ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER
SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Dr Sumaira Ambreen for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

1. Hardware
1.1. Computer Architecture & Von
Neumann Architecture
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
computer systems
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
The CPU consists of the following architecture: Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)

Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and The Fetch-Execute Cycle
Logic Unit (ALU)
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of the 1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
memory, processor and input/output devices fetched
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
calculations 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce timing temporarily
signals on the control bus 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
Busses: Carry data through components. The following are its
the next instruction to be fetched
types.
6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Address bus – unidirectional
Data Bus – bi-directional Stored Program Concept
Control Bus – bi-directional
Instructions are stored in the main memory
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to Instructions are fetched, decoded and executed by
be processed, which are fetched by the CPU the processor
Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
The following registers also exist in the architecture:
Memory Concept
REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION
Stores the instruction the A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
Current instruction
CIR CPU is currently decoding partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
register
or executing
Stores the Address of the MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
Memory address
MAR instruction, copy it, and 10101010 01010110
register
sends it to MDR
Stores the Data from the Instruction Set:
address received from the An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU can
MDR Memory data register process, and the commands are machine code
MAR and sends data to
CIR
Stores the address of the 1.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
PC Program counter next instruction to be
fetched from memory System’s Clock
During calculations, data
ACC Accumulator The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
is temporarily held in it
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t
mean that the computer's performance is increased,
however.

Overclocking

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Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
for. dimensional image
It leads to multiple issues. Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
magnetic, white light)
Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
would frequently crash and become unstable) Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU model

Length of Data Buses Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of the Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
computer represent the passport pages
Text can be stored in ASCII format
Cache The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
stored as jpeg image
Cache memory is located within the CPU itself The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
-- allows faster access to the CPU camera and compared to using face recognition software
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
accessed faster, which improves CPU performance eyes, width of nose)
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
performance Barcode readers/scanners

A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of

Cores
varying thicknesses
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
performance series of lines
The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
But if any number of cores are used, it could possibly slow using guard bars
down the system performance as the communication Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
between each core increases, and so do the data cables The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
between each. Which in turn reduces the potential system Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect
performance. little light, which allows the bars to be read
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
septa or octa cores. The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital

Quick Response (QR) Codes

1.3. Input Devices
Another type of barcode is the QR codes
Two-dimensional Scanners: Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
background
Used to input hard-copy documents Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
The image is converted into an electronic form, which can Advantages of QR codes:
be stored in the computer
No need for the user to write down the website
The document is placed on a glass panel address
A bright light illuminates the document QR codes can store website addresses
A scan head moves across the document until the
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is Digital Cameras
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
The lens focuses on the document image It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled shutter speed, focuses the image, etc.
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto
circuits a light sensitive cell
The software produces a digital image in the The cell is made up of pixels
electronic form The number of pixels determines the size of the file
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
Keyboards
converts scanned documents into a text file format
If the original document was a photo/image, then the Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG wireless connection
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
Three-dimensional Scanners
digital signal

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Slow method Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible

Prone to errors infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, it
changes the amount of infrared light reaching the
Pointing devices detector.
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat
Mouse/trackball
emitted by any object.
Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement
level.
Microphones Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that
generate electric current based on light brightness.
Used to input sound to a computer Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm magnetic field.
vibrates, producing an electric signal Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into content wherever this sensor has been installed.
digital values and stored in a computer pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity.
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied
digital Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects
around the sensor
Touchscreens
Temperature - These sensors measure the
Capacitive (medium cost tech) temperature of the environment.
Made up of many layers of glass (Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)
When the top layer of glass is touched, electric current
Control of Street Lighting­­
changes
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are The light sensor sends data to the ADC
determined by an on-board microprocessor The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor
Infra-red heat (expensive) Microprocessor samples data every minute
Use glass as the screen material If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Needs a warm object to carry an input operation Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Infra-red optical (expensive) Lamp switched on
Uses glass as screen material
Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
1.4. Output Devices
touched
Inkjet Printers
Resistive (inexpensive)
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of glass Used to print one-off pictures and documents
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and Data from the document sent to the printer driver
bottom layer complete a circuit The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
microprocessor to determine where the screen was available
touched Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
memory (printer buffer)
Sensors
A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
Devices that read or measure physical properties available in the paper tray
Data needs to be converted to digital The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
values into digital Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
Sensors and their purposes: Repeated until the buffer is empty
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
converts sound to electric pulses. processor (request for more data to be sent)
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's
Laser Printers
acceleration or deceleration and motion.
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. Used to print flyers, high quality
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
gas in the environment. produce text and images
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Prints the whole page in one go
the air or any sample.

