Cogent Social Sciences

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Using concept mapping as a tool for conducting

research: An analysis of three approaches

Simone C.O. Conceição, Anita Samuel & Susan M. Yelich Biniecki |

To cite this article: Simone C.O. Conceição, Anita Samuel & Susan M. Yelich Biniecki | (2017)
Using concept mapping as a tool for conducting research: An analysis of three approaches,
Cogent Social Sciences, 3:1, 1404753, DOI: 10.1080/23311886.2017.1404753

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SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY | RESEARCH ARTICLE

Using concept mapping as a tool for conducting

research: An analysis of three approaches
Simone C.O. Conceição, Anita Samuel and Susan M. Yelich Biniecki

Cogent Social Sciences (2017), 3: 1404753

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SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY | RESEARCH ARTICLE

Using concept mapping as a tool for conducting
research: An analysis of three approaches
Simone C.O. Conceição1*, Anita Samuel1 and Susan M. Yelich Biniecki2

Received: 04 August 2017 Abstract: Researchers in a variety of disciplines pursue creative ways to explore
Accepted: 31 October 2017
complex areas of inquiry. This literature review examines the use of concept maps
First Published: 18 November 2017
as a unique tool for conducting research. This study embraces an inclusive definition
*Corresponding author: Simone
C.O. Conceição, Department of of concept mapping. Three main approaches for conducting research using concept
Administrative Leadership, School of maps as a tool emerged: relational, cluster, and word frequency. These approaches
Education, University of Wisconsin-
Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA are included in the different phases of research process such as data collection,
E-mails: [email protected],
[email protected]
analysis, and presentation. Each approach revealed strengths and limitations that
researchers need to take into account. This discussion broadens the lens of the
Reviewing editor:
Julia Carter, Canterbury Christ Church meaning of concept mapping as a tool for innovative research approaches.
University, UK
Subjects: Education; Adult Education and Lifelong Learning; Educational Research; Higher
Additional information is available at
the end of the article Education; International & Comparative Education

Keywords: concept mapping; research tool; data collection; data analysis; relational
approach; cluster approach; word frequency approach

1. Introduction
Researchers continually seek innovative and effective ways to explore complex areas of inquiry.
Visual approaches to gathering and organising ideas in practice and research can be an important

ABOUT THE AUTHORS PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Authors have worked as practitioners and This study examined the use of concept maps as
researchers using concept maps together and a unique tool for conducting research. Three main
on their own for different purposes within the approaches for conducting research using concept
last several years. The use of concept maps for maps as a tool emerged: relational, cluster, and
research has intrigued them, so they decided word frequency. In the relational approach,
to explore in depth how other researchers, in a graphical representations show relationships
variety of disciplines, have been using concept between concepts indicated by a connecting
maps as a research tool as a way to inform their line linking two concepts. Linking words indicate
own practice. They discovered that concept maps the relationship between the two concepts. The
have the potential to organize thoughts, ideas, cluster approach comprises six steps in which
and themes within a research paradigm and participant-generated statements are sorted and
transform them into usable bits of theoretical and rated. The word frequency approach uses the
applied knowledge. Leximancer software tool to look for co-occurrence
Simone C.O. Conceição of concepts and develops concept maps to
highlight key concepts. Concepts that co-occur
are placed near each other; the distance between
them indicating their frequency of co-occurrence.
These approaches are included in the different
phases of the research process: data collection,
analysis, and presentation. Differences, strengths,
and limitations between the concept mapping
approaches as well as areas for future research are
presented.

© 2017 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.

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methodological tool. Collage making (Butler-Kisber & Poldma, 2010), mapping (Brightman, 2003),
and matrices are strategies to assist researchers and practitioners in various fields individually and
organisationally visualise interrelationships between ideas. The simple post-it notes on walls
throughout brainstorming sessions at staff meetings; whiteboards filled with words, circles, and
lines at research conferences; and computer generated visual organisers can facilitate meaningful
understanding of new concepts.

A concept map is an example of a visual organiser used in teaching, research, and practice in di-
verse settings and can provide a tool for meaning making (Butler-Kisber & Poldma, 2010). The pur-
pose of this article is to provide an analysis of the literature of the use of concept maps as a tool for
conducting research. First, background on concept mapping will be addressed. Next, the study
methodology and findings will be presented under three main approaches: relational, cluster, and
word frequency. Finally, the discussion and conclusions will follow.

2. Background of concept mapping

Concept maps may be defined as a type of diagram (Umoquit, Tso, Varga-Atkins, O’Brien, &
Wheeldon, 2013) or mind map (Wheeldon, 2011); however, concept maps are further delineated
depending on authors’ theoretical and methodological orientations. Novak and Gowin (1984) origi-
nally used concept maps to facilitate meaningful learning in science. Situated in a constructivist
philosophical orientation, these concept maps are typically designed by students or practitioners by
hand or through a computer program such as that through the Institute for Human and Machine
Cognition (https://www.ihmc.us/cmaptools/). In this case, the concept map demonstrates how an
individual or group builds on previous knowledge to incorporate new concepts into a mental sche-
ma. However, concept maps may also be generated through various computer programs in which
the practitioner, student, or researcher would submit answers to questions and the computer pro-
gram would automatically generate the schema (Trochim, 1989). This schema may help the practi-
tioner and researcher understand how areas of inquiry are visually mapped.

