Course Title: - General Methods of Teaching

Course Code: - Educ-1012

Units:
 Teaching & Learning
 Active Learning
 Instructional Planning
 Classroom Management

Unit One: Teaching and Learning

1.1. Definitions and purposes of teaching and learning
Activities
1. Express terms like teaching and learning
2. How do you understand the word teaching, learning, and knowledge in terms of positivists’ and
constructivists’ points of view?
Teaching: - is an essential element of education. Some of the definition given to this term is as follows.
1. It refers to all purposeful activities of teachers which initiate, guide, support, assess & influence the
learning process.
2. It is an attempt to assist student in acquiring or changing some skills, knowledge, idea & attitude
(Clark& Star, 1986).
3. It is an action undertaken with the intention of bringing about learning in sts.( Robertson, 1987)
4. It is an activity that are designed & performed to produce change in sts. Behavior( Clark, 1970)
Learning: - is a process of acquiring social experience, science, art & culture.
It is a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience or practice (Mayer, 1982).
Characteristics of effective Learning
 It is meaningful to sts.
 Sts. can:- use it, connect to their life & actively participate in it.
 It allows sts. to move further than memorizing of facts & bits of knowledge.
 It prepares sts, to understand & participate in a complex world.
 It encourages sts, to:-
 Investigate
 Understand the world around them
 Analyze & draw conclusion
 Communicate etc…
1.2 Characteristics & functions of Teaching
Characteristics:- Aggrawal & his followers(2001) identified the following characteristics of teaching.
These are:-
 It is an activity/Action/- you can see teaching takes place
 It is a process-it involves a series of actions & decisions of the teacher.
 It is an interpersonal activity- it involves interaction b/n teacher & sts.
 It is both an art & science.
 It skilled occupation.
 It is both conscious & unconscious
 It is both formal & informal.
Functions: - the major functions of teaching include:
 Motivating the child to learn
 Creating learning situation
 Facilitating learning
  Assist the growth of the child(body & mind)
 Evaluating, recording & reporting
 Making curricular materials
 Diagnosing learning problems
In general, the function of teaching can be summarized as:
 Planning
 Organizing
 Leading/directing
 Controlling the instructional process.
Teaching & learning are opposite sides of the same coin for a lesson is not taught until it has been
learnt. Within the lesson, teaching & learning form unity. The unity of teaching & learning process
is known as instructional process.
Meaning of Methods of Teaching
 A systematic order imposed up on teaching activities. These teaching activities
can be expressed in terms of teacher & students activities in a given lesson.
 Are ways by which the teacher help students acquire the necessary Knowledge,
develop skill & values.
 They refer to various manses to achieve the intended ends.

1.3. Qualities of effective teaching and effective teachers

Effectiveness in teaching is the teacher's ability to achieve the instructional objectives set for teaching by
using his/her knowledge and skills with the available resource, time, material or financial capacity.
Qualities are individual traits that a teacher manifests while he/she is at work, in the society, at home or
elsewhere. Their traits relate to the individual’s intellectual (mental), physical, social, emotional, spiritual
etc standards and such issues as his/her preparations and presentation styles.
You might have listed the following points. Remember that these are the qualities of a good or an effective
teacher.

Enthusiasm: - teachers with an enthusiastic personality attribute:-

 Appear confident and friendly
 Use broad, animated gestures to emphasize or reinforce points
 Are creative and dramatic when they teach
 Maintain eye contact with all students
 Are patient
 Are insistent that students successfully complete tasks
 Are aware of and quickly deal with off-task behavior
Warmth and Humor:
To be a teacher with a personal attribute of warmth and humor:
o Greet students by name at the door. Comment on their personal achievements outside your
classroom, their appearance, or other aspects of their personal lives.
o Smile frequently.
o Be yourself. Convey your personality, likes, dislikes, even opinions.
o Encourage students to approach you and to be open with you keep most in-class interactions on
academic topics, but express interest and willingness to talk with students about nonacademic
concerns outside of class.
 o Draw out students’ opinions, feelings, and ideas, and actively incorporate these into your
instruction.
Credibility: - Credibility and trustworthiness create a relaxed, supportive environment where students
trust the teacher to help them be successful. They are developed through open, honest teacher student
interaction; not through a teacher’s position or credentials; and they exist only if students perceive them
High Expectation for Success: - Effective teachers are positive people, oriented toward and optimistic
about their own and their students’ success. Specifically, effective teachers have high expectations for
success and are encouraging and supportive of students. They believe in their own ability to help every
student learn to be successful.
Encouraging & Supportive: - Effective teachers are encouraging and supportive of students and convey
a sense of genuine respect for them and for their individual abilities. Encouragement and support are most
important when students are reluctant to begin new tasks or when they experience difficulty and
frustration.
Here are some other personal attributes of a good teacher:-
 Businesslike
 Adaptable/flexible
 Knowledgeable
Therefore you can have the following points as the professional skills and abilities of effective teachers:
 Focusing and engaging students attention
Establishing set
Using variety
 Using instructional time effectively
 Conducting interactive instruction
Using different active learning methods
Providing clear instruction
Monitoring students progress
 Providing feedback & reinforcement
In general teachers quality include the teachers: Personality (attitude, appearance, voice, quality, clarity,
gesture, speed of activation, poise, ease, self balance, etc. Preparation (lesson planning, flexibility,
avoiding side tracking, etc) and Presentation (demonstration and use of visual materials, relating lessons to
life, making summery effective use of the resources and different materials)
1.4. Professional code of Ethics of teachers
1.4.1. What is a Profession?
Profession is a form of employment or occupation, especially, one that is respected in society as
honorable, and is only possible for an educated person and after training in some special branch of
knowledge (Longman dictionary of contemporary English)
1.4.2. Criteria of a Profession
To have a clear understanding regarding what a profession is, it is better to examine the criteria of a
profession. Thus below you are given with the major criteria of a profession.
i. A profession involves a Body of Knowledge and System of Skills;
This criterion is related to the issue of specific subject area to be mastered and the special training one has
to undergo.
ii. A Profession Performs Specific Function for Personal and Social Purposes;
This is an issue related to the contributions of a certain profession to persons in the profession and the
social benefits secured from the employment.
iii. A Profession is Practicable:
This relates to the freedom or autonomy that its members enjoy to practice. Therefore they can accomplish
their professional duties and responsibilities without any restriction or interference.
iv. Entry into a Profession Requires an Extended Period of Preparation;
This criterion indicates that entry into a profession is not possible before getting training in the specific
area of the field. In other words, if the task can be undertaken without training it is no more a profession.
v. A Profession is organized;
This refers to formation of an association or organization by those who are in that particular occupation.
That is, the members should organize themselves to freely formulate and maintain admission standards,
code of ethics, and the conditions of services, advance to promotions, and transfer, and bargain on the
social and economic well-being of its members.
vi. A Profession has a Literature and Language Unique to it;
This is related to the research area to improve the profession and the vocabulary that help its members to
communicate better with each other than do with others or what others do among themselves, respectively
1.4.3. Code of Ethics
Code of Ethics is a public statement by educators that sets clear expectations and principles to guide
practice and inspire professional excellence. Educators believe a commonly held set of principles can
assist in the individual exercise of professional judgment. This Code speaks to the core values of the
profession.
The complex professional task of a teacher is undertaken in collaboration with colleagues, learners,
parents/guardians and family, as well as with members of the wider community.
The professional interactions of teachers are governed by the following fundamental principles:
- Autonomy to treat people with rights that are to be honored and defended,
- Justice to share power and prevent the abuse of power,
- Responsible care to do good and minimize harm to others,
- Truth to be honest with others and self.
Application of the Code of Ethics shall take account of the requirements of laws as well as obligations of
teachers. Below are the teachers’ professional codes of ethics subsumed under four major headings:
1. Commitment to Learners
The primary professional obligation of teachers is to those they teach. Teachers nurture the capacities of
all learners to think and act with developing independence, and strive to encourage an informed
appreciation of the fundamental values of a democratic society.
Thus teachers should strive to:
a) develop and maintain professional relationships with learners based upon the best interests of those
learners,
b) base their professional practice on continuous professional learning, the best knowledge available about
curriculum content and pedagogy, together with their knowledge about those they teach,
c) present subject matter from an informed and balanced viewpoint,
d) encourage learners to think critically about significant social issues,
2. Commitment to Parents/Guardians and Family
Teachers recognize that they work in collaboration with the parents/guardians and family of learners,
encouraging their active involvement in the education of their children. They acknowledge the rights of
caregivers to consultation on the welfare and progress of their children and respect lawful parental
authority, although professional decisions must always be weighted towards what is judged to be the best
interests of learners.
In relation to parents/guardians, and the family of learners, teachers will strive to:
a) Involve them in decision-making about the care and education of their children,
b) establish open, honest and respectful relationships,
c) respect their privacy,
3. Commitment to Society
Teachers are vested by the public with trust and responsibility, together with an expectation that they will
help prepare students for life in society in the broadest sense.
In fulfillment of their obligations to society, teachers will strive to:
a) Actively support policies and programs which promote equality of opportunity for all,
b) work collegially to develop schools and centers which model democratic ideals,
c) teach and model those positive values which are widely accepted in society and encourage learners to
apply them and critically appreciate their significance.
4. Commitment to the Profession
In the belief that the quality of the services of the teaching profession influences the nation and its citizens,
teachers shall exert every effort to maintain and raise professional standards, to promote a climate that
encourages the exercise of professional judgment, and to achieve conditions which attract persons worthy
of trust to careers in education.
In fulfillment of their obligations to the teaching profession, teachers should strive to:
a) Advance the interests of the teaching profession through responsible ethical practice.
b) Regard themselves as learners and engage in continuing professional development.
c) Be truthful when making statements about their qualifications and competencies.
d) Contribute to the development and promotion of sound educational policy.
e) Contribute to the development of an open and reflective professional culture.
1.5. Duties and Responsibilities of an effective teacher
Responsibilities are obligations or duties to be performed by an individual in a socially useful and
acceptable.
There are specific teacher qualities that are normally expected from teachers in relation to their
responsibilities. Some of these are the following:
- Directing the classroom in instructional activities
- Participating in curriculum Development
- Measures and evaluates the progress of his/her students
- Leading extracurricular activities
- Giving guidance and counseling service to the students in relation to their academic and personal
problems.
- Using research findings and local resources
- Participating in community activities or affairs
- Acquitting him/her with the rules and regulations of the schools and working accordingly.