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1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet) Two common types of light projectors:

2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the Digital Light Projector (DLP)
drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it; LCD Projector
removing the positive charge leaves negatively Projectors are used to project computer output onto
charged areas which match the text/image larger screens/interactive whiteboards
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged toner;
it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the drum Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
Uses millions of micromirrors
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to
the number of micromirrors and the way they are
produce a copy of the page
arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of the
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated
image
rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent
When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from
are on
the drum, ready to print on the next page
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
3D Printers they are off
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
Used for models of cars A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
Produce solid objects that work on its way to the DLP chip
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic White light splits into primary colours
powder
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD) LCD Projectors

2D and 3D Cutters Older technology than DLP

A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different
wavelengths
Actuators When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue
The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
These three different lights pass through three LCD
processes.
screens; these screens show the image to be projected as
Used in many control applications involving sensors and
millions of pixels in grayscale
devices (ADC and DAC)
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
Loudspeakers/Headphones a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a the screen
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from
the loudspeaker
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies

LCD and LED Monitors

The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid Crystal

Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in threes as
pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
because:
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL has
a yellow tint 1.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
LEDs improve the colour image
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL Primary vs. Secondary Storage
LEDs consume very little power
The CPU directly accesses primary storage
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
The CPU does not directly access secondary storage
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples
which supplies the light source
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some
Light Projectors: examples

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Primary Memory: Features of ROM

Random Access Memory (RAM) Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
even when ROM is turned off)
RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and Used to store start-up instructions (basic input/output
access data that is actively being used or processed by systems)
the user immediately. Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
Features of RAM cannot be changed
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
turned off) Secondary Storage:
Used to store; data, files Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
the memory can be changed Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer of the disks (platter)
will operate A number of read/write heads can access all of the
RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run slow surfaces of the disk
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with store the data
new data Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
RAM is of two types: HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM) Solid-State Drive (SSD)

There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the

same time (not like HDD)
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
Non-volatile rewritable memory
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer More reliable (no moving parts)
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Virtual memory Lower power consumption
Run much cooler than HDDs
When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with Very thin
memory management; thus, the system has a high Data access is faster than HDD
chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes into Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
the picture.
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these Off-Line Storage:
storages are discussed below) CD/DVD Disks

Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the

surface of the disk.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
capacity (two individual recording layers)

Blu-ray Disks

Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations

The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above. (stores up to five times more data than DVD)
The main advantages of virtual memory are Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent
They can be larger than the physical memory provided piracy and copyright infringement)
in the RAM. Used as backup systems
Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could be
expensive USB Flash Memories
The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused
data. Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files
Small back-up devices for photo, music
Read Only Memory (ROM) Solid state, so needs to be treated with care

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Cloud Storage: Advantages Disadvantages

The interface can be
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is Low cost to make
confusing sometimes
stored on remote servers
The same data is stored on more than one server in case Troubleshooting is a
Requires very little power
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data specialist’s job
at any time. This is known as data redundancy. Often thrown away as difficult
Very fast reaction to changing
to upgrade and faults are
The following are its types: input
harder to find
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the Increased garbage as they
Dedicated to one task only
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different are thrown away
companies Any computerised system is
Can be controlled remotely
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated prone to attacks
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as Applications of Embedded devices
a single entity GPS systems
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above Security Systems
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, and Vending Machines
less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from Washing Machines
a public cloud storage provider Oven
Microwave

1.7. Network Hardware

Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to

connect to a network (such as the Internet).

