The influence of family income on students’ career

choice at universities of technology

A. Shumba (Posthumous)*
School of Teacher Education

M. Naong*
School of Entrepreneurship and Business Development
e-mail: [email protected]
*Central University of Technology, Free State
Bloemfontein, South Africa

Abstract
Students’ future career aspirations and expectations are essential precursors of adult
attainment. The study sought to determine the impact of poverty and how family income
influences the ability of their children to pursue their preferred career choices. A cross-
sectional study amongst Faculty of Education students was conducted at three universities
of technology in South Africa. The study sample comprised 141 students. The study
found that 69. 2 per cent of the students bemoaned either a lack of or inadequate family
income as the most common impediment towards realising their chosen career choices.
Furthermore, 34.8 per cent ranked Teaching as the highest career choice, followed by
Engineering with 14.2 per cent and Accounting/Finance with 11.3 per cent. Through
life-skills courses and programmes, learners should not only be exposed to various
career choices, but also made aware of available sources of finance such as bursaries
and loans.

Keywords: career choices, family income, funding, students, university of technology,

South Africa

INTRODUCTION
Choosing a career and its concomitant programme of study is probably one of
the biggest decisions students will face in their lives. Frequently, learners have
notable aptitudes and skills at school, but cannot pursue their chosen career because
of limited family financial resources. This dilemma is widespread across all age
groups and professions and is likely to impact on scarce skills training in South
Africa. It begs the question of whether there is a relationship between family
income and students’ career choices. Families’ socioeconomic levels are often
cited as a potentially confounding variable in studies on adolescent career choice
and commitment (O’Brien and Fassinger 1993). Rojewski and Yang (1997) found
that socioeconomic status was the most significant indicator of low occupational
aspirations. Though McCandless, Lueptow and McClendon (1989) did not examine
the effects of socioeconomic status on career development, they found that traditional
© Unisa Press ISSN 1011-3487 1021 SAJHE 27(4)2013 pp 1021–1037
A. Shumba and M. Naong

gender stereotyping is more common in higher-income families. Both of the latter

two studies indicate that correlations may exist between socioeconomic levels and
students’ career choices or career aspirations. However, no studies to date have
explored the impact of family income on students’ career choice and/or commitment.
It is essential, therefore, to discover and understand the individual and social factors
that play a role in the process of students’ career development.
According to Ebrahim (2009), young people in South Africa from disadvantaged
backgrounds are not in a position to entertain the possibility of a tertiary education,
because of a lack of financial resources. In general, the motives driving a career choice
can be classified into cognitive personal factors on the one hand, and contextual or
environmental factors on the other. These factors can exert either positive or negative
influences on career choice and often, their specific combination and interaction
mould the individual’s decision to choose a particular career path.
Education is a very expensive commodity and this article explores the role of the
family’s income in its ability to finance its children’s tertiary education. Numerous
studies have identified factors or determinants of students’ career choices, taking into
consideration family backgrounds (Callender, Hopkin and Wilkinson 2010), school
and community (Chen 1997). However, scant research has been undertaken to
determine the impact of or link between family income and students’ career choice,
which is the basis of the article.

REFLECTIONS ON CAREER ASPIRATIONS

A career is not simply a job; it is about the acceptance of ideas of planned and
structured advancement that lead to career development. Career aspiration is a
dimension of the individual’s internal desire for a career that essentially emerges
from the individual, which then influences his/her values, norms and beliefs (Ramly,
Ismail and Uli 2009). According to Super’s (1980) Life-span, Life-space Theory of
Career Development, within the exploration stage (14--24 years of age), individuals
begin to crystallise their vocational goals and preferences based on an increased
self-understanding about life-space in general, and workplace in particular. Students,
during their tertiary education, begin a progressive narrowing of career options, from
fantasising about possible careers, to tentatively considering options, leading to a
final decision. Thus, in the last stage of adolescence, individuals begin to adjust and
compromise their aspirations according to perceived gender roles, social evaluation,
and personal and environmental characteristics (Hirschi and Vondracek 2009).