Internationally, the contexts of concept mapping are diverse. Individuals (Daley, 2004) as well as
groups and organisations (Trochim & Kane, 2005; Umoquit, Tso, Burchett, & Dobrow, 2011) have
utilised concept mapping for various reasons. For instance, concept mapping can be used to organ-
ise survey responses for researcher or practitioner purposes (Jackson & Trochim, 2002). These visual
approaches (Butler-Kisber & Poldma, 2010) are strategies to synthesise, organise, and document
ideas in research and teaching. Within formal and nonformal education, concept maps are used to
engage adult learners (Yelich Biniecki & Conceição, 2016) and children (Novak, 2010) in critical
analysis.

Within professions such as healthcare (Meagher-Stewart et al., 2012; Trochim & Kane, 2005),
school leadership (Pegg, 2007), and teaching (Daley, Canas, & Stark-Schweitzer, 2007), concept
mapping has proven an important approach to organise ideas and facilitate learning. Concept map-
ping has been utilised as a strategy to teach students dentistry (Edmunds & Brown, 2012) and engi-
neering and technology (Dixon, 2014). In generating a plan to use funds from a U.S. tobacco
settlement, diverse stakeholders generated concept maps to create a holistic picture of the group’s
ideas, guide action planning, and development (Trochim & Kane, 2005). Particularly in teaching, edu-
cators have used concept mapping to present new ideas and students have utilised concept map-
ping to demonstrate new learning (Daley et al., 2007; Dixon, 2014; Hay & Kinchin, 2006; Yelich
Biniecki & Conceição, 2016). We have noticed practical examples of the use of concept maps as a
tool for research purposes in a number of articles within these varied contexts, disciplines, and pro-
fessions; however, there are no studies assessing the value of concept mapping in research. The
importance of new methodological tools in research prompts the interest in an in-depth and the-
matic analysis of the literature on concept mapping as a research tool. Therefore, the purpose of this
article is to examine the use of concept mapping tools that assist with the research process.

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3. Methods
This literature review focused on the following inclusion criteria: empirical studies that employed
concept maps as a tool for conducting research; studies that used concept maps in the data collec-
tion, analysis, or presentation phases; and peer reviewed English language journal articles published
between the years 1999–2015. The review was conducted using academic databases accessed
through EBSCOHost using the keywords “concept map” and “research.” A total of 317 articles were
identified. Duplicate articles were removed resulting in a total of 53 articles. The initial review of ar-
ticles revealed the use of Leximancer as a concept- mapping tool for data analysis. Another search
was conducted with “Leximancer” as the keyword. Leximancer was released in 2000, thus empirical
studies employing Leximancer spanned from 2005 to 2015. This second search resulted in 50 arti-
cles. After duplicates were removed, a total of 27 articles were added to the literature review. At the
end of the data collection process, 80 peer-reviewed empirical studies were included.

Once the publications were identified, a matrix was developed for analysing the literature with the
categories to extract from each article (See Table 1). Articles were distributed among the research
team. After reviewing the articles, each member checked for themes and patterns within the matrix.
Themes were cross-examined amongst the research team members and sub-themes further
grouped to inform the final results.

4. Results
The analysis revealed that researchers adopted three approaches for using concept maps: relational,
clustering, and word frequency. Researchers, in the reviewed literature, utilized these concept map-
ping approaches in a variety of ways to collect, analyze, and present their research. In order to pro-
vide an overview of these unique approaches and their implementation in research, brief summaries
of some of the studies are included. Table 2 shows a summary of the main findings in this literature
review where the three approaches for concept mapping are used as a tool for conducting research.
A complete list of the articles referenced in this literature review can be found in Appendix A.

The results are organized in three sections representing the three approaches: relational, cluster,
and word frequency. Each section begins with a brief overview of the specific concept mapping ap-
proach. This is followed by the data collection, analyses, and presentation strategies employed by
the researchers in the literature review.

4.1. Relational approach

Of the 80 publications generated by the searches, 26 (32%) are categorised as empirical articles us-
ing a relational approach for concept mapping. The relational approach follows Novak and Gowin’s
(1984) method of organising and representing concepts. Graphical representations show relation-
ships between concepts indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts. Linking words indicate
the relationship between the two concepts. Researchers have used the relational approach as a tool
to collect data, conduct analysis, and present findings.

4.1.1. Data collection

Studies that used the relational approach for data collection incorporated participant-generated
and researcher-generated concept maps. Participant-generated concept maps were created via in-
terviews, groups, blogs, and open-ended questionnaires to refine data, integrate and measure
knowledge, identify participants’ perceptions, and construct a framework. Researcher-generated
concept maps were created to collect, reduce, and organise data.

