation between Calvinist doctrine and the spirit
of capitalism which was characterised by a unique devotion to the earning of wealth
through legitimate economic activity. This is rooted in a belief in the value of
efficient performance in the chosen vocation as a duty and a virtue. The affinity
between the two and the emergence of capitalist economic regime as defined by
Weber existed only in the West. However, such an affinity is particular only to the
Protestant ethics. It is not found in the Catholicism; not in any other religion like
Hinduism, Islam, Confucianism, Judiaism and Buddhism of which Weber made a
comparative analysis. For further detail you may see again Unit 15, Block 4 of
ESO-03.

CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA
In Unit 17 of ESO-02, we discussed in detail the Christian social organisation in
India. You are advised to go throug that unit to know about the institutions like
family, marriage and inheritance in the Christian society in India.

Christianity was introduced into India almost from its inception by Thomas, one of
the Apostles of Christ. According to tradition Thomas landed on the coast of Kerala
in 52 A.D. and set up seven churches in different areas. Then he travelled to
Madras where he was martyred at Mylapore in 72 A.D. The descendants of the
early Christians of Kerala were known as St. Thomas Christians. They are also
called Syrian Christians, not because they came from Syria; but because they
follow the Syrian liturgy as distinguished from the Latin liturgy, in their worship. The
Syrian Christians formed part of the society in Kerala as a prosperous community
and were ranked among the higher castes. They did not seem to have made much
effort in spreading their faith in other parts of the country.
1 Religious Pluralism-I1 21.7.1 Advent of Europeans
The spread of Christianity in India came with the advent of the Europeans from the
early 16th century. The Protuguese missionaries were followed by the Dutch, the
French and the British along with other European and American missionaries. The
Indian Christians belong to different churches and denominations after the religious
background of the missionaries who converted them. On the other hand, since the
missionaries from different countries worked in different areas of India where their
respective country had political influence, the Indian ~hristiansof different religious
denominations were also spread in different parts of the counpy.

Although the Britishers among the European nations wielded the greatest political
influence in India, they were initially circumspect in permitting missionary activity.
The missionaries, during their regime worked mainly in the tribal areas and among
the firmer untouchables. The Portuguese missionaries had the biggest success in
converting Indians to the Roman Catholic faith especially in the west and east
coasts of South India, so much so, at present about two-thirds of the Christians in
India are to be found in the southern states and that the Roman Catholics outnumber
all the other denominations of Christians put together.

21.7.2 Christian Population

According to the 1981 Census the Christians in India numbered 16.77 million or
2.43 per cent of the total population. They are found in every state and almost in
every district of the country, but most of them are concentrated in a few pockets
-- -or regions. Their major concentrations are found in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa and
most of the states of the North Eastern Hill areas comprising Nagalmd. Mizoram,
Meghalaya and Manipur, Tripura etc.

21.7.3 Denominations and Sects

The multiplicity of divisions in the world body of Christians is also reflected among
Christians in Inida. Most of the Protestant denominations are divided into two main
churches termed the Church of North India and Church of South India. Other
Indian Christians include the Roman Catholics, the Anglicans and Syrian Christians
who have maintained' separate identities. The Roman Catholics who comprise the
largest group are further divided into those who follow the Latin rite and those who
adhere to the Syrian rite.

These different churches have their pockets of concentration in different areas

which are often mutually exclusive, reflecting the history and circumstances of their
conversion.

21.7.4 Missionaries and Welfare Activities

Consistent with the social philosophy of their religion, the Christians in India are well
represented in the social welfare activities in the country with particular concern for
the service of the underprivileged. Their work in the fields of health and education
is well recognized. The fact that Kerala is the most literate state having the best
health-care delivery system in the country is no less due to the pioneering efforts
of the Christian churches than to the impetus given by the enlightened rulers of the
region.

Write a note of about one page on social activities of the Missionaries

based on your observations and experience. Exchange your note with other
58 students of the Study Centre, if possible.
AS a student of sociology you would be interested to know how Christianity has Christianity
been influenced by the plurality of India civilisation and culture. In unit 17 of ESO-
02 you should be able to get some glimpses of these aspects.

Check Your Progress 3

3 Mention the three fundamental principles of ideal society as propagated by

Christianity.

ii) Describe the consequences of the adaptation of the Church to the World in five
lines.