DETERMINANTS OF STUDENT CAREER CHOICE

The factors affecting students’ career choice may be either extrinsic or intrinsic, or
a combination of both. Career aspirations are influenced by factors such as: gender;
socioeconomic status; race; parents’ occupation and education levels; parental
expectations (Domenico and Jones 2006); personal aptitudes; and educational

1022
 The influence of family income on students’ career choice at universities of technology

attainment (Cha and Chang 2009), while others follow their passions, regardless
of how much or how little money this will make them. Researchers examine such
factors to determine their role in career behaviour and how they affect individuals’
career decisions (Rojewski and Yang 1997).
In recent years, there has been an increased awareness of the impact of
socioeconomic status, race and gender on students’ career decision-making process
and career development (Stitt-Gohdes 1997). The distribution of women professors
in Malaysia was 22.1 per cent of all professors in 2004 (Ismail and Mohd Rasdi
2006) and is an acceptable rate for Asian countries. This could also affect male and
female international students studying there, to aspire to top management through
symbolising and observational learning. According to Bandura (2001), symbolising
is a mechanism for thought and gives meaning, form and contiguity to experiences
that can be used to guide future behaviours. It is through this process that people can
model the observed behaviours of others. Modelling new perspectives, behaviour
patterns, and innovative styles of thinking, also fosters creativity by weakening
conventional mindsets, such as misconceptions about occupational pursuits and
career aspirations.

THE IMPACT OF THE FAMILY’S FINANCIAL POSITION ON

STUDENTS’ CAREER CHOICE
Household income is an important factor in determining access to education, as
education potentially incurs a range of costs, both upfront and hidden (Hunt 2008,
7). The salient barrier to equality of access and participation for disadvantaged
learners is regarded as relative poverty, and this issue has played an important role
in determining the opportunities available to all. The income level of families with a
child at high school, may determine what career a student chooses during a specific
time in that student’s life; choices that will determine a large part of the student’s
future. Ebrahim (2009, 25) posits that the pressure on students from low-income
families to leave school and contribute financially to the family income is an important
reality that also needs to be considered. Paraskeva (in Hill et al. 2009) found that
economic constraints affect the future ambitions and aspirations of students from
low-income backgrounds. A controversial report by Lynch and O’Riordan (1998)
found that sound financial circumstances help students to aim high, while for the
poor, simply being able to cope with survival is a challenge. Poorer people are pre-
occupied with paying bills and making ends meet, which precludes time, money or
energy for entertaining educational ambitions.
Those who are fortunate enough to surmount the economic hurdles involved
in attending university or college, tend to settle for the first and most affordable
available career option. In a study of medical students, Cooter et al. (2004) suggest
that the socioeconomic background may be a stronger influencing factor in speciality
selection than educational debt. The proportion of specialties chosen by graduates
was similar in the three groups, with the exception of medical family practice and

1023
A. Shumba and M. Naong

surgery. A larger proportion of those in family medicine were from the lowest as
compared to the highest family-income groups (22% and 13%), respectively.
Conversely, a larger proportion of those from the top family-income group compared
to the bottom family-income group, were in surgery or surgical specialties (15%
compared to 10%).
O’Neill (1992) found that even the first phase of obtaining money for an
application for higher education, was a barrier for some. Similarly, Ebrahim’s (2009)
findings revealed that the initial cost of applying to a university, which added to the
family budget, was perceived as a factor that would prevent a learner from applying
to university and therefore, from accessing higher education.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Much research has been conducted in this field, and theories of career or occupational
choice began to emerge in the early 1900s. Most notably, Parsons (1909) developed
a schema that summarised the conceptual framework for career guidance counsellors
to follow when helping people to make career decisions (Antony 1998). As a result,
the Theory of Social Learning (Bandura 1977), the Entrepreneurial Event Theory
(Shapero and Sokol 1982), and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen 1991)
emerged as the most promising approaches. The central premise of these theories is
the individual’s intention to undertake and implement a specific behaviour which is
influenced by motivational elements. In the current article, we chose to use Holland’s
Theory of Vocational Choice (1997, hereafter Holland’s Theory) as the frame of
reference and a premise for our interrogation of career counselling.
Undoubtedly, most approaches to career choice have been from a psychological
perspective, and varied from trait-and-factor fit, person-environment fit and later
Holland’s typology, to Super’s Development Theory (Kazuyuki and Kuo-lin 2006).
Graf (2004) states that like Super (1969), Holland (1997) believes that individuals’
career choice is an extension of their personality and that they should try to match
their view of the self with occupational preference. Where Holland (1992) greatly
differs from Super (1953), is that Super (ibid.) mainly discusses developmental
growth and the individual’s attitude towards occupation, whereas Holland (1992)
focuses more on the different personality types that exist and how this information
about a person can assist in matching an individual with an appropriate occupation
(Super 1969; Holland 1997). Holland’s Theory proposes that ‘Birds of a feather
flock together’ (Jones 2002); in other words, people prefer to be around others who
have similar personalities. In choosing a career, it means that people choose jobs
where they can be around people who are like them. This theory is the best known
and most widely researched on this topic (Jones 2002) and many career counsellors
also use it.
In Holland’s Theory, as Sharf (2002, 94) explains, ‘people express themselves,
their interests and values, through their work choices and experience. In his theory,
Holland assumes that people’s impressions and generalizations about work, which