Unit Two: Active Learning Methods

2.1. The concept of teaching and learning epistemologies
Educators classify learning as active or passive based on the definition they have on teaching, learning,
and knowledge from the two general models of epistemology /the study of knowledge/, i.e. positivist and
constructivist.
Positivist Epistemology - It gives emphasis to passive learning; because it assumes that knowledge
exists separate from the learner. That is, knowledge is something that is “out there” in the world, fixed
and made up of discrete and irrefutable pieces of information or facts. Knowledge is seen as belonging to
separate subject areas. Therefore, according to this notion learning is a practice of absorbing knowledge.
It is a process of knowing (knowledge gaining).Whereas teaching is a process of giving knowledge.
Constructivist Epistemology - It emphasizes on active learning; because, it assumes that knowledge
is produced or made meaningful through interaction between the learner and the world around him/her.
Knowledge is seen as being unstable and depends on the interpretation of the observer or learner.
Therefore, although some facts are seen as being relatively fixed or stable, the instructional emphasis is on
using those facts in a creative, analytical or critical way rather than just absorbing (memorizing) them for
the purpose of repetition. Therefore, according to this notion, learning is the learner’s practice of
producing knowledge or making the existing meaningful through interaction with the world around
him/her. Thus consequently, teaching is conceived as a practice of helping student construct knowledge
or interpret existing knowledge while enabling the learner interact with the world around him/her. It is
helping students really understand things, concepts, facts, etc.

Activities
a. How do you characterize constructivists’’ learning environment?
b. How do you explain the nature of the learner in the constructivists view?
c. Why constructivist learning is more favored this time?
According to Larrivee (2000), constructivists learning environment enables both the teacher and learners
to:
1. Reflect on and learns from experience
2. Engage in ongoing inquiry
3. Solicit feedback
4. Remain open to alternatives perspectives
5. Assume responsibility for own learning
6. Take action to align with new knowledge and understandings
7. Observe self in the process of thinking
8. Develop commitment to continuous improvement in practice
9. Strive to align behaviors with values and beliefs
10. Seek to discover what is true.
The nature of the learner in the constructivists view
 The educator’s role is to mentor the learner during heuristic problem solving of ill-defined problems
by enabling quested learning that modify existing knowledge and allow for creation of new
knowledge
 The type of learning is self directed, creative and innovative
 The purpose of education is to become creative and innovative through analysis, conceptualization,
and synthesis of prior experience to create new knowledge
 The learning goal is the highest order of learning: heuristic problem solving, meta cognitive
knowledge, creativity, and originality etc

2.2. Definitions of active learning

Activity
a. How do you define active learning? Discuss it with your friends and reflect it.

Active Learning is not simply providing ample information to students rather it is way of helping,
guiding, motivating students to create their own knowledge. In this case students are expected to interact
with the world around them to understand, think critically, make linkages, interpret, analyze, draw
conclusions and communicate about what they are learning( not just to absorb or accurately repeat
information). Teachers on the other hand are expected to use classroom methods that encourage the pupils
to be as active as possible by analyzing and interpreting knowledge through the use of higher-order
thinking skill, active learning, problem-solving and communication-based methods in their teaching.

Related to this, Teton Lakota Indian said a proverb like this:

“Tell me, and I’ll listen.

Show me, and I’ll understand.
Involve me, and I’ll learn.”

From this, we can understand that learning by doing is the main principle for active learning. In active
learning, students must do more than just listen: they must read, write, discuss, or be engaged in solving
problems. Most importantly, students must engage in such higher-order thinking skills as analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation.

According to Wesley (2004), active learning strategies have five traits:

Students spend much of class time actively engaged in the class. The engagement consists of
thinking, talking, and doing, not merely listening to someone else talk about the lesson
Students interact with their peers. Communication between and among individual students and
groups is an important component of knowledge construction- developing, sharing, and evaluating
ideas and processes
Students receive immediate feedback on their work. Students receive corrective feedback from
their peers or the course teacher as appropriate to the learning situation
The instructor is more of a facilitator, less of a conveyor of knowledge. The saying, “The teacher
should be a guide on the side, and not a sage on the stage” is a statement that helps make the point.
Students should construct knowledge from observations and reflections whenever possible.
Students take responsibility for their knowledge. This includes student Meta cognition (knowing
what one knows and doesn’t know) and self regulation / bringing oneself in to compliance with
expectations/.

Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn must just sitting in classes listening to teachers,
exercising assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write
reflectively about it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. They must make
what they learn part of themselves. Students learn best when they are actively involved in the process.
Learner-centered Principles

Active learning/ learner centered approach has the following principle:

 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Learners discover and construct meaning from
information and experiences based on their unique perceptions, thoughts and feelings
 More information doesn’t necessarily mean more learning. Learners seek to create meaningful
uses of knowledge regardless of the quantity information presented
 Learners link new knowledge to existing information in ways that make sense to them. The
remembering of new knowledge is facilitated when it can be tied to a learner’s current
knowledge.
 Personality influences learning. Learners have varying degrees of self-confidence and differ in
the clarity of their personal goals and expectations for success and failure
 Learners want to learn. Individuals are naturally curious and enjoy learning, but personal
insecurity and fear of failure often get in the way
 Learners like challenges and are not creative when it is challenging and meets their individual
needs
 Learners are individuals. Not all learners are at the same stage of physical, intellectual,
emotional, and social development. Learners also differ in their cultural backgrounds. So such
differences between learners should be considered.
 The learning environment is important. Learners learn best in best a friendly, socially
interactive and diverse environment
 Learners like positive reinforcement. Learning environments that support the self –esteem and
respect of the individual learner tend to be more successful
 Past experience matters. Personal beliefs and impressions from prior learning color the
learners’ world views and their approach to learning.