Table 1. Matrix for analysing empirical studies using concept maps

# Article Study area Method Research Advantages Challenges/
phase limitations

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Table 2. Summary of main findings

Relational approach Cluster approach Word frequency
approach
Data collection Participant-generated N/A N/A
concept maps
Researcher-generated
concept maps
Data analysis Identification of Themes Participant interpreted Identifying main themes
clusters
Summarizing interview Researcher interpreted Studying inter-relation-
transcripts clusters ships
Identifying interconnected-
ness among themes
Data presentation Illustrate concepts & Software generated Simple concept maps
connections concept maps
Show framework of research Nuanced concept maps
or research process
Present findings Concept maps in colour

4.1.1.1. Participant-generated. Researchers asked participants, individually and in groups, to con-

struct concept maps. Wheeldon and Faubert (2009) used participant-generated constructions of
experience in criminal justice with follow-up interview questions developed based on the concept
map. Concept maps served as a useful means of recall for individual participants to capture experi-
ential context cues of past experiences and prompted recall in ways that traditional data collection
might not. This strategy was a useful means of refining subsequent data collection strategies.

Xie and Sharma (2011) used participant-generated concept maps (pre and post using a blogging-
mapping tool) in higher education. Nine graduate student participants, throughout a semester,
wrote blog posts, attached up to five keywords to each post, and linked the keywords on a concept
map. This study aimed to seek patterns of participants’ use of the concept maps, including evidence
of reflective learning, identified as integration between concept maps and blogs. Data analysis in-
cluded examining concept maps for knowledge integration over time.

Concept maps were employed as an open-ended questionnaire in health sciences by Nicholls, Polman,
Levy, Taylor, and Cobley (2007). The sample consisted of 749 undergraduate athletes who completed
two concept maps where they reported stressors and coping strategies. Each concept map consisted of
six blank boxes in which participants entered data, allowing for a wider range of responses and the
eliciting of participants without the limitations in surveys. A limitation of the study was that participants
relied on retrospective accounts of coping, which meant the accuracy of this data collection technique
was limited to participants’ recall of an event that had happened weeks or months earlier.

Individual-generated concept maps were also used by Jones (2000). Study participants created 25
concepts related to public health in order to assess practical and holistic sanitation development
tools in rural and urban Mexico. Participants were presented concepts and asked to develop a con-
cept map using specific concepts. Concept maps provided a measure of structural knowledge espe-
cially higher order thinking.

Within business, Brandt and de Mortanges (2011) used concept maps to assess the relative sali-
ency of image attributes associated with history, heritage, and culture in shaping the perceptions of
students choosing a university town. Study participants created a personal concept map, using the
pre-selected associations/cards, a blank poster containing the brand name in the centre and simple,
double, and triple lines to connect the cards (all provided by the researchers). Participants placed the

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cards with the attributes on the poster and connected them with simple, double, and triple links. In
a second step, the researchers aggregated the individual brand concept maps in order to show the
general perception of the city brand.

In order to represent the professional practice of Conservation-Restoration across Europe,

Hutchings and Corr (2012) used concepts generated collaboratively by participants. Using concept
maps elucidated the complex nature of the profession using a declarative system. According to
Hutchings and Corr (2012), the hierarchical nature of concept maps and the use of links between
different elements served as an aid to construct an intellectually robust framework.

4.1.1.2. Researcher-generated. Meagher-Stewart et al. (2012) used concept maps in community and
public health to create visual representations of ideas, to analyse how concepts connected, and to
integrate and display information from the brainstorming sessions. In healthcare, Panniers,
Feuerbach, and Soeken (2003) used concept maps to conduct a systematic review of textbooks and
clinical guidelines to elicit public knowledge. Generating knowledge from relevant print sources
through concept mapping helped organise data into categories with illustrative depictions of attrib-
utes associated with each of the identified concepts. The relational concept map developed for this
study represented a high-order map with only the most abstract concepts depicted.

Baugh, McNallen, and Frazelle (2014) used concept maps in historical research to explore the his-
tory of Mary Breckenridge’s Frontier Nursing Service from 1925 to 1965. This study investigated how
her experience could inform present day concerns regarding universal access to healthcare. To col-
lect, reduce, and organise large volumes of historical data, concept mapping proved to be an effi-
cient strategy.

4.1.2. Data analysis

Studies employing a relational approach for data analysis were used to identify themes, summarise
interview transcripts, and identify interconnectedness among concepts. Concept maps helped with
the process of data refinement, coding, and visualisation.

4.1.2.1. Identifying themes. Vanderheide, Moss, and Lee (2013) employed an online mapping tool to
refine a literature review as a way to integrate new knowledge and identify themes. The outcome of
the process revealed that some themes had extensive literature bases while others were just emerg-
ing. Likewise, in Pfau et al.’s (2009) study, participants were instructed to construct their own con-
cept map on an issue in question. Upon completion of the concept map, participants assessed how
strongly they felt about each of the themes in their concept map by rating it from 1 (very weak) to 7
(very strong). Meagher-Stewart et al. (2012) used concept maps to analyse core concepts and emer-
gent themes. In this study, concept maps were used to enable consensus building, to create visual
representations of ideas, and to integrate and display information from the brainstorming sessions
conducted with public health practitioners.

Using grounded theory, Friedrich, Prasun, Henderson, and Taf’s (2011) study on being a seasoned
nurse in active practice, researchers used axial coding to identify relationships between the themes
through concept maps. Sander, Wilson, Izzo, Mountford, and Hayes (2012) also used concept maps
in data analysis to visualise the relationships among coded categories. The findings resulted in a
single consensus map, which was sent out to participants for feedback. Concept maps were also
used to illustrate the conceptual framework for the study and helped triangulate data.