1024
 The influence of family income on students’ career choice at universities of technology

he refers to as stereotypes, are generally accurate’. By examining these stereotypes,

Holland places people and work environments into various categories. Each category
defines a different behaviour that is expected by the worker and the environment
in which the worker is placed. The six personality types include: Realistic (i.e.
practical, concrete); Investigative (i.e. intellectual, curious); Artistic (i.e. creative,
expressive); Social (i.e. empathic, people-oriented); Enterprising (i.e. assertive,
leadership); and Conventional (i.e. structured, orderly). The six work environment
models that Holland describes are given the same names as the six personality types.
The work environment models include: Realistic (i.e. physical demands, technical
skills); Investigative (i.e. intellectual demands, abstract problem solving); Artistic
(i.e. creative demands, unconventional problem solving); Social (i.e. inter-personal
demands, flexibility); Enterprising (i.e. inter-personal demands, assertiveness); and
Conventional (i.e. organisational demands, planning).
Critiques of the Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) also need to be kept in mind
when applying the theory to an individual. Some methodology critiques are seen as
the abstract concepts of some of the questions when referring to needs (Melchiori
and Church 1997), as well as ordering the questions to balance questions concerning
the individual and job preferences (Bretz and Judge 1994). Critiques have also
been conducted on both the theory itself and the person-environment fit category of
vocational psychology theories. Many researchers have claimed that the interaction
between the individual and environment is not yet fully understood (ibid.) and
may omit important aspects that influence the relationship, such as social support
(Melchiori and Church 1997). These authors have also observed that the theory does
not take personality and interests into account in conventional ways, such as the Big
Five constructs and Holland’s interests. Instead, the theory converts personality and
interests into needs and values which may not be representative of all individuals.
Notwithstanding these criticisms, it is our contention that the following theories
of career development, namely,Holland’s Theory, TWA, Social Cognitive Career
Theory (SCCT), and Super’s Life-span and Life-space Theory, each provides a unique
perspective on the process of career-decision making with its unique advantages and
disadvantages. It should be noted that not one theory is entirely comprehensive nor
can it be standardised for use in every situation. Instead, an integrative theoretical
approach can provide a more complete assessment regarding career decision-making.

AIM AND HYPOTHESIS

The aim of the study was to examine the impact of family income on students’ career
choices. This aim is anchored in the following underlying research question: ‘To
what extent is income a factor in determining university students’ career choices?’
Comprehension of the impact of family income on the career aspirations of students
will shed valuable light on their propensity to pursue and successfully complete their
studies in a particular career choice.
The study was based on the following hypotheses:

1025
A. Shumba and M. Naong

H1: Lack of, or inadequate income is a determining factor in children’s career choices.
H2: A significant number (i.e. over 50%) of students are pursuing career choices/studies
which were never their first preferred choices.

METHODOLOGY

Research design
The study was descriptive and exploratory in nature. A survey method in the form
of a semi-structured questionnaire, consisting of a mixture of rating scales, was
used. As the researchers wanted to understand the existence, nature and way of
expression of the phenomenon being studied (Henning, Van Rensburg and Smit
2004), an interpretive paradigm using a quantitative research approach was used.
A probability and non-probability sampling technique -- the random sampling
technique -- was utilised to elicit responses from the respondents, who were drawn
from three universities of technology in South Africa. The questionnaire consisted of
two sections, namely: Section A, which focused on demographic issues; and Section
B which addressed (12 closed-ended questions, as well as 4 open-ended questions)
attitudinal and perception variables on career choice.