Some Guidelines for Active Learning in the higher institution

o Instructor is student oriented

- Course begins where the students are, not where the instructor is.
- The instructor also accepts responsibilities for motivation, clarity, and diagnostic /
supportive teaching
- Students are treated with the same dignity and respect expected by the instructor
- Individual differences are expected, welcomed, and supported

o Students participate in goal setting

- Some goals are provide by instructor

- Students create or select additional goals
- Goals are individualized /different students may have different goals

o Classroom climate is collegial, supportive, and spontaneous

- Everyone knows /and respects/ everyone else’s name, background, current position,
interests, goals, etc
- Instructor does not more than 50% of the talking and no more than 75% of the
decision making
- Discussion, group work, and active participation is encouraged and expected

o Activities are problem-centered and student-driven

- Students are expected to be active learners

- Course is built upon real problems that relate to student goals and interests
- Students have some flexibility in problems selection
- Busy work and unnecessary repetition are minimized
- Whenever possible, students work at own pace and on own schedule
- Students are encouraged / required to work together in groups and to provide
suggestions, feedback, and support to one another

o Assessment is continuous and supportive

 - Formative developmental feedback is considered over summative grades
- Instructor’s comments focus upon success and suggestions for improvement rather
than upon mistakes and corrections
- Students are expected to revise and resubmit work that does not meet expected
standards, and summative grades are based upon revised work
- Instructor’s role is primarily to help students towards success; students should also
build pride in accomplishments and existing abilities
- All assessment involves facts/concepts/ applications
- Assessment is often authentic

o Teaching is developmental rather than directive or presentational

- Students are active creators of knowledge, not passive receivers of information

- Multiple answers / rather than one right answer/ are often accepted
- Emphasis is upon understanding and application rather than up on memorization
- Instructor teaches disciplinary /subject area/ methods and provides access to
information; students gather, organize, and use information
- Instructor helps students to understand learning styles and methods and help students
to identify and remediate any personal learning problems
- The methods of the discipline are as ( or more) important than the content

o Newer technologies, media, content, and methods are emphasized

- Students are allowed broad flexibility and encouraged toward self-direction

- Instructor emphasizes and teaches met cognition

o Multi-level outcomes are expected; learning includes:

- Facts and information

- Concepts and understanding
- Meta cognitions

2.3. Importance of active learning

1. “ What I hear I forget” “ what I see I remember” and “ what I do I understand”
2. The brain requires activity:- receives information
- links it with past experience
-tests it
explain & retain(information processing model)
3. To meet different learning styles:- visual, auditory & kinesthetic
- 60% of sts, have practical orientation
- 5:1 sec. sts. Prefer concrete active than abstract
reflective.
4. To meet social nature of learning:- the need to feel safe with other people.
- challenging problem in groups.
5. To help learners use knowledge in their day today life(problems) & not merely to remember
it.

2.4. The role of the teacher in active learning

 In order to facilitate active learning, classroom teacher is expected to exercise multiple roles in
terms of:

 Selection of methodology
 Classroom organization
 Assessment process

Active learning does not make the teacher less important. The teacher become much more
important in learner centered classroom and many roles. The main roles of the teacher during active
learning are:

 Use classroom methods that encourage the students to be as active as possible by analyzing
and interpreting knowledge through the use of higher order thinking skills, problem
solving, and communication based methods in his/her teaching
 Assign tasks to the individual pupils or to the group
 Sets explicit standards for learning
 Guide and manage the activities and make sure that all pupils are working productively on
the activities and must monitor the processes of all learners
 Encourage the students to use their pre knowledge and experience
 Creating conducive environment for learning
 Offering a guide, facilitating, observing, helping, stage setting and evaluating his/her
students in a more objective way / serves as a coach and facilitator/.
 Introducing, giving hints/ clues/ and also at the end summarizing the lesson
 The primary function of the instructor is to become a guide to the process of learning, not a
manager of content. The learning guide to uses two-way communication to establish the
objectives and methods of the learning process.

In dealing about the role of the teacher in active learning, Aggrawal (2000) stated that “the teacher
is a guide and director, he/she steers the boat but the energy that propels it must come from those
who are learning.”

2.5. Classification of Methods of teaching

In order to select of methods of Instruction, classroom teacher is expected to take in to consideration the
following basis:
Objectives as a base for selecting Teaching Methods
It is known that everything in the classroom is geared towards the objectives set. Likewise, the methods to
be selected should stick towards the attainment of the lesson objectives. In other words, the methods to be
selected should help to the attainment of the objectives.
Based on this fact, now you will start to see how objectives and methods are interrelated. In the next
chapter you will critically examine instructional objectives in a beat wider form. But for the time being
you will only observe the domains of instructional objectives and their relation to the methods of
instruction.
Students’ set as a base for selecting Teaching Method
Students’ set is to mean the various characteristics of students that affect students’ learning. These include
students’ ability, interest, learning style, etc. These characteristics determine the type of methods that we
choose for particular group of students.
For instance, take learning style as a factor affecting the selection of methods of instruction. In this case it
should be noted that students have different styles of learning (learning modalities). Some are visual
learners, others are auditory learners; and still some others are tactile / kinesthetic learners.
Visual learners learn best while looking or watching something. Thus they need (prefer) to learn using
charts, demonstrations and other visual media whereas, auditory learners learn best while hearing to some-
thing. Therefore, they prefer hearing to explanations of the point to be learned. Such students prefer
methods like lecture, brainstorming, etc. The tactile / kinesthetic learners learn best while touching and
moving.
Therefore, in order to make methods of teaching suitable to the various learning modalities of students, it
is better to use the different methods interchangeably.
Classroom Situation as a Base for Selecting Teaching Methods
Classroom situation as a factor affecting the choice of methods of instruction is related with the classroom
size, the place of instruction, etc. As to the classroom size, it is obvious that the number of students in a
class varies usually from as low as 20 to as high as 80 and above. When the number of students in a class
is less than 50, you may use either of the various methods whereas; if the number of students in a class
excels 50 you might stick to few of the methods.
On the other hand, you may not use the classroom as the only place for instruction. Thus if you need to
change the place of instruction you may be forced to change the method of instruction so that you can use
methods that are actually suitable for that particular place.
Finally it has to be noted that, there are also some other factors that affect the choice of methods of
instrument such as:-
- contents of the lesson
- characteristics of the teacher
- availability of resources etc
Therefore, you should strictly examine actual situation so as to select the appropriate methods of
instruction in your classroom practices.
Different educators use different ways of classifying methods of instruction. The following are among
the various types of classifications of instructional methods.
- Traditional versus Modern methods
- Conventional versus Non – conventional methods
- Teacher centered versus Student centered methods
- Direct Instruction versus Indirect Instruction
- Passive versus Active Learning.
Although, different terminologies are used in the classification of instructional methods, level of
students’ participation is the common criteria for classification. Despite this fact, in our case
emphasis is given to the theory or concept or basis of knowledge – epistemology.
There are many ways of talking about epistemology, but here a discussion is made on the two
general models of epistemology (positivist and constructivist) that are most frequently used in the
professional literature on instruction.
2.6. Major active learning strategies
Silberman (1996) said that in order to facilitate active learning, teachers can use various active learning
strategies. Some of them are stated here under:

Matchin
g DemonsTeam
Mastery
exercises trationTeachin
learning
Jigsaw g Ranking
groups Activities
Indepen Brain
Active
dent stormin
Learning
work
ICE g
Strategies
Deba
 Fig. 2 Some Active learning strat

1. The Demonstration Method

Demonstration method could be described as a method which combines telling, showing and doing for the
benefit of students. It is essentially a visualized exploration or experiment or activity of an important fact,
idea or process. In other words a demonstration activity is when the instructor demonstrates how to do
something in front of the class. The purpose of doing a demonstration is to show the students HOW to do
something in both words and action. When an instructor demonstrates, she/he should point out the process
step by step. Having written instructions on the board or on a piece of chart paper is also helpful!
Situations that require the use of the demonstration method are:
1. To teach manual skills, especially in the field; such as art, physical education, etc.
2. To instruct carefully in how to do an active correctly.
3. To give an opportunity to practice and to improve performance and to correct mistakes.

Types of demonstration
A. Formal demonstration -It is a type of demonstration where by the teachers stands in front
of a group of students and perform the demonstration. It is useful when there is shortage of
materials for each student and when the materials are dangerous to be handled by students.
B. Informal demonstration-It is a situation in which the students themselves perform the
demonstration. The role of the teacher is to go around and give coaching service. It is time
consuming and may permit much waste of time and materials before it covers all the practices
that the students need to know.
Advantages of the demonstration method:
o It captures the attention of students

o It relates principles and taught in the classroom to the actual condition

o It allows the pace to be geared according to the needs of students

o It helps students to gain knowledge

o It gives students functional practice in observing accurately and completely

o It reduce hazards that are sometimes present when students themselves undertake certain
experiment
 o It allows student’s participation highly

o It reduces costs and provides some essential learning experience that might be too expensive if
performed by students individually.
Limitations of the demonstration method
 Since the method requires very careful preparation and organization, a slight error would make the
effect insignificant.
 When classes are big, problems of audibility and visibility may arise.
 Active participation is reduced; for the children mainly act as observers
 It is also difficult to thoroughly evaluate students’ understanding during a demonstration.

2. Team Teaching Method

Team teaching is a method by which teaching tasks are shared between the members of a team of
teachers; so that, the qualifications and qualities of each are used in the best possible manner.
Advantages of team teaching
 It gives an opportunity for free expression and discussion to all students of the team.
 It stimulates thought and discussion among teachers
 It provides an opportunity for the development of human relations in schools
 It provides an opportunity for the development of personal status of the teachers
 It provides an opportunity for evaluation among teachers
Limitations of team teaching
 Some teachers may hesitate to cooperate for the organization of successful team teaching.
 There may be traditional, conservative attitude among teachers
 It needs big class rooms to accommodate
 Lack of competent teacher

3. Ranking Activities

Ranking task is when you give the students a number of statements or ideas written on cards or
blackboard, and then they have to “rank” or order them in term of what is most important to least
important. This is a great group activity, although it also works wonderfully as a pyramiding activity. This
activity promotes hot discussion. The students discuss how they would rank each idea and have to justify
their views. Ranking can be done with the cards in a straight line – from most important to least, or it can
be in a diamond shape, with the most important idea at the top of the diamond and the least at the bottom,
with the middle two in the middle. After each group has ranked their cards, it is good to have them share
their justifications with the rest of the class. This again will promote great discussion.