4.1.2.2. Summarising interview transcripts. Kinchin, Streatfield, and Hay (2010) used concept maps
“as a way of representing information gathered during research interviews to the interview respond-
ents to stimulate further (or deeper) responses and to correct any areas of misunderstanding” (p.
64). A main concept map was created from all interviews and showed an indication of interview

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saturation. Some of the challenges of using concept maps with interviews included: interviews not
focusing on concepts and relationships, respondents not describing concepts and relationship clear-
ly, respondents deliberately misrepresenting concepts and relationships, interpreters with insuffi-
cient understanding of the world of the respondent or of the topic under discussion, or the questioning
process prescribing a pattern.

Concept mapping was used in the assessment of practical and holistic sanitation development
tools using the rural and peri-urban case of Mexico by Tiberghien, Robbins, and Tyrrel (2011). The
concept map was used to (1) reveal the complexity and the multidimensional nature of the issue
without overloading the map and (2) highlight the uniqueness of each case study without neglecting
macro-factors. The concept map developed for each case study showed the interconnectedness of
all factors affecting sanitation development. Although the use of concept maps was valuable for the
study as an assessment tool, the lack of significant perceptual patterns structuring the space, such
as clusters, vertical, or horizontal structures proved to be limitations. Reading the map was difficult
and hints for the reader were missing to note the zones of particular importance.

4.1.2.3. Identifying interconnectedness among concepts. Baugh et al. (2014) used concept maps in
historical research to identify interconnectedness and development of a gestalt during data analy-
sis. Like a coding system, using concept maps facilitated understanding the relationships among
concepts and data comparison between researchers. As the concept map was developed, research-
ers identified the relationships among data. In this process, interpretation and synthesis of the data
happened concurrently with data collection and organisation. Researchers communicated their in-
terpretation of findings throughout the process; synthesis arose as they identified correlations and
relationships among the data. They found that advantages of using concept mapping in this study
were “facilitated conceptualisation, analytic clarity, and intellectual rigour. The maps became repre-
sentations of the researchers’ understandings, and interpretations of the data issued from it” (p. 4).

Henderson, Yerushalmi, Kuo, Heller, and Heller’s (2007) study used concept maps created by par-
ticipants’ interviews to compare them to one another. Concept maps were useful because the “vis-
ual and explicit nature of the connections between concepts forces the research team to discuss,
confront, and clarify their diverse interpretations” (p. 020110-5). For them, this process revealed dif-
ferent interpretations of an idea or term and allowed for clarification of the analysis.

Participant-generated concept maps were used by Egusa et al. (2010) to evaluate the knowledge
acquired and knowledge structure changes as the result of information searches on the Web.
Concept maps before and after users participated in a Web search were compared. Findings re-
vealed the changes in the users’ mental representations after conducting exploratory searches. The
study focused on the participants’ knowledge structure by statistically analysing the concepts and
their relationships in the concept maps. One of the limitations of the study was that quantitative
analysis was insufficient to understand participants’ internal cognitive process.

4.1.3. Data presentation

Using concept maps for data presentation is often addressed with data analysis in studies.
Researchers have used concept maps to illustrate concepts and connections, show frameworks of
research or research processes, and present findings. Morrison (2006) used concept maps to graphi-
cally illustrate the concepts and connections identified by participants, which was a clear, easy to
understand illustration, and effective tool for presenting research data. DeBlieck, LaFlamme, Rivard,
and Monsen (2013) used concept maps to create a framework for conducting research. The mapping
process allowed clinicians to understand the relationships, leading to desired outcomes through a
standardised data-set specific to the topic at issue.

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Table 3. Trochim’s concept mapping research methodology

Step 1 Preparation Identifying participants and the specific topic
focus
Step 2 Generation Participants generate statements/responses
to the brainstorming prompt
Step 3 Structuring Statements are sorted and rated
Step 4 Representation Statements are represented as point maps
which are then clustered and mapped by
concept mapping software
Step 5 Interpretation Clusters are labelled
Step 6 Utilisation Discussion follows on how the concept map
can be used to inform programme planning or
evaluation

Baugh et al. (2014) presented their historical research findings as an aggregate map from the in-
dividual maps. As a way to visualise community-based food projects in Ontario, Mount and Andrée
(2013) employed concept mapping. One challenge they found in presenting data was balancing
“nuance and uniformity, as well as complexity and simplicity, while visually representing networks
that often blur the lines between governmental, public, non-profit, cooperative, multi-stakeholder
and private” (p. 578).

4.2. Cluster approach

Twenty-seven (34%) of the articles in the literature review utilised a cluster approach to concept
mapping as proposed by Trochim (1989). Trochim’s (1989) cluster approach comprised of six steps
as summarised in Table 3.