Measuring instrument
The pilot study of the self-constructed questionnaire was based, in the main, on
the two established career-choice questionnaires, namely: the Career Aspiration
Scale (O’Brien, Gray, Tourajdi and Eigenbrode 1996) and the Self-Determination
Theory (SDT) (Ryan and Deci, 2000), which yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.7274.
Other original theories that had some valuable influence on the contents of the
constructed questionnaire were Career or Occupational Choice by Holland (1982),
and the Personality Theory of Occupational Decision Making by Özbilgin, Küskü
and Erdoğmuş (2005). The SDT is an approach to human motivation that highlights
the importance of three fundamental psychological needs, namely: autonomy,
competence, and relatedness, in order to understand optimal functioning.
The self-constructed 36-item questionnaire was administered to determine ‘the
respondents’ views on the following issues. Firstly, there were 12 questions that
measured the determinants of university of technology students’ career choices.
Secondly, 24 questions measured the impact of socioeconomic variables, specifically
family income status or inadequate family funding, on children’s career aspirations/
choices. Each question consisted of the Likert-rating scale ranging from: 1 =
Strongly agree, to 5 = Strongly disagree. Demographics measured were: gender, age,
residence, location of institution/university, programme specialisation, and level of
study.

1026
 The influence of family income on students’ career choice at universities of technology

Population and sampling

The target population for this study included 141 education students enrolled for
various Bachelor of education (Bed) (FET) specialisation programmes, from three
universities of technology. Of the six South African universities of technology, only
four have Education as a programme offering. The current study covered three of
these four universities (one did not return the questionnaires), which is a more than
75 per cent representivity of this specific sector (i.e. universities of technology).
Provinces sampled (with numbers of students sampled in parentheses) were as
follows: Western Cape (n=38); KwaZulu-Natal (n=37); and Free State (n=66).

Data collection and analysis

After 250 questionnaires were distributed to five South African universities of
technology, only three (see above) returned 141 fully completed questionnaires, a
56 per cent response rate. Chi-square analysis was used to determine the frequency
count variables. The mean and median of the ranking variables were computed and
reported using the SPSS statistical software 14.0 package. Because the subgroup
sizes were relatively small, the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test was applied to
the ranking variables.

Ethical issues
Permission was first sought and granted by the relevant ethical committees of the
participating universities, before the questionnaire was administered. Participants
were guaranteed confidentiality and anonymity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Some 141 Education students completed the questionnaire. Of these, 80 (56.7%)
were males and 61 (43.3%) were females. The majority of the study population
was in early adulthood (57.4%), and most were Africans (67.5%) and belonged to
nuclear families (62.1%). Most respondents (79.8%) lived with both parents, while
15.3 per cent had single parents and 4.9 per cent lived with their grandparents and/
or stepmothers.
Male respondents studying Education were in the majority (56.7%), as opposed
to females (43.3%) (see Table 1). This is contrary to numerous studies where the
opposite has been reported (Morolong 2007, 72). The age range of most respondents
(57.2%) was 21--25, and 51.8 per cent resided in peri-urban areas. A total of 65.2 per
cent were in their third year of study.

1027
A. Shumba and M. Naong

Table 1: Respondent’s biographical data

Demographic variables N Total sample
(n = 141) %
Gender
• Male 80 56.7
• Female 61 43.3
Age
• 16–20 40 28.4
• 21–25 81 57.4
• > 25 20 14.2
Residence
• Urban 37 26.2
• Peri-urban 73 51.8
• Rural 31 22.0
Location of Institution
• Free State 66 46.8
• KwaZulu-Natal 37 26.2
• Western Cape 38 27.0
B.Ed. (FET): Specialisation
• EMS 92 65.2
• Languages 2 1.4
• Natural Sciences 14 9.9
• Technology 30 21.3
• Computer Science 2 1.4
• Other 1 .7
Level of study
• 1st year 9 6.4
• 2nd year 37 26.2
• 3rd year 92 65.2
• 4th year 3 2.1

Without discounting other factors, it can arguably be deduced that the Fundza
Lushaka Bursary Scheme is the logical explanation for the sudden resurgence of
interest in education or teaching as a preferred career. The Fundza Lushaka Bursary
programme is a multi-year programme launched in 2007, in order to promote teaching
in public schools as a career of choice for able and committed South Africans. Full-
cost bursaries are available to enable eligible students to complete a full teaching
qualification in an area of national priority (DBE 2011).
From Table 2, family (36.9%) is still the dominant factor in determining children’s
career choices, and is consistent with the findings of Ferry (2006, 02). This is
followed by friends (30.5%). Teachers are still viewed by respondents as influential

1028
 The influence of family income on students’ career choice at universities of technology

role-players in their career choices, while a small percentage regard celebrities (from
television especially), as a valuable contributing factor.