4. Brainstorming

This is when the students generate as many ideas as possible about a topic – an idea storm! It can be a
great way to start a class on any given topic. It may be done in a number of different ways: in groups-
recording their ideas on chart paper, in pairs, or as a whole class, with the teacher (or a student) writing the
ideas on the board or chart paper. It is a great way of finding out what the students already know on a
subject as well as an excellent review activity!
 5. Debate

A debate is an organized discussion on an issue which is usually controversial. The class is usually
divided into two (or sometimes more) groups, each supporting a “side” of the issue as: the people who are
“pro” and the people who are “against”. Each side has a leader and supporters. There is also a chair
person, who keeps order during the debate. Each side presents its argument in an organized, clear, and
intelligent manner. The chair person or chairing committee then decides on who has won. This is decided
by judging who has made the strongest, logically arguments, and who has refuted the other side’s
arguments most successfully.

6. Dramatic Techniques

This is when students perform a certain play (in a form of drama) in front of the class. This can take the
form of a skit (short play), a play (a long drama), poetry reading, tableau (frozen scene), or acting out a
process. Primarily, the students act out something in front of an audience. Drama, as an activity, is a
powerful way for kinesthetic learners to internalize knowledge and understanding.
7. Creative Writing
Creative writing is a method by which students use their imagination to create a piece of writing. This can
take the form of story writing, drama presentations, poetry, imaginary news paper articles, magazines,
creative research papers, and other fiction and nonfiction forms of writing. It is a good way for students to
put knowledge into a creative context.
8. Crossover group
Students are divided into groups to discuss a special topic (in any subject). After 5 minutes, 2 members of
the group move to another group to share ideas from their original group. From their sharing, more
discussion is developed. After 5 minutes, they will cross-over or “move” to another group. This will
ensure that the information you want the students to learn, travels through the entire class. This avoids the
need for a lot of feedback.
9. Comprehension activities
These are activities in which the students have to demonstrate that they understand the material. It could
take the form of an assignment, homework, research, probing questions, presentations, essays… any
activity in which the students have to think and demonstrate understanding of the material. The teacher
should be thinking about the different levels of thinking he/she expects from the students, and should not
just be straight knowledge retention. These are activities that encourage the students to think and
understand.
10.Fieldwork
Fieldwork involves the students going to a field so as to collate data and information on a specific topic.
For example, plant biologists could go into the “field” to collect plant specimens to analyze. History
students could go into the “field” to an archeological site like Axum to experience how one uncovers
historical artifacts. In essence, you design an activity where you would bring your students into the field to
experience your subject area first hand.
11. Goldfish bowl
This is a very useful exercise to use when you want to discuss a “hot topic”. Select two students (One
male and one female if possible) to sit back to back in the center of the room with other students grouped
around. Each student is assigned a particular view (or side of the issue). They have to debate the view. If
another student wants to join in, he/she goes to the center and taps the person they want to replace on the
shoulder and takes their seat. Each person should be replaced in turn. The teacher can also intervene to get
other students involved.
12. ICE Breaking
This is a quick 5 minute activity during which the students get to know each other and the instructor. It is
intended to “break the ice” or make students warm to each other. This is particularly useful in classes
where they will have to talk about controversial or personal issues and they need to feel comfortable with
each other. These activities build trust, a sense of fun, and help students get to know each other. There are
many types of icebreakers: name games, people bingo, inner and outer circle, and etc.
13. Independent work
Independent work is, just as the name indicates, a work that a student completes independently, without
help from others. This can take the form of an assignment completed in class, homework tasks, essays,
problem solving, research, an experiment, or any other activities that allow the student to work by
her/him. This is a great way of learning for intra-personal learners who prefer to discover things
independently. You could allow 20 minutes at the end of a class for the students to work quietly on a
question or problem, instead of making it yourself, post the answers in the library or the study hall, and
ask the students to come to you for help if they find their solutions are incorrect. Or you might wish to
mark one or two questions for continuous assessment!
14. Jigsaw groups
In this method you divide the class into groups. Each group is given a “specialist” topic and each member
of that group has to become an expert in that topic. You can do this as a homework activity or as a multi
lesson activity. After they have become an expert, you separate the “specialist” groups and form new
groups. The new groups are made up of one specialist from each of the original groups. They then work
together to teach each other the information they learned in their original group.
15. Mastery learning
Mastery learning is when the instructor pushes the students to master or perfect the learning. You are
designing activities that push the students to perfectly know the information, skills, or attitudes you are
teaching. In a way you are setting the students an achievable challenged that will make them think and
master the concept.
16. Matching exercises
This is an activity by which students match one column of information, definition, or description, with
another column. For example you might have one column with a list of terms, and in the other, the
definitions. Students must correctly “match” the terms to the definitions.
17. Pair discussion
This is an activity when you put your students into pairs. This can be done with person they are sitting
beside, or you can put them in pairs with people they haven’t worked with before. In the pair, they will
complete a task, discuss a topic, and/or prepare feedback to the large group. This is a good activity to do
before a large group discussion because it will gives shy students a chance to voice ideas with friends
before they speak in front of the whole group. It also leads nicely into a pyramiding activity.
18. Pyramiding
Pyramiding is a method of teaching where you start with the individual and move to the whole group.
Give your students a task to finish, a problem to solve, an assignment to complete, or an issue to think
about. They are to do this individually for a specified amount of time.
Next, have them get into pairs and compare what they have written. As a pair, the students come up with
a new answer together or verify that they have the same answer.
Have the students move into groups of four. Again, they compare their answers and discuss.
Lastly, get feedback from the whole class. You do not have to get every group to give an answer. Instead,
pick specific students to share important points their group raised. If it is a problem that they solved, have
one, two or three groups put their answer on the board.
This can be a great introductory activity, taking 20 minutes, or it can be expanded to last an entire class.

19. Project work

Project work involves giving the students a project to complete in a specified amount of time. Projects can
be done individually or in groups.
To design a good project, the teacher has to consider many things!
First, identify the components of the project. What are the students going to have to complete?
Second, outline the marking scheme of the project. How many marks are you allocating for each
component of the project?
Third, what are you expectations? What kind of work are you expecting from your students? Carefully
outline the criteria and what you expect.
Lastly, be sure that every student has a project plan, complete with due dates, a mark scheme, and a clear
list of all things to be complete

Unit Three- Instructional Planning

3.1. The what of instructional planning
Planning in a general context can be defined as a process of preparing a set of decision for action in the
future. Based on this general understanding, instructional planning can simply be defined as a process of
setting the activities of the teacher and students ahead of time. It is a process by which teachers decide on
the objectives of instruction and consequently on the content and methods of instruction so as to maximize
students’ performance and achievement. At this juncture it becomes important for you to see to the
characteristic or features of planning so that you will have better understanding regarding instructional
planning Effective teaching are based on careful planning.
Here are some important advantages of instructional planning. It is important to:
1. State the objectives and to accomplish according to the fixed objectives.

2. Providing ways to teachers to think about what they are doing.

3. Help teachers to use the allotted time properly.

4. Avoid wastage of resources (time, money, labor, materials)

5. Producing well organized classes.

6. Help teachers to collect and /or prepare media in advance.

7. Helps teachers to select & implement appropriate methods & techniques of instruction.

8. Helps teachers to have more confidences in what he/she does in the class.

9. Helps teachers to evaluate students effectively.

10. Helps substitute teachers to carry out their duties effectively.

Generally, planning makes classes more interesting, accurate, relevant etc.