....................................................................................................................
....................................../.............................................................................
....................................................................................................................
iiii Indicate major denominations of Christianity in India. .~
a) .............................................................................................................

21.8 LET US SUM UP

This unit began with a discussion on the life and message of Jesus Christ. Christianity
is the religion founded by Jesus Christ who is believed to be the son of God but
became man, suffered, died and rose alive, in order to atone for the sin of mankind.
The divinely inspired teachings or the Word of God as acceped by Christians, are
contained in the Bible, the holy book of the Christians.

We explained in this unit the teachings of Christianity. The life and teachings of
Jesus are central to Christianity. Jesus taught and lived a way of life which was
contrary to the common practice. The ethical conduct and social life that he preached
and practised was founded on the love of God and the love of fellowmen flowing
from it. After Jesus rose from the dead and ascended into heaven, a remarkable
transformation took place among his dis°ciples, which is attributed to the descent
upon them of the Holy Spirit. Ever since, the Holy Spirit is believed to provide
spiritual strength and inspiration to Christians who live according to
of Jesus. The religious services of the Christians are mainly aimed
God, the Father through Jesus and in the power of the Holy Spirit.
Christian social order and the role of Church in the Christian society are also
discussed in this unit. The community of Christians, the church, is modelled after
the teachings of Jesus. However, the fact that the church has to adapt itself to the
larger world with its contradictory norms of behaviour, poses peculiar problems to
the Christians.

Lastly we discussed some aspects of Christianity in India. Christianity was introduced

into India at its inception in the first century A.D., and a Christian community
 Religious Pluralism-I1 flourished in Kerala. But its spread in different parts of the country took place with
the advent of the European missionaries from 16th century onwards. Although the
Christians in India form only 2.4 per cent of the population according to the 1991
census, they are found concentrated in a few regions of India in considerable
proportions. They have made a mark in the country in social service activities.

21.9 KEY WORDS

Apostles : Jesus Christ's twelve original disciples and Paul.

Baptism : A ritual by which a person is admitted to the

Christian community.

Gospels : The first four New Testament books telling of the

life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.

Holy Spirit : The active presence of God in human life

constituting the third person of the Trinity.

Incarnation : The union of divinity with humanity in Jesus Christ.

Liturgy : Body of rites prescribed for public worship.

Prophet : One who utters divinely inspired revelations.

Resurrection : The rising of Jesus Christ from the dead.

Trinity : The unity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit as three

1"
I
persons in one God, according to Christian dogma.

FURTHER READINGS
Clemen, C. 1988. Religions of the World, Reprient (English Translation) Manas
Publications: Delhi.

Barton, A.G. 1990. The Religion of the World, Olympia Publications: New Delhi.

Macquarrice, J. 1966. ~rinciplesof Christian Theology, S.C.M. Press: London.

21.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

i) The unfoldment of the scheme of salvation which is the integral part of the Christian
religion, stretches over both the Old and the New Testaments. The Old Testament
contains promises, descriptions and prophecies about the coming Saviour, which
were fulfilled in Jesus whose life and teachings are dealty with in the New
Testament. In this sense the New Testament bears witness to the Old Testament.
Jesus was a Jew and his teachings which are found in the New Testament, oAen
refer to the teachings in the Old Testament.

u) As mentioned in the Bible, man has body and soul. The body perishes with death
but the soil survives eternally. Salvation means the survival of the soul in heaven
after death. According to Christianity, human beings live only once on the earth
and there is no re-birth.
 i) c.

ii) c.
iii) The breaking of bfead of 'Lord's Supper' has special significance in Christian
Worship. The replication of the 'Lord's Supper' at the Worship service is believed
to realise once again his presence (called the liping presence) and intimate Union
with Christ. This part of the Worship service qs known as Communion.
I
Check Your Progress 3

i) a) Universal brotherhod,
b) Egalitarian outlook: 1
I c) Service of the underprivileged.

iii In the Christian belief there is neither the total adaptation to the world nor total
reflection. There is a balanced approach. The early church reflected the world in
spirit but accepted it in fact.