Table 2: Most influential people in my career choice

Frequency % Valid % Cumulative %
Valid Family 52 36.9 36.9 36.9
Friends 43 30.5 30.5 67.4
Teachers 38 27.0 27.0 94.4
Other 8 5.6 5.6 100.0
Total 141 100.0 100.0

More than 50 per cent of the respondents’ parents were employed in some way,
while 46 per cent of parents were pensioners (see Table 3). Evidently, more than
half of the respondents could not afford some of the more expensive careers, such
as Engineering, Medicine and Accounting. Only 39 per cent of the respondents had
parents who could arrange a bank loan to supplement their children’s study fees, if
income was insufficient.

Table 3: Respondents’ source of family income

Frequency % Valid % Cumulative %
Valid Employed 55 39.0 39.0 39.0
Pensioner 46 32.6 32.6 71.6
Self-employed 21 14.9 14.9 86.5
Other 19 13.5 13.5 100.0
Total 141 100.0 100.0

Table 4 indicates that a 41.8 per cent of the respondents’ parents survived on less
than R5 000 per month, and only 3.5 per cent of the respondents› parents earned
more than R300 000 per annum.

1029
A. Shumba and M. Naong

Table 4: Respondents’ family income level

Frequency % Valid % Cumulative %
Valid < R5 000 p.a. 59 41.8 41.8 41.8
R5 000--10 34 24.1 24.1 66.0
000 p.a.
R10 000--50 25 17.7 17.7 83.7
000 p.a.
R50 000--100 4 2.8 2.8 86.5
000 p.a.
R100 000-- 7 5.0 5.0 91.5
150 000 p.a.
R150 000-- 7 5.0 5.0 96.5
300 000 p.a.
> R300 000 5 3.5 3.5 100.0
p.a.
Total 141 100.0 100.0

Table 5 highlights a startling fact about the ability of parents to finance their children’s
education. Less than 20 per cent of the respondents’ studies were funded by their
parents or family members, while most of these respondents (80.1%) were funded by
external parties. This is consistent with the findings of both Callender, Hopkin and
Wilkinson (2010, 99), who report that only a very small minority of students have
contributions for fees from family or friends (4%). The obvious fact is that usually
these external funders are very specific with regard to their career funding, which
might not necessarily be the first choice of the incumbent student.

Table 5: Funder of students’ studies

Frequency % Valid % Cumulative %
Valid Family 28 19.9 19.9 19.9
External party 113 80.1 80.1 100.0
Total 141 100.0 100.0

When the students were questioned about their aspirations over the next ten years,
many of them (41.4%) responded that they wished to pursue a professional career in
the future. Approximately half of the male students (49.4%) aspired to a professional
career, followed by female students at 47.3 per cent regarding the same position.
Among males, 30.6 per cent would prefer to join the army and police, and 4.2 per
cent wanted to excel in sports. Of the females, 34.5 per cent wanted to work hard
and join the general workforce, but another one-third (32.1%), were unsure about
their future aspirations (see Table 6).

1030
 The influence of family income on students’ career choice at universities of technology

Table 6: Summary of career aspirations that current teachers would prefer to pursue
Frequency % Valid % Cumulative %
Valid Engineering 20 14.2 14.2 14.2
Medicine 7 5.0 5.0 19.1
Accounting/ 16 11.3 11.3 30.5
Finance
Marketing/HR 12 8.5 8.5 39.0
Law 11 7.8 7.8 46.8
Tourism/ 3 2.1 2.1 48.9
Hospitality
Architecture 3 2.1 2.1 51.1
Teaching 49 34.8 34.8 85.8
Agricultural 4 2.8 2.8 88.7
Sciences
Other 16 11.3 11.3 100.0
Total 141 100.0 100.0

Teaching was the most preferred career choice (see Table 6), ranked first by 34.8 per
cent, followed by Engineering (14.2%), and Accounting/Finance and others (11.3%).
It can safely be inferred, therefore, that the Fundza Lushaka funding scheme has
led to renewed interest in teaching as a career. This indicates the impact of a lack
of (or inadequate) family income for financing any other preferred career choice.
However, Diko and Letseka (2009) posit that teachers are, nevertheless, leaving the
teaching profession, and will continue to do so until working conditions at schools
are improved.
Most respondents (62%, i.e. Agree = 14.9% and Strongly agree = 29.1%) would
have studied something else if they had had the funds and were not dependent on
external funding (see Table 7). This was in contrast to their earlier overwhelming
choice of teaching as the preferred career choice. This outcome therefore supports
H2, which is that ‘a significant number (i.e. over 50%) of students are studying or
pursuing a career which was never their preferred choice’.