3.2. Basic pedagogical questions in instructional Planning
The basic questions of planning (The 7 WH questions) where it expected to answer at the 1 st step is stated
as follows:
Why to teach? How to teach?
What to teach? When to teach?
Whom to teach? How much to teach?
Where to teach?
 3.3. Levels of instructional planning, formats and elements
Teachers are expected to prepare different types of plans. Thus you have to have the knowledge and skills
of preparing the plans that you are expected to produce. This section provides elements, basic knowledge
on the types of instructional planning, and the way how to prepare these plans.
3.3.1. Elements of Instructional Planning
Common instructional planning elements are: Objectives, Contents, Activities, Media, and Method of
assessment
Objectives: as you have already seen objectives are descriptions of students learning. That is, they are the
expected changes or development in students’ behavior as a result of the instruction to be presented.
Contents: refer to what is to be thought to the students. It is the concept, the ideas, the skills, etc to be
taught to the learners. They are an instrument to achieve the intended objective. Selection and decision
concerning how much emphasis to give to particular topic or content with in the frame work of the
national curriculum will depend on the teacher’s view of its importance and difficulty. This demands good
subject knowledge, an awareness of how to separate and sequence the elements of the topic, and an
awareness of pupils’ needs
Activities:- There are different exercises or duties in the instructional practices that are valuable for the
accomplishment of the intended objectives. These activities are described in terms of the teacher or the
students or both. These activities are experiences designed for the purpose of making students actually
learn. Thus, they are one way or the other related with the methods of instruction to be employed in that
particular lesson or instructional time.
Media: These are commonly known as teaching aids. They are materials, conditions, things, etc that are
used in the instructional process with or side by side with the activities or methods of instruction. Media
should not be merely considered as aids of the teaching process, rather they are parts and parcels of the
instructional process at large.
Method of Assessment and Evaluation: - In the instructional process, it is worthwhile to monitor and
assess students progress to ensure that the instructional process is being effective and is likely to achieve
the expected learning outcomes (objectives) set. This is realized through the different means of
assessment, measurement and evaluation. With this regard, it should be noted that teachers need to think
critically and plan about what the means of assessment or measurement or evaluation is and, how and
when to be used (employed) for assessing or measuring or evaluating students’ performance.

3.3.2. Types of Instructional Planning

There are three types of lesson plan- annual, unit, and daily lesson plans.
What is the difference between annual plan and lesson plan? Describe the way of presentation
(description) of the elements of instructional planning in both annual and lesson plan.
The following table shows the major difference between annual and lesson plan.
 Point of difference Description of the difference
Annual plan Lesson plan
Time or period Prepared for a year Prepared for a lesson (one period)
of duration
Type of objectives General objectives are usually written Only specific objectives are used
written (used)
Description of contents Contents are described in a generalized way; thus, Contents are described in a bit detailed
usually topics and sub topics describe the content way. Thus explanation of the topics
andsubtopics may
be necessary.
Description of activities Usually the major method are the only once that are
The different methods and associated activities
being expressed on the annual plan of the teacher and the students are usually
expressed in a detailed way
Description of the media
Usually the major media are expressed only by name The media to be used how to use, when to be
used and whom to use them etc needs to be
clearly shown
Description of methods The methods of measurement and evaluation areIn a lesson we should usually use continuous
of assessment or expressed in a generalized way; usually by name. assessment techniques side by side with the
evaluation. methods of instruction employed

A. Annual Plan
Below you are given with a format of an annual plan. Relate the format with the description explained on
the chart above; and draw your own conclusion about the preparation (development) of an annual plan

Annual Plan Format

Name of the School___________________ No. Of Teaching Days in the Year_______ Academic
Year_______________________ Total No of Periods in the Year to Cover
Teacher’s Name______________________ the Subject_____________
Subject____________________________ No Of Periods in a Week_____________
Grade________________________ Duration of a Period________________
General Objectives Contents of Units and
Methods of
Instruction

Techniques of
Evaluation and

Remark
Instructional Media

Assessment
of Units and Sub-units Subunits
Semester

Month

Period
Week

Sign of the Dep’t heads comment & sign

Teacher ____________________
 Vice Director’s comment & sign

B. Lesson Plan
There are different formats for planning a lesson. However, the different formats are generally grouped
into two as the vertical and the horizontal formats
Activity
Below you are given with a sample lesson plan produced using the vertical format. Evaluate the plan
based on
1. The description on the chart above
2. The basic questions of instructional planning.
A Sample Lesson Plan
(Using the vertical format)
Name of the school:
Teacher’s Name:
Subject: Biology
Grade and Sec: 8th A
Topic : Sexual Reproduction
Sub Topic: Parts of a flower
Date: Wednesday; Miazia 3, 2001E.C
Duration of a period: 40’
Objective: - Given any true flower students will be able to label each of the parts of a flower without
missing any.
Instructional Procedure
Activity 1. Drawing a picture showing the parts of a flower (13’)
- To check weather each of the students in the class has brought one flower as they were told the
other day.
- As each student has one flower at hand; now it is his/her turn to observe the structural organization
of his/her flower carefully.
- Draw the flower he/she observed on his/her exercise book (as each student has observed his/her
flower carefully).
Activity 2. Label the part of a flower (27’)
- Let each student open his/her text book on page 86 (where there is a picture showing the parts of a
flower).
- Each student compares and contrasts between his/her picture and the picture on the text book.
- Now each students needs to label the parts of a flower on his/her own picture in light of (based on)
the picture on the text book.
- In pairs, a student gives his/her picture together with the original true flower to his/her colleague
besides him/her. Thus each student evaluates the work of his/her associate (colleague)
- While evaluating the work of a colleague each student should write clear comments to his/her
colleague
- Return the work of his/her colleagues together with the comments he/she provided to him/her
- In pairs students make discussion for clarity of the comments; so as to come up with common
understanding.
- Perhaps, if some of the students fail to make agreement let them raise the issue so that a whole class
discussion will be hold. This will lead to a summery discussion.
- Finally let each student to do the following activity at home: Read books or ask anyone about the
reproduction of flowering plants. Then write a report of one page about the reproduction of
flowering plants for the next session.
Assessment technique:- each student will be assessed based on his/her work at each stage; so that he/she
will be given with the appropriate guidance and comment at the appropriate time.
Teacher’s sign___________ Department head’s comment ______________
Name & Sign
Acc. Director’s comment _____ Sig ____________
The horizontal format used for planning a lesson is of two types. You have the two type presented below.
Activity:
Try to update the lesson plan given as a sample above (using the vertical format) using one of the
horizontal formats; or develop your own plan using the two types (horizontal formats) given below
Lesson Plan Horizontal Format 1
Name of the teacher week
Grade Date
Subject Duration of a period
Topic
Sub topic
Specific objectives: - At the end of this lesson students will be able to
Time Duration Contents Activities Media Comment
Teacher’s Students’
Activities activities

Teacher’s sign Department head’s comment

_____________________________
Name & Sign
Acc. Director’s comment Sig

Lesson Plan Horizontal Formal 2

Name of the teacher week
Grade Date
Subject Duration of a period
Topic
Sub topic
Specific objectives: - At the end of this lesson students will be able to

Students’ activities Time Teachers’ activities

Media or Resources

Assessment
Teacher’s sign _________ Department head’s comment
Name & Sign
Acc. Director’s comment
Name & Sign

3.4. Taxonomy of educational objectives

One of the basic questions of instructional planning is ‘Why to teach?’ leads us to the determination of the
instructional objectives. Thus what are instructional objectives?’ is an important question to be answered
here.
Learning has been defined as a change (development) of behavior. In this definition you have an important
phrase called change or development of behavior. This phrase tells us that while attending the practice of
education (either formal, non-formal, or informal) people usually come up with behavioral change or
development. Based on this analysis instructional objectives refer to the expected behavioral changes or
development that are to be brought in the learners. They are the end in views in the instructional process.
Instructional objectives are written either as specific or general. The disparity between the two forms of
objectives (general or specific) is related with the number of direction they lead, time of achievement, and
the extent to which they can be measured using any means of measurement and evaluation.
The differences
Point of differences General Objectives Specific Objectives

Depth Wide Specific

No of directions leading Many and undetermined One and specific
The extent to which they are They cannot be measured They can be measured
measured
Time of achievement They can’t be achieved with in a They can be achieved with in one
period’s lesson period lesson

Examples of General Objectives

 Know the climate of Ethiopia
 Understand compound sentences.
 Appreciate music and art
Example of Specific Objectives
 List the elements of climate
 Explain the difference between element and compound
 Sing the Ethiopian national anthem properly
Here note that specific objectives can be written in two different ways as “well stated” specific objectives
and informative objectives. The specific objectives shown above on the examples are informative
objective. They (informative objectives) have product and performance. In another way, well stated
objectives have condition, criteria, product and performance. Look at the following two examples:
Ex 1- At the end of this lesson students will be able to identify vowel Letters.
Ex 2-Given all the English alphabets, students will be able to identify vowel letters within a minute.
In the aforementioned examples the first one has the product and the performance; whereas, the second
one has the condition, product, performance and criteria. Therefore, you can conclude that the first
example is an example of informative objective; whereas, the second one is an example of a well stated
objective.
Condition: - refers to the given situation or thing from which we draw out or identify
Product: - refers to the content to be learned
Performance: - refers to the action to be taken to make the product explicit in us (the learners)
Criterion: - refers to the level of proficiency which can be described either in time or quality or the like
In the second example above
The condition is: - Given all the English alphabets.
The product is: - Vowel letters
The performance is: - identify
The criterion is: - within a minute
So far, you have learned the way as to how to write instructional objectives in an appropriate way. Next it
is important for you to understand the different kinds of instructional objectives, so that you can write the
appropriate objectives.
3.5. Kinds of Instructional Objective
Instructional objectives are classified based on two criterion type and level of complexity. In type,
objectives are classified in to the following three major domains the cognitive, the affective and the
psychomotor domains. Each of the three domains is further classified according to the level of complexity
of the learning outcome.
3.5.1. The Cognitive Domain: - focuses on what the learners should know, understand, evaluate etc, at
the end of a lesson. They emphasize knowledge of facts and concepts and their application. According to
the Blooms taxonomy of educational objectives, objectives in the cognitive domain are classified into six
based on their level of complexity. From the easiest to the complex, the objectives are classified as
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

1. Knowledge: is defined as the remembering of previously learned material. This may involve the recall
of a wide range of material from specific facts to complete theories, and it is required to bring appropriate
information to the mind. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive
domain.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are:-Define, describe,
identify, label, list, match, name, out-line, reproduce, select, state, etc.