&) a) Roman Catholic

b) Eastern Orthodox Churches
,c) Syrian Chirstians
UNIT 22 ISLAM
Structure

22.0 Objectives
22.1 Introduction
22.2 The Advent of Islam
22.3 Tenets of Islam
22.3.1 Islamic Concept of God
22.3.2 The Angels of God
22.3.3 The Book of God
22.3.4 The Messengers of God
22.3.5 The Day of Judgement or Resurrection
22.3.6 The Duty of a Muslim
.22.4 Major Schools of Thoughts, Movements and Sects
22.4.1 Major Schools of Islamic Thoughts and Movements
22.4.2 Sects in Islamic Society
22.5 Social Institutions as Viewed by Islam
22.5.1 The Family
22.5.2 Marriage and Divorce
22.5.3 Institutions Governing Inheritance
22.6 Islam and Indian Muslims
22.6.1 Elements of Castes
22.6.2 Asharaf and Anal
22.7 Let Us Sum Up
22.8 Key Words
22.9 Further Readings
22.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

22.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to

explain the pre-Islamic conditions prevaling in Arabia and the d e n t of lalam

discuss the meaning of Islam and its sources and tenets
describe major schools of Islamic thought and sects
explain the social organisation
describe the Islamic society in India.

22.1 INTRODUCTION
In the plurality of Indii culture and civilisation Islam palyed a crucial role. The life
style of the Islamic society is shaped by the tenets of Islam. As a student of
sociology you should be interested to know the belief of that society. You would also
be interested to know the movements and the conditions leading to the emergence
of various sects in that society. We should also know the organisational d g e m e n t s
of that society through which the belief system operates in daily life. Towards this
effort in this unit, we shall discuss the tenets of Islam, the movements schools of
thought and sects in the Islamic society in a socio-historical perspectives. We shall
also touch upon thd social organisations of that society briefly (for details see the
course ESO-02, Unit 16 on, Muslim Social Organisation provided above Islam). We
shall begin our analysis with an introductory note on the preIslamic conditions
prevailiig in Arab sdciety to know the historical context of emergence of Islam. We
sh* a@ describe the meaning of Islam, its sources aud tenets. Apart fram this,
we shall highlight the major schoolsin Islamic thought and its various sects. Various
social institutions like marriage, divorce, institution governing inheritance in Islam'
communities following Islam will also be discussed in this unit. An attempt will be
made in this unit to analyse the influence of Islamic teachings on social structure.
Lastly,we will describe briefly the Islamic society in India.

22.2 THE ADVENT OF ISLAM

Before the advent of Islam, the Arab Society was confronted with many social
problems. It was a tribal society. It was centred around a tribe or a kindred. It was
a patriarchal society in which all rights were available to the male members and
female members were not entitled to any right and were treated like a commodity.
They were exchanged and even offered to the guest for sexual pleasure. Over all,
the Arab society was confronted with many such evils and the society reached to
the point of degenration. Social reformers and people of wisdom started thinking of
bringing reform in the Arabian society. Prophet Mohammad was also perturbed by
the decadence in the religious life of the Arabs. He sought an opportunity of
chastening their morals by placing before them new values of life. He tried to bind
people on the bases of faith rather than on the old bond of blood. This new
community was the community of Islam which was based on the brotherhood. The
word Islam literally means "Absolute submission to God's will", but this does not
imply any idea of fatalism. In its ethical sense, it signifies striving after the ideal of
righouteousness. The world Islam is also derived from a root word which means
"peace". Thus, the true Muslim submits to God's will and obeys His Commandments,
and lives at peace with his fellow men.

22.3 TENETS OF ISLAM

Islam does not profess to be a new religion formulated by the Prophet Mohammad
but is the continuation of all former religious principles decreed by God throug His
revelations to all prophets including Moses and Jesus. lslam demands faith in:

The Angels of God

The Book of God
The Apostles of God.
The Day of Judgement or Resurrection

22.3.1 Islamic Concept of God

Every Muslim believes in God's oneness, that He is one and has no partner, that
He is omnipotent, all-owerful, eternal and is every-qualified with the attributes of
supreme greatness. All are humble unto Him. All should seek exaltation through
Him and humility unto Him, for they all are mere subordinate'creatures seeking His
favour and most favoured by Him are the pious ones who obey His commandments.

22.3.2 The Angles of God

God has created the Angles. All Muslims must have faith in their existence but they
are not to be worshipped. They are created and are free from carnal desires.