1031
A. Shumba and M. Naong

Table 7: If I had enough money, I would have studied something else

Frequency % Valid % Cumulative %
Valid Strongly disagree 39 27.7 27.7 27.7
Disagree 16 11.3 11.3 39.0
Neutral 24 17.0 17.0 56.0
Agree 21 14.9 14.9 70.9
Strongly agree 41 29.1 29.1 100.0
Total 141 100.0 100.0
> R300 000 p.a. 5 3.5 3.5 100.0
Total 141 100.0 100.0

Respondents were asked to rank seven factors that influenced their career choices.
Personal interests were ranked first, followed by family affordability, and job
prospects or opportunities. Selection factors that were considered less important
were, inter alia, personal reasons, location and friends, and counsellors. The career
choices and selection factors of Education students from the Free State, the Western
Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal were further analysed separately. A summary of these
findings is presented in Table 8. Regarding the perceived problems or impediments
to realising their preferred career choices, 27.3 per cent indicated that they had no
such problems, while the rest reported some difficulties.

Table 8: Scores assigned by respondents to factors influencing career choices

Factor items Students – FS Students – WP Students – Total
Median Median (mean) KZN Median (mean)
(mean) Median
(mean)
Personal interests 1.1 (1.6) 1.1(1.3) 1.1(1.9) 1.1(1.6)
Family affordability 6.0 (3.3) 3.0 (2.5) 2.0 (2.7) 2.1 (2.8)
Job prospects/ 4.0 (3.7) 4.4 (4.1) 3.8 (4.0) 4.3 (3.9)
opportunities
Financial rewards 5.0 (4.0) 5.3 (4.3) 5.0 (4.1) 4.7 (4.1)
Personal reasons 5.0 (4.2) 4.0 (4.8) 5.0 (4.6) 5.0 (4.5)
Location 4.0 (4.4) 5.0 (4.8) 5.0 (4.7) 5.0 (4.6)
Other (e.g. peers, 4.0 (5.3) 6.0 (4.3) 5.0 (5.1) 5.0 (4.9)
counsellors)

In terms of reasons for failing to achieve their career choice, money or lack thereof
ranked highest (69.2%), followed by ‘bad influence’ (49.0%), and ‘poor school
performance’ and ‘a lack of necessary support’ jointly with 46.8 per cent (see
Table 9). Poor school performance and bad influences were common factors cited
among males, while sex-related problems and a lack of necessary support featured
prominently for females. These findings are consistent with previous studies (Ferry
2006, 02). Dey, Roy, Joarder and Chakraborty’s (2011,354) findings also show that
1032
 The influence of family income on students’ career choice at universities of technology

poverty is the most common obstacle for students in achieving their career choices,
followed by, inter alia, other family problems and poor health. The findings support
H1, which is that ‘a lack of, or inadequate (family) income is a determining factor
in children’s career choices’. The impact of poverty experienced by families has, in
fact, dire consequences for the future of their children’s education.

Table 9: Respondents’ reasons for failing to achieve preferred career choice

Poor school 58.3 35.2 46.8 < 0.005

performance
Money, 76.8 61.6 69.2 < 0.001
affordability
Lack of 34.1 27.5 30.8 > 0.05
guidance (career
counselling)
Sex-related 52.1 56.6 54.4 > 0.061
problems (e.g.
early pregnancy)
Lack of necessary 39.9 53.7 46.8 < 0.001
support (i.e.
resources)
Bad influence (e.g. 62.7 35.3 49.0 < 0.005
peer pressure)
*Multiple responses do not add up to 100%
Figures in parentheses are percentages

CONCLUSION
The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between family income
and career choice amongst Education students from three universities of technology
in South Africa. The findings show that 69 per cent of the respondents agree that
their families’ financial positions have a tendency to adversely affect their career
ambitions and choices, with the poorest the most negatively affected. It is evident
from the findings that careers chosen by most students depend greatly on their
parents’ ability to help them pursue their preferred choices. More often than not,
students from poverty-stricken families are likely to choose the cheapest available
career option if financial support for their ideal careers is not available; unlike their
counterparts from affluent backgrounds. It is for this reason, therefore, that in some
quarters it may be inferred that due to their indigent situation, some students tend
not to aim higher than what their parents can afford (Paraskeva, in Hill and Rosskam
2009).
It is clear that the financial position/status of families has a direct bearing on the
future educational prospects of their children. Consequently, it will not be surprising
when a subsequent study identifies family income as a causal factor in the mismatch
between a graduate’s qualification and his/her propensity to find employment; i.e.