Examples of general educational objectives at this level:

o Knows methods and procedures
o Knows basic concepts
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
o Recall the formula for rectangles
o List the name of big rivers in Ethiopia.
2. Comprehension: Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may
be shown by translating material from one form to another (words of members), by interpreting material
(explaining or summarizing), and by estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects). These
learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material, and represent the lowest level
of understanding.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are: - Convert, define,
distinguish, estimate, explain, extend, generalize, gives examples, infer, paraphrase, rewrite, summarize,
etc.
Examples of general educational objectives at this level
 Understands facts and principles
 Translates verbal material to mathematical formula
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level
 Summarize the main events of the battle of Adwa.
 Explain about the side angle side theorem
3. Application: Application refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation. This
may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories.
Learning outcomes in this area require a higher level of understanding than those under comprehension.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are:-Change, compute,
demonstrate, discover, manipulate, modify, operate, predict, prepare, produce, relate, show, solve, use, etc.
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
Applies principles to new situations
Solves mathematical problems
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
 Demonstrate for the class an application of Neutron’s law of inertia.
 Construct an appropriate bar graph from the given necessary data.
4. Analysis: Analysis refers to the ability to break down material in to its components parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood. This may include the identification of the parts, analysis of
the relationships between part and recognition of the organizational principles involved. Learning
outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than comprehension and application because they
require an understanding of both the content and the structural form of the material.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are:- Breaks down,
differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, points out, relates,
selects, separates, sub-divides, etc.
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Recognizes logical fallacies in reasoning
 Distinguishes between facts and inferences
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
 Identify the major theme of a given poem.
 Point out the contradictions of a given paragraph.

5. Synthesis: Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve
the production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or
a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information). Learning outcomes in this area stress
creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formation of new patents or structures.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are:-combine, restate,
summarize, argue, discuss, organize, derive, select, relate, generalize, conclude, compose, manage, plan,
design, etc
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Writes a creative short story (or poem)
 Proposes a plan for an experiment
 Formulates a new scheme for classifying objects (or events, or ideas)
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
 Students will be able to write a project proposal of 10 pages.
 Students will be able to write a term paper of 50 pages.

6. Evaluation: Evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel,
poem, research report). The judgments are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria
(organization) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or
be given them. Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain
elements of all of the other categories plus value judgments based on clearly defined criteria.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are:-judge, evaluate,
determine, recognize, support, defend, attack, criticize, identify, avoid, select, choose, attach, rate, assess,
value, etc
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 o Judges the consistency of written material.
o Judges the value of a work by use of internal criteria.
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
o The students will be able to compare student centered method with teacher centered method based
on the given criteria.
o Determine which media best meets the lesson based on the stated criteria of instructional media.
3.5.2. The Affective Domain: deals with attitudinal, emotional and valuing goals (objectives) for learners.
In other words, objectives in this domain are related with learning outcome that reflect change or
development in students need, attitude, emotion, and the like. Objectives in this domain are classified
based on their level of complexity in to five categories. From the easiest to the complex, the objectives are
classified as receiving, responding, valuing, organizing and characterizing.
1. Receiving: refers to the student’s willingness to attend to particular phenomena or stimuli (classroom
activities, textbook, music, etc.). From a teaching standpoint, it is concerned with getting, holding, and
directing the student’s attention. Learning outcomes in this area range from the simple awareness that a
thing exists to selective attention on the part of the learner. Receiving represents the lowest level of
learning outcomes in the affective domain.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are:- Ask, chooses,
describe, follow, give, hold, identify, erect, reply, use, name, points to, select, etc.
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Accepts differences of race and culture
 Attends closely to the class room activities
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
o Listens the teacher’s lecture attentively

o Shows sensitivity to social problems

2. Responding: refers to active participation on the part of the student. At this level the student not only
attends to a particular phenomenon but also reacts to it in some way. Learning outcomes in this area may
emphasize acquiescence in responding (reads assigned material), willingness to respond (voluntarily reads
beyond assignment), or satisfaction in responding (reads for pleasure or enjoyment). The higher levels of
this category include those instructional objectives that are commonly classified under interest; that is,
those that stress the seeking out and enjoyment of particular activities.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are:-answer, assist,
complies, conform, discuss, select, tell, write, greet, help, label, perform, practice, presents, read, recite,
report, etc.
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Obeys school’s rules
 Shows interest in subject
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
o Completes assigned homework

o Participates in class discussion

3. Valuing: is concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or
behavior. This ranges in degree from the more simple acceptance of a value (desires to improve group
skills) to the more complex level of commitment (assumes responsibility for the effective functioning of
the group). Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, but clues to these values are
expressed in the student’s overt behavior. Learning outcomes in this area are concerned with behavior that
is consistent and stable enough to make the value clearly identifiable. Instructional objectives that are
commonly classified under attitudes and appreciation would fail into this category.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are:-Complete, describe,
differentiate, explain, follow, form, initiate, invite, join, justify, propos, read, report, select, share, study,
work, etc

Examples of general educational objectives at this level:

 Shows concern for the welfare of others
 Demonstrates problem-solving attitude
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
o Appreciates the role of science (or other subjects) in everyday life
o Appreciates good literature (art or music)
4. Organization: is concerned with bringing together different values, resolving conflicts between them,
and beginning the building of an internally consistent value system. Thus the emphasis is on comparing,
relating, and synthesizing values. Learning outcomes may be concerned with the conceptualization of a
value (recognizes the responsibility of each individual for improving human relations) or with the
organization of a value system (develops a vocational plan that satisfies his need for both economic
security and social service). Instructional objectives relating to the development of a philosophy of life
would fall into this category.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are: - Adhere, alter,
arrange, combine, compare, compete, defend, explain, generalize, identify, integrate, modify, order,
organize, prepare, relate, synthesize, etc.
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsibility in a democracy
 Recognizes the role of systematic planning in solving problems
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
 Formulates a life plan in harmony with his abilities, interests, and beliefs
 Accepts responsibility for own behavior.
5. Characterization by a Value or Value complex. At this level of the affective domain, the individual
has a value system that has controlled his behavior for a sufficiently long time for him to have developed a
characteristic life style. Thus, the behavior is pervasive, consistent, and predictable. Learning outcomes at
this level cover a broad range of activities, but the major emphasis is on the fact that the behavior is
typical or characteristic of the student. Instructional objectives that are concerned with the student’s
general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional) would be appropriate here.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are: act, discriminate,
display, influence, listen, modify, perform, practice, propose, qualify, question, revise, serve, solve, use,
verify, etc
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Displays safety consciousness
 Maintains good health habits
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
 Demonstrates self-reliance in working independently
 Practices cooperation in group activities
3.5.3. The Psychomotor Domain: The word ‘psychomotor’ is derived from the two words psych and
motor. Psych refers to the mind; and motor refers to the body and its movement. Therefore, the
development of muscular strength and coordination is the focus of objectives in this domain. In other
words, this domain involves the development of mental and physical skills, techniques and abilities of the
learners. Thus, the learning outcomes in this domain include objectives which deals with manipulative or
skill development and are expressed through acting or doing. Different writers classified this domain in
different ways. But, here, attention is given to that which is used by many scholars. Accordingly, the
psychomotor domain is classified (based on level of complexity) in to seven. From the easiest to the
complex the objectives in this domain are classified as perception, set, guided response, mechanism,
complex overt response, adaptation and origination.