22.3.3 The Book of God

It is the belief of Muslims that God has sent Books in different ages in which God
revealed. Muslims believe in Holy Quran w h i ~ hwas revealed to the Prophet
Muhammad. I 63
Religious Pluralism-I1 22.3.4 The Messengers of God
As Muslims believe in the Books revealed by God, they also believe in t n messengers
~
sent by God in different ages to reclaim mankind from infidelity, idolatry and
superstition. The Holy @ran makes no distinction between the Prophets sent by
God but according to them Prophet Muhammad is the last Prophet of God.

22,3.5 The Day of Judgement or Resurrection

The Muslimes also have belief in the Day of Judgement. The dead shall rise from
their graves, and every individual shall give an account of his or her own actions..
Muslims also have belief in Heaven and Hell.

22.3.6 The Duty of a Muslim

Apart from these beliefs, a Muslim should do the following duties.

i) Recital of the creed

iii Prayer to God five times a day -at dawn, midday, mid-afternoon, directly after
sunset, and an hour-and-a-half later. A special midday congregationalprayer with
semon is binding on Fridays.

iii) Paying the Zakat or legal alms which is a form of charitable tax.

iv) Fasting during the month of "Ramzan", the ninth month of the Muslim calendar.

v) Haj i.e. Pilgrimage to the 'Holy Kaba' in Mecca once in a life time by those who
can afford it.

these practices of devotion, a Muslim becomes the master over his passions
and desires and attains, through worship and observance of Islamic rules, the apex
of dignity, human conduct and elevation of mind.

-- - -

Mohammedan mother teaching a child to read the Holy Quran, themain scripture of Islam..
Thus according to Islam, a Muslim must have faith in the above mentioned beliefs Islam
and must practise the above mentioned practices in order to surrender before the
"Will" of God and hence attain a place in the Heaven after his death.

Prepare a two hundred word note on the duty of a Muslim performed by

your Muslim friends/colleagues/persons known to you. Exchange your note
with other students in the Study Centre, if possible.

22.4 MAJOR SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS,

MOVEMENTS AND SECTS
No religious beliefs and practices operate in isolation. It has to encounter the world
around. In this process it influences others and also get influenced. Let us know
how Islam encountered the world. Even though the bran being a guiding principle
for the Muslims to carry out their life according to its teachings but as it migrated
to other parts of the world its institutions were affected by conditions in different
regions during the centuries of their existence. There is a principle of movement
in Islam, and Muslim institutions and the Muslim way of life have changed in terms
of space and time. Let us try to understand the nature and scope of this principle
of movement in Islam.

In the absence of a clear and,categorical answer from the Holy Book

(Quran), the absolute word of God, the prophets' decisions -His percepts,
His acts and practices' negative as well as positive - were regarded as
decisive. An inherent conservatism canonised the Sunna - Custom, usage
of the ancients; any stepping aside from it was a 'biddat' innovation and
had to win its way by its merits, in the teeth of strong prejudice. Islam .did
exchange this practice and replaced it by the traditions of Prophet
Muhammand. After the death of Prophet Muhammad, four schools came
into being to interpret and provide guidance in dispensing justice. As a
matter of fact the use of judicial opinion was seriously questioned and its
scope precisely defined in the ninth century A.D. Under the Abbasids the
sources of Muslims law were discussed, and the four schools founded in
this period defined the scope of legal friction and equity in the development
of Muslim law. These four schools are discussed below briefly.
-
22.4.1 Major Schools in Islamic Thoughts and Movements.
i) Abu Hanifa (AD 699-766)

He founded a School of Islamic jurisprudence and opined that when Quran and
Sunna are silent about a problem, this school emphasized the role of 'Qiyas',
reasoning by analogy, to guide the people to carry out the activities.

ii) Malik Ibn Anas (AD 713-95)

Another School of Islamic law was founded by Malik Ibn Anas. According to this
school Quran, Suna and Ujma (all religious scriptures) should become the basis
of the interpretation of new situation.

iii) Ash-Shafi (AD 767-820)

This School was founded with theintention that the traditions of Prophet Mohammad
should become the main source of the interpretation instead of individual opinion,
istihasam, as well as istislah. He fell back on the principle of agreement, ijma.