1033
A. Shumba and M. Naong

the existence of a direct correlation between the underlying causes of unemployed

graduates and their career choices. If career planning were implemented in an
efficient manner, students would, at the very least, be following a career plan based
on informed decision-making, rather than one of happenstance (Borchert 2002, 17).

RECOMMENDATIONS
The findings have implications for extension educators who are being challenged
to assume a more assertive role in providing programmes to assist the youth, not
only with career choice, but also in terms of informing them of the various forms
of financial support available. Understanding the key roles that the family and
community play in the process, requires educators to reach beyond traditional
youth audiences. Developing collaborative programmes with innovative strategies
that engage the youth, parents, and the community, will require youth educators to
become effective in managing collaborative partnerships. These programmes may
help change stakeholders’ perceptions of their roles in adolescents’ career selection
and support. The responsibility of parents and educators is not only to advise students
about career choice, but also to urgently factor in answers to the very significant
question harrying most learners and students in their discussions about careers: ‘Can
I afford the career I intend pursuing?’
It is common knowledge that many students depend heavily on financial aid, and
part of the answer owed to students by their elders, is not only to constantly remind
them to apply timeously, particularly if looking for external funders, but also to
assist them identify possible funders for their chosen and preferred career choices.
It is equally important to constantly remind students that once they decide whether
they can afford their chosen career, that they should then estimate the cost of the
programme they are considering. Most institutions decide on their charges a year
in advance, and if they are not available at the time of request, approximate costs
are usually available. Another significant factor is family financial planning (i.e.
budgeting), which both parents and their children cannot afford to ignore, as it can
make a significant difference between children’s future career success and failure.

REFERENCES
Ajzen, I. 1991. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 50(2): 179–211.
Antony, J. S. 1998. Personality-career fit and freshman medical career aspirations: A test of
Holland’s Theory. Research in Higher Education 39(6): 679–698.
Bandura, A. 1977. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychological Review 84(2): 191–215.
_____. 2001. Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology 3(3):
265–299.
Borchert, M. 2002. Career choice factors of high school students. A research paper
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Science degree,

1034
 The influence of family income on students’ career choice at universities of technology

in Career and Technical Education. The Graduate College, University of Wisconsin-

Stout.
Bretz, R. D. and T. A. Judge. 1994. Person-organization fit and the Theory of Work
Adjustment: Implications for satisfaction, tenure, and career success. Journal of
Vocational Behaviour 44(1): 32–54.
Callender, C., R. Hopkin and D. Wilkinson. 2010. Futuretrack: Part-time students career
decision-making and career development of part-time higher education students. A
Report to the Higher Education Careers Services Unit (HECSU), June 2010. Available
at: http: //www.wozaonline (accessed 15 February 2012).
Cha, M. and W. Chang. 2009. Learning through working: A case study of Chinese college
students in South Korea. Asia Pacific Journal of Education 29(3): 311–320.
Cooter, R., J. B. Erdmann, J. S. Gonnella, C. A. Callahan, M. Hojat and G. Xu. 2004.
Economic diversity in medical education: The relationship between students’ family
income and academic performance, career choice, and student debt. Evaluation and
the Health Professions 27(3): 252.
DBE see Department of Basic Education.
Department of Basic Education. 2011. Fundza Lushaka Bursary Agreement. National
Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS). Available at: http: //www funzalushaka.doe.
gov.za/Funza%20Lushaka%20Agreement%20Form_2011.pdf (accessed 4 May 2012).
Dey, I., K. Roy, G. K. Joarder and M. Chakraborty. 2011. Adolescents’ aspiration and
their parental relations: A study among rural school going adolescents in a block of
Darjeeling District. Al Ameen Journal of Medical Science 4(4): 352–357.
Diko, N. N. and M. Letseka. 2009. Policy appropriation 1 in teacher retention and attrition:
The case of North-West Province. Perspectives in Education 27(3): 228–236.
Domenico, M. D. and H. K. Jones. 2006. Career aspirations of women in the 20th century.
Journal of Career and Technical Education 22(2): 18–25.
Ebrahim, T. 2009. Perceptions of factors affecting the pursuit of higher education
among disadvantaged Grade 12 learners. Unpublished MA dissertation (Educational
Psychology), University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
Ferry, N. M. 2006. Factors influencing career choices of adolescents and young adults in
rural Pennsylvania. Journal of Extension 443RIB7: 1–6.
Graf, N. 2004. Holland’s SDS classification system and temperament: a comparative study
with estate agents. Unpublished Master of Arts in Psychology thesis, Rand Afrikaans
University, Johannesburg.
Henning, E., W. van Rensburg and B. Smit. 2004. Finding your way in qualitative research.
Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Hill, D. and E. Rosskam. (Eds.). 2009. The developing world and state education:
Neoliberal depredation and egalitarian alternatives. New York, NY: Routledge.
Hirschi, A. and W. F. Vondracek. 2009. Adaptation of career goals to self and opportunities
in early adolescence. Journal of Vocational Behavior 75: 120–128.
Holland, J. L. 1982. The SDS helps both females and males: A comment. Vocational
Guidance Quarterly 30(3): 195–197.
_____. 1992. Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work
environments. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
_____. 1997. Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work
environments. 3rd ed. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