1. Perception: The first level is concerned with the use of the sense organs to obtain cues that guide motor
activity. This category ranges from sensory stimulation (awareness of a stimulus), through cue selection
(selecting task-relevant cues), to translation (relation cue perception to action in a performance).
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are: - Chooses, describes,
detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects, separates
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Recognizes malfunction by sound of machine
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
 Relates music to a particular dance step
2. Set: Set refers to readiness to take a particular type of action. This category includes mental set (mental
readiness to act), physical set (physical readiness to act), and emotional set (willingness to act). Perception
of cues serves as an important prerequisite for this level.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are: - Begins, displays,
explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, responds, shows, starts, volunteers, etc
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Knows sequence of steps in varnishing wood
 Shows desire to type efficiently
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level
 Demonstrates proper bodily stance for batting a ball
3. Guided Response: Guided response is concerned with the early stages in learning a complex skill. It
includes imitation (repeating an act demonstrated by the instructor) and trial and error (using a multiple-
response approach to identify an appropriate response) adequacy of performance is judged by an instructor
or by a suitable set of criteria.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are: - Assembles, builds,
calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures,
mends, etc
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
Determines best sequence for preparing a meal
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
o Applies first aid bandage as demonstrated
o Performs a golf swing as demonstrated
4. Mechanism: It is concerned with performance acts where the learner responses have become habitual
and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. Learning outcomes at this
level are concerned with performance skills of various types, but the movement patterns are less complex
than at the next higher level.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are: - Assembles, builds,
calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures,
mends, etc
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Sets up laboratory equipment
 Writes smoothly and legibly
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level :
 Operates slide projector
 Demonstrates a simple dance step
 5. Complex Overt Response: Complex overt response is concerned with the skillful performance of
motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, smooth, accurate
performance, requiring a minimum energy. This category includes resolution of uncertainty (performs
without hesitation) and automatic performance (movements are made with ease and good muscle control).
Learning outcomes at this level include highly coordinated motor activities.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are: - Assembles, builds,
calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures,
mends, etc
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Demonstrates skill in driving an automobile
 Demonstrates correct form in swimming
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
 Operates a power saw skillfully
 Repairs electronic equipment quickly and accurately.
6. Adaptation: Adaptation is concerned with skills that are so well developed that the individual can
modify movement patterns to fit special requirements or to meet a problem situation.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are: - varies, reorganizes,
revises, adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, etc
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Adjusts tennis play to counteract opponent’s style
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
 Modifies swimming strokes to fit the roughness of the water
7. Origination: It refers to the creating of new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific
problem. Learning outcomes at this level emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.
Illustrative verbs for stating specific learning outcomes (objectives) in this level are: - originates,
constructs, creates, designs, arranges, combines, composes, etc.
Examples of general educational objectives at this level:
 Creates a musical composition
 Designs a new dress style
Examples of specific educational objectives at this level:
 Design a new coat style
 Creates a dance step that suits a given song.

Unit 4:- Classroom Management

4.1. Definitions and purposes of classroom management
Organizing and managing the classroom are very important basis for successful instructional practice.
Because of this fact organizing and managing the classroom are among the major roles of any teacher. To
this end teachers need to be well aware of the ideas and techniques of organizing and managing the
classroom so that they can maintain conducive environment for the teaching learning process.
4.1.1. The Concept of Classroom Organization and Management
Activity:
Based on the aforementioned points, explain briefly the following two concepts
o Classroom management
o Classroom Organization
Teachers are expected to exercise many responsibilities or activities related to classroom management and
organization. Of these, the following are some examples:
- Avoiding misbehavior in the classroom using different means and ways.
- Putting instructional media in the classroom in an appropriate place.
- Adjusting the seat of students in accordance with the teaching learning process.
 - Helping students do whatever they need to do (i.e. helping them to do things that are significant for
effective teaching process).
- Enabling Students not to do things that are hindrances of effective learning
One can define classroom management as a practice of managing the classroom situation so as to insure
an atmosphere that generates the most effective learning in all the students. Whereas, classroom
organization refers to the way by which we put instructional media (including desks or chairs and tables)
in a way that suites the teaching learning process and thus facilitates (insures) effective learning of the
students in the classroom.
Thus, Classroom organization is a deliberate creation of the environment by considering the instructional
objectives and the specific activities to be done by each student to achieve the desired end results.
Classroom management is a process of organizing and conducting a class so as to make instruction
effective and efficient. It is a process of managing the teaching and learning activities to get maximum
students' learning. It is a process of establishing and maintaining order.
4.1.2. The Significance of Classroom Organization and Management
Activity:
What do you think are the importance of managing and organizing classroom, as teachers?
Organizing and managing the classroom is paramount important for an effective teaching and learning
process. This is because a conducive classroom environment is insured for effective learning of all the
students only when the teacher effectively (appropriately) manages and organizes the classroom.
Therefore, due to this fact, one can argue that without an effective classroom organization and
management, it is impossible to think and realize the actual learning of students.

4.2. Different sitting arrangements in the class

In order to facilitate classroom teaching-learning process properly, teachers are required to apply or use
different sitting arrangements:
1. U- shape: This is an all-purpose setup. The students have a reading/ writing surface, can see you
and/or a visual medium easily, and are in face-to face contact with each other. It’s also easy to pair up
students, especially when there are two seats per table. The arrangement is ideal for distributing learning
handouts quickly to students because you can enter the U and walk to different points with sets of
materials. You can set up desks, desk chairs, or tables in a U shape arrangement.
2. Team-style: Grouping circular or oblong tables around the classroom enables you to promote team
interaction. You can place seats fully around the tables for the most intimate setting. If you do, some
students will have to turn their chairs around to face the front of the room to see you, a
flipchart/blackboard, or a screen.
Or you can place seats halfway around so that no student has his or her back to the front of the room.
3. Conference table: it is best if the table is relatively circular or square. This arrangement minimizes
the importance of the teacher and maximizes the importance of the class. A rectangular table can create a
feeling of formality if the teacher is at the head of the table. If the teacher sits in the middle of a wider
side, the students on the ends will feel left out. Therefore, it is better for the teacher to sit at the head of the
table.
You can form a conference table arrangement by joining together several smaller tables (the center will
usually be hollow).
4. Circle: Simply seating students in a circle without desks or tables promotes the most direct fact-to-
face interaction. A circle is ideal for full-group discussion. Assuming there is enough perimeter space, you
can ask students to arrange their chairs quickly into many subgroup arrangements.
If you want to have a writing surface available for students, use a peripheral arrangement. Have them turn
their chairs around when you want group discussion.
5. Group on Group: This arrangement allows you to conduct fish-bowl discussions or set up role-
plays, debates, or observations of group activity. The most typical design consists of two concentric
circles of chairs. Or you can place a meeting table in the middle, surrounded by an outer ring of chairs.
6. Workstations: This arrangement is appropriate for an active; laboratory-type environment in which
each student is seated at a station to perform a procedure or task (e.g. computing, operating a machine,
conducting lab work) right after it is demonstrated. A terrific way to encourage learning partnerships is to
place two students at the same station.
7. Breakout Groupings: - If your classroom is large enough or if nearby space is available, place (in
advance when feasible) tables and /or chairs to which subgroups can go for team –based learning
activities. Keep the breakout settings as far from each other as possible so that teams do not disturb one
another. But avoid placing breakout spaces so far from the classroom that the connection to it is difficult
to maintain.
8. Chevron Arrangement: A traditional classroom setup (rows of desks) does not promote active
learning. When there are several students (30 or more) and only oblong tables are available it is sometimes
necessary to arrange students “classroom style.” A repeated V or chevron arrangement creates less
distance between people, better frontal visibility, and more ability to see other students than straight rows.
In this arrangement, it’s best to place aisles off-center.
9.Traditional Classroom:- If there is no way to get around a series of straight rows of desks or tables
and chairs, try grouping chairs in pairs to allow for the use of learning partners. Try to create an even
number of rows and enough space between them so that pairs of students in the odd-numbered rows can
turn their chairs around and create a quartet with the pair seated directly behind them in the next row.
10. Auditorium: Although an auditorium provided a very limiting environment for active learning,
there is still hope. If the seats are movable place them in an arc to create greater closeness and student
visibility.
If the seats are fixed, ask students to seat themselves as close to the center as possible. Be assertive about
this request; even consider cordoning off sections of the auditorium. Remember: No matter how big the
auditorium and how large the audience, you can still pair up students and use active learning actives that
involve partners.
Most of the layouts described here are not meant to be permanent arrangements. If your furniture is
movable, it should be possible to use a few of these layouts as you see fit. You will also find suggestions
on how to utilize even the most traditional classroom environments for active learning.