In the cluster approach, participant-generated statements are sorted and rated. Multidimensional
scaling (MDS) is then used to create a “point cluster map” (Trochim & Kane, 2005, p. 189). Statements
that were sorted into similar piles appear closer together on the map while statements that were
more sorted into different piles appear further apart on the map. Each statement is initially consid-
ered an individual cluster. The Concept System software performs a repetitive task of combining two
nearby clusters till a researcher identified preset number of clusters is reached. Once the cluster map
is created, participants are brought back to label the clusters. In this strategy, the cluster map that
is generated is also referred to as the concept map as it is primarily a map of the concepts that
appear in the research.

The cluster approach to concept mapping introduces concept mapping only in the data analysis
phase of research. These maps are also used for data presentation. The inclusion of a concept map-
ping software allows for the production of quantifiable information. Burke, O’Campo, Salmon, and
Walker (2009) contend that the utilisation of structured steps enables the analysis of complex ideas
within a short period of time. Burke et al. (2009) also note that participants can easily understand
the visual concept map. Brown (2007) defines the cluster approach to concept mapping as “a quan-
titative approach to the analysis of qualitative data” (p. 1237).

Researchers applying the cluster approach collected data through more common strategies such
as surveys and interviews. Since concept maps were not used in the data collection phase of re-
search, data collection is not addressed in this section.

4.2.1. Data analysis

In the cluster approach, the literature revealed that researchers decided on the level of inclusion of
participants in the analysis process. Once the concept map was generated by the software, partici-
pants were not always included in the naming and interpretation of the clusters. Some researchers
chose to name and interpret the clusters independent of participant input.

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4.2.1.1. Participant interpreted clusters. Once clusters were identified by the Concept System com-
puter software, Scahill, Harrison, and Carswell (2010); Reavley et al. (2010); and Baldwin, Kroesen,
Trochim, and Bell (2004) brought their participants together to comment on the clusters, name
them, and discuss areas of interest.

Some researchers elected to bring back a smaller subset of their participants for the interpretation
and naming stage. Dawson, Cargo, Stewart, Chong, and Daniel (2012) brought together 16 of their
participants; Campbell and Salem (1999) included 20 out of their initial 168 participants for the face-
to-face interpretation of the cluster map developed by the Concept System software; van Manen et
al. (2012) conducted a live session during which 19 of their 29 participants interpreted the data.
Nalavany, Carawan, and Rennick (2011) on the other hand, introduced new participants at this stage
and had 39 participants to assist with the naming of the clusters.

4.2.1.2. Researcher interpreted clusters. In some studies, the researchers elected not to include their
participants in the cluster interpretation phase. Once the concepts had been plotted by the Concept
System software, the researchers identified clusters and named them. In this review, the studies by
researchers such as Brown, George, Sintzel, and St. Arnault (2009), Cash, Mathiesen, Barbanell,
Smith, and Graham (2006), Kunkel, Cook, Meshel, Daughtry, and Hauenstein (1999), and Schuck and
Liddle (2004) implemented this same data analysis methodology.

4.2.2. Data presentation

The studies in this literature review that used the cluster approach to concept mapping presented
the concept maps that were generated by the Concept System software. The researchers used the
maps to highlight the concept clusters identified by the software and to explain their interpretation
of the clusters.

4.3. Word frequency approach

Twenty-seven (34%) of the articles in the literature review used concept maps through a word fre-
quency approach. In this approach, qualitative data that have been compiled are input into the
Leximancer software tool. Leximancer studies the frequency of words and their co-occurrence with
each other and develops concept maps that highlight key concepts. Each concept in the map is rep-
resented as a dot. The greater the frequency of the concept, the larger the dot. Concepts that co-
occur are placed near each other; the distance between them indicating their frequency of
co-occurrence.

Studies that implemented the word frequency strategy were from a variety of areas including
healthcare, organisations, education, and community settings. A majority of the studies using the
word frequency approach was from business (30%) and healthcare (30%). Twenty-two per cent of
the studies were from education.

The ability of Leximancer to analyse large and small data sets quickly and draw out key themes,
concepts, and relationships has made it popular in research on online text and enabled researchers
to analyse data from large participant populations. Bal, Campbell, Payne, and Pitt (2010) noted that
in situations where data need to be scrutinized quickly, the concept maps created by Leximancer
offer a fast overview of concepts and relationships. Martin and Rice (2007) and Pendergast, Garvis,
and Kanasa (2011) analysed their data with Leximancer and with researcher content analysis. Both
studies discovered “congruence” (Pendergast et al., 2011, p. 428) in the themes identified by
Leximancer and the researchers proving the validity of the concepts identified by Leximancer.

Like the cluster approach to concept mapping, the word frequency approach incorporated con-
cept maps only in the analysis and presentation phases of the research. Since concept maps were
not used in data collection, this phase is not discussed here. However, some interesting points about

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data collection in the word frequency approach need to be highlighted. The researchers incorporat-
ing this approach drew from large data sets that are available in the online public domain such as
blog posts, community websites, and comments on online websites (Khalid, Helander, & Hood, 2013;
Pendergast et al., 2011; Wu, Wall, & Pearce, 2014). Using Leximancer, Liesch, Håkanson, McGaughey,
Middleton, and Cretchley (2011) were able to conduct a literature review of articles spanning the
years of 1970–2008 while Poser, Guenther, and Orlitzky (2012) reviewed 165 journal articles.
Leximancer’s data analysis capability has also enabled researchers to gather qualitative data from
larger participant pools, so Davies and Beamish (2009) could assess open-ended responses from 218
survey participants and Constantinou and Kuys (2013) examined the reflective journals of 131
participants.