1035
A. Shumba and M. Naong

Hunt, F. 2008. Dropping out from school: A review of the literature. Pathways to Access
Series CREATE, Brighton, no. 16.
Ismail, M. and R. MohdRasdi. 2006. Career mobility of high-flying women academics:
A study at selected universities in Malaysia. Asia Pacific Journal of Education 26(2):
155–171.
Jones, L. K. 2002. The Career Key: Holland’s personality types and career choice.
Available at: http: //www.essaycoursework.com/coursework/career-decision-making.
php (accessed 21 April 2003).
Kazuyuki, M. and W. Kuo-lin. 2006. Illusion of career development theories – for the
departure of developing a demonstrative career development theory. Economic Journal
of Takasaki City University of Economics 49(2): 17–30.
Lynch, K. and C. O’Riordan. 1998. Inequality in higher education: A study of class barriers.
British Journal of Sociology of Education 19(4): 445–478.
McCandless, N. J., L. B. Lueptow and M. McCledon. 1989. Family socioeconomic status
and adolescent sex-typing. Journal of Marriage and the Family 51(3): 627–635.
Melchiori, L. G. and T. A. Church. 1997. Vocational needs and satisfaction of supported
employees: The applicability of the theory of work adjustment. Journal of Vocational
Behavior 50: 401–417.
Morolong, I. P. 2007. Impediments to parental involvement in the governance of selected
primary schools in the Bloemfontein area. Unpublished M. Tech dissertation, School
of Teacher Education, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein.
O’Brien, K. M. and R. E. Fassinger. 1993. A causal model of the career orientation and
career choice of adolescent women. Journal of Counseling Psychology 40: 456–469.
O’Brien, K. M., M. P. Gray, P. P. Tourajdi and S. P. Eigenbrode. 1996. The operationalization
of women’s career choices: The career aspiration scale. Unpublished manuscript,
University of Maryland.
O’Neill, B. 1992. Youth, money, and financial planning. Journal of Home Economics
84(3): 12–16.
Özbilgin, M., F. Küskü and N. Erdoğmuş. 2005. Explaining influences on career ‹choice›:
The case of MBA students in comparative perspective. International Journal of Human
Resource Management 16(11): 2000–2028.
Parsons, F. 1909. Choosing a vocation. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Ramly, E. S., M. Ismail and J. Uli. 2009. Antecedents of career aspiration of R & D
professionals in Malaysian public organizations. European Journal of Scientific
Research 26(1): 66–79.
Rojewski, J. W. and B. Yang. 1997. Longitudinal analysis of select influences on adolescents’
occupational aspirations. Journal of Vocational Behavior 51(3): 375–410.
Ryan, R. M. and E. L. Deci. 2000. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions
and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology 25(1): 54–67.
Shapero, A. and L. Sokol. 1982. Social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In Encyclopaedia
of entrepreneurship, eds. C. A. Kent, D. L. Sexton and K. H. Vesper. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sharf, R. S. 2002. Applying career development theory to counseling. 3rd ed. Pacific
Grove, CA: Wadsworth.
Stitt-Gohdes, W. L. 1997. Career development: Issues of gender, race, and class. Columbus,
OH: Center on Education and Training for Employment. The Ohio State University
(ERIC Information Series No. 371).

1036
 The influence of family income on students’ career choice at universities of technology

Super, D. E. 1953. A theory of vocational development. American Psychologist 8(5): 185–

190.
_____. 1969. The natural history of a study of lives and of vocations. Perspectives on
Education 2: 13–22.
_____. 1980. A life-span, life-space approach to career development. Journal of Vocational
Behavior 16(3): 282–298.

1037