4.3. Approaches of classroom management

Activity
1. List down styles/ approaches of classroom management
2. It is known that teachers use different mechanisms to alleviate class room misbehavior. List down the
different ways used by teachers to reduce or avoid misbehavior in the class room.
You can have a list of many different ways that are used by teachers to avoid disciplinary problems in the
classroom. These may include:-
o Giving piece of advice.
o Warning.
o Punishing using sticks (using corporal punishment).
o Showing the bright future to the child.
o Leaving the child to do whatever he/she wants.
o Insulting
o Disregarding the problem as if not seen or heard.
 o Neglecting
o Encouraging
It is believed that there are four different styles of class room management. These are: Laissez-faire,
Indifferent, and Authoritarian
Each of the aforementioned approaches to classroom management has got unique features. Thus we can
define and explain them in accordance with their characteristic features. Based on this fact you might have
explained them like this:
1. Authoritative (Democratic)
The authoritative teacher places limits and controls on the students but simultaneously encourages
independence. This teacher often explains the reasons behind the rules and decisions. If a student is
disruptive, the teacher offers a polite, but firm, reprimand. This teacher sometimes metes out discipline,
but only after careful consideration of the circumstances.
The authoritative teacher is also open to considerable verbal interaction, including critical debates. The
students know that they can interrupt the teacher if they have a relevant question or comment. This
environment offers the students the opportunity to learn and practice communication skills.
This kind of teacher exhibits a warm and nurturing attitude toward the students and expresses genuine
interest and affection. His/her classroom abounds with praise and encouragement. He (she) often writes
comments on homework and offers positive remarks to students. This authoritative teacher encourages
self-reliant and socially competent behavior and fosters higher achievement motivation. Often, she/he will
guide the students through a project, rather than lead them.
This Kind of teacher is fair and understands that students can’t be perfect. He/she is the kind of teacher
you can talk to without being put down or feeling embarrassed.
2. Laissez- faire
The laissez-faire teacher places few demand or controls on the students. “Do your own thing” describes
this classroom. This teacher accepts the student’s impulses and actions and is less likely to monitor their
behavior. This kind of teacher strives not to hurt the student’s feelings and has difficulty saying no to a
student or enforcing rules. If a student disrupts the class, he /she may assume that he is not giving that
student enough attention. When a student interrupts a lecture, he/she accepts the interruption with the
belief that the student must surely have something valuable to add. When he/she does offer discipline, it is
likely to be inconsistent.
This teacher is very involved with his/her students and cares for them very much. He/she is more
concerned with the students’ emotional well-being than he is with classroom control. He sometimes bases
classroom decisions on his students’ feelings rather than on their academic concerns.
This kind of teacher wants to be the students’ friend. He may even encourage contact outside the
classroom. He has a difficult time establishing boundaries between his professional life and his personal
life.
However, this overindulgent style is associated with students’ lack of social competence and self-control.
It is difficult for students to learn socially acceptable behavior when the teacher is so permissive. With few
demands placed upon them, these students frequently have lower motivation to achieve.
Regardless, students often like this teacher. You may have time to hear student saying: This is a pretty
popular teacher. You don’t have to be serious throughout the class. But sometimes things get out of
control and we learn nothing at all.
3. Indifferent
The indifferent teacher is not very involved in the classroom. This teacher places few demands, if any, on
the students and appears generally uninterested. The indifferent teacher just doesn’t want to impose on the
students. As such, he/she often feels that class preparation is not worth the effort. Things like field trips
and special projects are out of the question. This teacher simply won’t take the necessary preparation time.
Sometimes, he/she will use the same materials, year after year. Also, classroom discipline is lacking .This
teacher may lack the skills, confidence, or courage to discipline students.
The students sense and reflect the teacher’s indifferent attitude. Accordingly, very little learning occurs.
Everyone is just “going through the motions” and killing time. In this aloof environment, the students
have very few opportunities to observe or practice communication skills. With few demands placed on
them and very little discipline, students have low achievement motivation and lack self-control.
As long as the students don’t bother about the teacher, the teacher doesn’t mind what they do. As far as
the teacher is concerned, he/she believes that the students are responsible for their own education.

4. Authoritarian
This is a style of classroom child behavior management by which the teacher uses forces to avoid
unwanted classroom behaviors. This teacher assumes that he (she) is the only responsible body to mange
misbehaver in the classroom.
As you gain teaching experience, you may find that your preferred style (s) will change. Over time, your
profile may become more diverse or more focused. Also, it may be suitable to rely upon a specific style
when addressing a particular situation or subject. Perhaps the successful teacher is one who can evaluate a
situation and then apply the appropriate style.

4.5. Causes and solutions for students’ classroom misbehaviors.

4.5.1. Causes of Classroom Discipline

Activity
How do you understand the term misbehavior?
Educators argued that the act of students that violates the established or implied classroom rules or any act
of a student that disrupts the normal teaching and learning process is misbehavior.
An important issue to be addressed here is the way how to avoid classroom disciplinary problem. But
before getting into the analysis of this issue, it is better first to deal with the causes of misbehavior in the
classroom.
Activity
By considering (remembering) your experience as a student in the elementary or secondary school, you
try to answer the following questions
1. As a student, why do you misbehave in the classroom while the teaching learning process is
on progress?
2. Who do you think is the causes of misbehavior? Is that the teacher? The student
him/herself? or others?
3. What are the main causes of student’s classroom misbehavior?

Educators categorized causes of students’ misbehavior as teacher related, student related, home -
environment related, and school environment related causes.
A. Teacher related causes
- poor teaching
- poor knowledge
- poor time management
- failure to set the right task
- failure to enforce the rules set etc
B. Student related causes
- disinterested in learning
 - disinterested in particular subject
- dislike a teacher
- lack of attention
- peer or side talk
C. Home-environment related causes
- disruptive home environment
- unpleasant peer relations
- emotional up set
- family background
D. School environment related causes
- shortage of resource materials
- conflicting rules in the school
- the class size
- bad physical condition
Thus, Students usually misbehave when:-
- The school (the class) is not well furnished and organized
- They do not understand ground rules or if they do not have ground rules at all.
- They are not given with appropriate activities (tasks) with their clear instruction.
- The teaching learning practice in the classroom is not suited with the students’ interest,
ability, attitude, etc.
- Teachers and parents do not cooperate (work together) for students’ learning.
- There are inappropriate practices of testing and examination.
- There is no guidance service in the school.
- The school location is not appropriate.
When critically examining the bases of the above mentioned causes of misbehavior, most likely the
problems are related with the teachers’ skill, attitude, and overall practices. Therefore, as teachers we have
to be careful about this condition.

4.5.2 Techniques of avoiding disciplinary problems

There are two major techniques that are employed to avoid any disciplinary problems. These are: General
preventive techniques (Proactive techniques), and Specific remedial techniques (Reactive techniques)
Traditionally classroom management has been viewed as reactive in nature with a focus on how teachers
react after students’ misbehave. Thus, emphasis was on using discipline to control misbehavior. To this
end, as stated by Crickshank, et al (1995), some teachers spend as much as 80 percent of their time and
effort trying to control students’ behavior. That is, these teachers teach too little but try too hard. In other
words, they are not presenting clear, uninterrupted, brisk-paced lessons which are essential to students’
involvement and learning.
It is evident that effective management skills are positively related to students’ achievement. Thus, when
students spend more time engaged in learning tasks (or correspondingly less time in unlearning
conditions) they learn more. This brings a shift in attention from reactive techniques to proactive or
preventive views of classroom management.
A. General Preventive (proactive) Techniques for Maintaining Classroom Discipline
These are measures to be taken before students misbehave. They are precautions not to give ways for
misbehaviors. They all are applied based on the principle, prevention is better than cure.
In order to facilitate this approach, teachers can use different mechanisms:
 Make a good preparation of the lesson
 Make the instructional practice active, you are required to use various teaching methods
 Be fair and avoid discrimination
 Understand students and act accordingly.
 Give full attention to each student in the classroom.
 Produce good physical and psychological environment for students to learn.
 Hold students accountable, etc
B. Specific Remedial (reactive) Techniques for Maintaining Classroom Discipline
Remedial or reactive technique is one of maintaining classroom discipline in which teachers apply after
students develop misbehave. To do so, as stated here under, teachers can exercise different techniques:
o Looking at the student sternly.

o Walking toward the student.

o Showing sign to the student.

o Asking the student to stop.

o Discussing the problem with the students.

o Assigning the student to another seat.

o Writing a note to the student’s parents.

o Calling the student’s parents and discuss over the problem.

o Insuring free discussion among the students.

o Assigning punishment, such as a writing assignment or a reading assignment, etc.

Reference
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Azeb Desta (1984), Elements of General Methods of Teaching: knowledge and
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Curriculum and
Instruction (Unpublished)
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