4.3.1. Data analysis

Researchers used the concept maps generated by Leximancer to analyse data in ways that best
suited their research questions. Some studies were interested in identifying main themes while oth-
ers considered inter-relationships.

4.3.1.1. Identifying main themes. When the focus was on identifying driving forces or over-arching
concepts, researchers fed all their primary data into Leximancer and adopted the concepts that
were generated by Leximancer. For example, Khalid et al. (2013) studied the impact of terrorist at-
tacks on people’s attitudes. Their Leximancer-generated semantic maps revealed that the concepts
of fear, anxiety, anger, and depression mapped closely together. The researchers, therefore, con-
cluded that terrorist attacks “induce anxiety” (p. 678). Studies by Wu et al. (2014); Bell and Blashki
(2013); Liesch et al. (2011); Noble, O’Brien, Coombes, Shaw, and Nissen (2011); and, Poser et al.
(2012) similarly focused on using Leximancer to identify the main themes from their data sets.

4.3.1.2. Studying inter-relationships. When researchers wanted more nuanced understanding of

data, they adapted their use of Leximancer. Fanaian, Lewis, and Grenyer (2013) employed a two-
step analysis process wherein, initial data collected were analysed through NViVo and five main
nodes were identified. These five nodes were then input into Leximancer as concepts in order to
generate a concept map that illustrated relationships and strength of concepts.

Cretchley, Gallois, Chenery, and Smith (2010) used Leximancer to analyse data from different par-
ticipant perspectives to reveal the differences in interactions between their participant groups of
persons with schizophrenia and professional and home caretakers. Hostager, Voiovich, and Hughes
(2013) used Leximancer to slice their data and present concepts from experts and novice partici-
pants in their study. Baker, Gallois, Driedger, and Santesso (2011) used Leximancer to draw out the
broad concepts. They then used Leximancer again, to drill down into specific concepts. In all these
studies, multiple maps were generated by Leximancer in order to study the relationships.

4.3.2. Data presentation

As with the articles in the cluster approach, the articles in the word frequency approach also pre-
sented the maps that were developed by the software. The maps allowed the researchers to explain
their conclusions and provide a visual representation to the reader. These maps differed based on
the information that the researchers wanted to convey to their readers. Some researchers presented
only the concepts, others included relationship lines between concepts and multiple maps, and
some elected to present their maps in colour.

4.3.2.1. Simple concept maps. Constantinou and Kuys (2013) and Davies and Beamish (2009) pre-
sent basic maps of the main concepts identified by Leximancer. Their maps identify the relative im-
portance of different concepts through the size of the concept circles, but do not include relationship
lines.

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4.3.2.2. Nuanced concept maps. Some researchers refined the maps generated by Leximancer by re-
moving concepts and regenerating the maps to study differences. When multiple maps were gener-
ated to analyse the data, all maps were included in the article. Baker et al. (2011) incorporated both
their maps in their article; Cretchley et al. (2010) and Chen and Bouvain (2009) presented four
Leximancer generated concept maps to reveal the differences in interactions between their study
groups; and, Hostager et al. (2013) include four maps with relationship lines to highlight the various
observed differences. Adam, Gibson, Strong, and Lyle (2010) removed concepts from the original map
to refine their results. They presented both maps and added relationship lines to their second map.

4.3.2.3. Colour coded concept maps. Some researchers presented their concept maps in colour to high-
light frequency of concept occurrence. Freeman, Cottrell, Kyle, Williams, and Nissen’s (2012)
Leximancer-developed map identified the concepts and the lines of relationship between the con-
cepts. The colour of the concept dots represented the frequency of concept occurrence. In addition to
the concept dots and lines indicating concept relationships, Bell and Blashki’s (2013) map also presents
heat coded circles indicating the “relative frequency of concepts” (p. 97). The “warmer (redder) the
circles” (p. 96), the greater the frequency of concepts. Fruhen, Mearns, Flin, and Kirwan (2013) also
presented “heat coded” maps (p. 331) where red indicates high importance and blue low importance.

5. Discussion
This literature review found diverse conceptualisations of concept mapping intersecting in a variety of
research areas in the academy as well as non-profit, for-profit, and governmental sectors internation-
ally. Relational, cluster, and word frequency approaches were found to have research connections in
business, healthcare, and education. Broadly examining and then categorising concept mapping ap-
proaches provided insights into potential avenues for future application and research. In this discus-
sion section, we present key differences between the three concept mapping approaches, their
limitations, the implication of these findings for other researchers, and directions for future research.

5.1. Differences between the approaches

Within each approach, the education necessary for participants and researchers is an important
area of distinction. Within relational concept mapping, the participants need to participate in some
form of training in order to create maps with hierarchical and propositional relationships (Wheeldon
& Faubert, 2009). However, within the cluster and word frequency approaches, statement genera-
tion or the analysis of narrative text using software to create a concept map of relationships would
not involve additional participant or subject training (Brown, George, et al., 2009; Fanaian et al.,
2013). Only the relational approach utilised participant generated concept maps as a data collection
source (Nicholls et al., 2007; Xie & Sharma, 2011), whereas the cluster and word frequency ap-
proaches utilised concept maps that were computer generated from the data of participants’ re-
sponses, narratives, or interviews (Poser et al., 2012; Schuck & Liddle, 2004) or publicly available
online data (Khalid et al., 2013; Pendergast et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2014). However, all three ap-
proaches provide an opportunity for the researcher to triangulate data from other sources in order
to confirm, expand, or broaden data analysis, interpretation, and presentation.

The roles of the researcher and participant within studies utilising concept mapping approaches
provide an area for further analysis. The participant and researcher may collaborate in reciprocity on
certain aspects of data collection and analysis in the relational approach (Dawson et al., 2012; van
Manen et al., 2012). This collaboration between participant and researchers is also possible in the
cluster approach when participants are included in the cluster interpretation step of the data analysis
phase. However, there are some limits in which this collaboration may occur within cluster and word
frequency approaches because there are either pre-determined steps or a computer software tool
serving integral roles in data analysis. The relational approach does not have this collaboration bar-
rier, but is limited in the amount of time the analysis involves because the researcher is the tool of
analysis (Meagher-Stewart et al., 2012), such as in a qualitative methodology, rather than software.

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5.2. Limitations
Each approach has limitations. Although the researcher is very close to the data within the relational
approach, a great amount of time is needed for the data analysis phase because the researcher serves
as the main tool of analysis. For example, with 100 participants in a longitudinal study, using the rela-
tional approach to concept maps could require a significant amount of researcher analysis just in the
creation of themes alone. Furthermore, participants require training to create effective concept maps
for the data to be meaningful. It should also be noted that it can be challenging to present nuanced
and complex information in a visually appealing and readily comprehensible graphic.

The challenge with the cluster approach is that there is a greater burden on participants as they
are required to participate in all stages of the research. When different participants are used for the
different phases, researchers need to identify and recruit a larger pool of participants (Nalavany et
al., 2011). The research process then becomes time consuming. Furthermore, specialised knowledge
of the use of the software is required. While the process in the cluster approach does involve partici-
pants in the different stages, the identification of the items is usually at the discretion of the re-
searchers (Kunkel et al., 1999). Large numbers of items are reduced to a manageable level by the
researchers. This also means that in some instances, researchers include items that they consider to
be important even though the participants themselves never mentioned it (Burke et al., 2005).

In the word frequency approach, Cretchley et al. (2010) acknowledge that researchers’ repeated
reading of texts provides a nuanced understanding of themes and their relationships that are absent
when tools like Leximancer are utilised. Noble et al.’s (2011) study highlights that a textual analysis can
overlook key concepts, which then have to be introduced manually. Kyle, Nissen, and Tett (2008) cau-
tion that Leximancer’s reliability is higher with single-word concepts. This reliability drops when multi-
word concepts are included. Despite these limitations, Leximancer has been used as a data analysis
tool that can identify high-level concepts and connections between these concepts (Bal et al., 2010).

All three approaches are limited by researcher subjectivity. In the relational approach, identifying
certain concepts as key and establishing relationships between them is all dependent on the
researcher/s perspective. The cluster and word frequency approaches try to alleviate some of the
subjectivity by introducing statistical analysis software. However, as Bal et al. (2010) note, “Different
researchers may arrive at different understandings of the same map” (p. 323). Yet these limitations
are shared by other qualitative methodologies.

5.3. Implications for researchers

The findings from this literature review offer methodological suggestions to researchers who are
considering incorporating concept maps in their research processes. When researchers want to ana-
lyse large amounts of textual data, Leximancer offers a practical approach in the analysis of word
frequency. It can quickly generate concept maps that highlight frequency and co-occurrence of con-
cepts. In addition, as some of the researchers in this review show (Baker et al., 2011; Fanaian et al.,
2013; Hostager et al., 2013), these concepts can then be further dissected to provide more nuanced
maps. Since the word frequency approach is only applicable in the data analysis and presentation
phases of research, there is flexibility in the data collection methodology.

Researchers who prefer a more participatory approach, might lean towards the relational and clus-
ter approaches. Within the cluster approach, the researchers have a specified implementation path to
follow (Trochim, 1989). The cluster approach is the most prescriptive of the three approaches. It can
only be implemented as a stand-alone methodology and has to adhere to the six-step process. The
statistical element of the cluster approach could appeal to some researchers; however, the ability to
have participants sort data and interpret clusters may make the process more inclusive.

The relational approach is the most versatile. This approach can be incorporated in any phase of
the research process or in all three. The relational approach can also be used in conjunction with
quantitative and mixed methods methodologies.

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5.4. Future research

Additional literature reviews and empirical studies could examine sub-categories, like tourism and
community development, in order to determine more specific uses in organisational and cultural
contexts. Furthermore, this literature review examined only empirical research studies in peer-re-
viewed journals. To look at more specific uses of concept mapping, additional literature reviews may
wish to look at government white papers or collect data through interviews with non-profit and for-
profit professionals in order to gather information about concept mapping uses that currently may
not be documented in peer-reviewed academic literature with regard to evaluation, training, and
development. This research could give insight into “real world” use within an international scope and
contribute to our understanding of the cross-cultural applications of concept mapping.

6. Conclusion
The analysis of concept mapping as a research tool categorised three main approaches: the relational
approach, the cluster approach, and the word frequency approach. The analysis is important because
it considered empirical studies and the use of “concept mapping” more broadly to inform future re-
search. In other words, one methodology, philosophy, worldview, or pre-determined view of concept
mapping was not used to create parameters for the inclusion of studies in this literature review. This
scope of the analysis is a critical one to discuss. Scholars ground their work in specific conceptual
frameworks, which guides research; however, we can limit possibilities for research by excluding meth-
odological approaches because they are not within the scope of our own worldview. Although concept
mapping approaches currently are situated within qualitative or mixed methodologies, the examina-
tion of the literature here may provide a base for discussion about how future inquiries might integrate
a blending of approaches. Therefore, a main contribution of this analysis is that it explored all uses of
concept mapping in research studies and categorised and sub-categorised them in order for the read-
er to determine how these approaches may intersect with their research needs. Through broadening
the lens of the meaning of concept mapping, researchers have the opportunity to create new ap-
proaches building upon and perhaps integrating the ones we have identified here.

Funding Bal, A. S., Campbell, C. L., Payne, N. J., & Pitt, L. (2010). Political
The authors received no direct funding for this research. ad portraits: A visual analysis of viewer reaction to
online political spoof advertisements. Journal of Public
Author details Affairs, 10(4), 313–328.
Simone C.O. Conceição1 https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.v10.4
E-mails: [email protected], [email protected] Baldwin, C. M., Kroesen, K., Trochim, W. M., & Bell, I. R. (2004).
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6485-1080 Complementary and conventional medicine: A concept
map. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 4(1),
Anita Samuel1
2. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-4-2
E-mail: [email protected]
Baugh, N., McNallen, A., & Frazelle, M. (2014). Concept mapping
Susan M. Yelich Biniecki2
as a data collection and analysis tool in historical
E-mail: [email protected] research. Qualitative Report, 19(13), 1–10.
1
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University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA. flood management knowledge for vulnerable groups:
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Department of Educational Leadership, College of Education, Australia’s 2010–2011 floods. Community Development
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Appendix A

Relational approach
Research Phase Strategy used Studies
Data collection Participant-generated concept maps Wheeldon and Faubert (2009)
Jones (2000)
Xie and Sharma (2011)
Nicholls et al. (2007)
Brandt and de Mortanges (2011)
Hutchings and Corr (2012)
Researcher-generated concept maps Meagher-Stewart et al. (2012)
Panniers et al. (2003)
Baugh et al. (2014)
Data Analysis Identification of Themes Vanderheide et al. (2013)
Pfau et al. (2009)
Meagher-Stewart et al. (2012)
Friedrich et al. (2011)
Sander et al. (2012)
Summarizing Interview Transcripts Kinchin et al. (2010)
Tiberghien et al. (2011)
Identifying Interconnectedness Baugh et al. (2014)
Among Themes
Henderson et al. (2007)
Egusa et al. (2010)
Data Presentation Illustrate Concepts & Connections Morrison (2006)
Show Framework of Research or DeBlieck et al. (2013)
Research Process
Present Findings Baugh et al. (2014)
Mount and Andrée (2013)
Cluster approach
Research Phase Strategy Used Studies
Data Collection N/A

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Data Analysis Participant Interpreted Clusters Scahill et al. (2010)

Reavley et al. (2010)
Baldwin et al. (2004)
Dawson et al. (2012)
Campbell and Salem (1999)
van Manen et al. (2012)
Burke et al. (2005)
Burke et al. (2009)
Ries, Voorhees, Gittelsohn, Roche, and Astone (2008)
Nalavany et al. (2011)
Researcher Interpreted Clusters Kunkel et al. (1999)
Schuck and Liddle (2004)
Cash et al. (2006)
Brown, Sigvaldason, and Bednar (2005)
Brown, Bednar, and Sigvaldason (2007)
Brown, Sintzel, Arnault, and George (2009)
Brown et al. (2009)
Brown (2007)
Data Presentation Software generated Concept Maps All studies using this approach presented the software
generated concept maps
Word frequency approach
Research Phase Strategy Used Studies
Data Collection N/A
Data Analysis Identifying Main Themes Khalid et al. (2013)
Wu et al. (2014)
Poser et al. (2012)
Noble et al. (2011)
Bell and Blashki (2013)
Liesch et al. (2011)
Studying Inter-relationships Fanaian et al. (2013)
Cretchley et al. (2010)
Hostager et al. (2013)
Baker et al. (2011)
Data Presentation Simple Concept Maps Constantinou and Kuys (2013)
Kyle et al. (2008)
Martin and Rice (2007)
Davies and Beamish (2009)
Nuanced Concept Maps Baker et al. (2011)
Cretchley et al. (2010)
Bal et al. (2010)
Middleton, Liesch, and Steen (2011)
Pendergast et al. (2011)
Chen and Bouvain (2009)
Hepworth and Paxton (2007)
Hostager et al. (2013)
Colour coded Concept Maps Freeman et al. (2012)
Bell and Blashki (2013)
Fruhen et al. (2013)

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