1.6. Embedded System Media Access Control (MAC)

A combination of hardware and software is designed to
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six
carry out a specific set of tasks.
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the
Embedded systems may contain -
manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
serial number.
peripherals on one single chip
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only These do not change and are primarily constant for every
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O ports, device
storage and memory there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
Process of Embedded Devices - Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor Administered MAC Address (LAA)
(ADC needed if the data is analogue)
Data from the user interface is also sent to the The only difference between the two types is that UAA is
microprocessor made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators opposite for LAA.
which are the output
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they IP Addresses
need a software update.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating IP address allocation:
Connecting the device to a computer and downloading The network allocates IP addresses.
the update Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.
Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi Static IP addresses:
link Assigned manually to a device.
Does not change over time.
Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded systems Dynamic IP addresses:
Advantages Disadvantages Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host
Small in size, therefore can Configuration Protocol) server.
Can be difficult to upgrade
easily fit into devices

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Changes periodically or when the device connects to a

different network. 2. # Operating Systems
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
Widely used protocol. Operating Systems are designed to establish
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers separated communication between the user and the computer
by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1). Functions of a typical operating system -
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. -managing files
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): – handling interrupts
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4. – providing an interface
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated – managing peripherals and drivers
by colons (e.g., – managing memory
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). – managing multitasking
Provides an extremely large number of unique – providing a platform for running applications
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion). – providing system security
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6: – managing user accounts
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
uses a 128-bit address.
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 billion Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340
undecillion addresses.
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.

Routers

Router functionality:
A router is a networking device that directs data
packets between different networks.
It determines the most efficient path for data
transmission.
Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
A router examines the destination IP address of Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
incoming data packets. Second Edition (Hodder Education)
It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or the
next router on the path to the destination. Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
The router forwards the data packet to the HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
appropriate next hop. Security Management - Providing security features such
Router's role in IP address assignment: as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
devices on a local network. File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting,
It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a Renaming, and many more functions
predefined range to connected devices. Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration with each of the processes
and simplifies network management. Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
Connecting a local network to the Internet: users to customise their accounts individually.
A router serves as the gateway between a local
network and the internet. 2.1. Running of Applications
It connects the local network to an internet service
The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
provider (ISP) network.
through the bootstrap loader.
The router receives data packets from devices on the
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
local network and forwards them to the internet.
the location of the OS in the storage.
It also receives incoming data packets from the
internet and routes them to the appropriate devices BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
on the local network.

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Translators
Compiler

Translates a program written in a high-level language into

machine code
Used without compiler
Executable file of machine code produced
One high-level language translated into several machine
code instructions
Interrupts
Used for general use
Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s
Interpreter
doing and service a task
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt No executable file of machine code produced
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it One high-level language program statement may require
Different interrupts have different levels of priority several machine code instructions to be executed.
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
continues interpreter
Used when the program is being developed
2.2. Programming Languages, Assembler
Translators and IDEs
Translates a low-level language program into machine
Computers can only understand machine code; therefore, code
translators are needed Executable file of machine code produced
One low-level language translated into one machine code
High-Level Languages instructions
It can be used without an assembler
It is easier to read and understand as the language is Used for general use
closer to human language.
Easier to write in a shorter time Compiler Interpreter Assembler
Easier to debug at the development stage Executes a high-
Easier to maintain once in use Translates a high- Translates a low-
level language
level language level assembly
Low-Level Languages program one
program into language program
statement at a
machine code. into machine code.
Refer to machine code time.
Binary instructions that the computer understands An executable file No executable file An executable file
of machine code is of machine code is of machine code is
produced. produced. produced.
One high-level
One high-level One low-level
language program
language language
statement may
statement can be statement is usually
require several
translated into translated into one
machine code
several machine machine code
instructions to be
code instructions. instruction.
executed.

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Interpreted Assembled

Compiled programs
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) programs cannot programs are used
are run without the
Assembly Language be run without the without the
compiler.
interpreter. assembler.
Few programmers use assembly language to - A compiled An interpreter is An assembled
Make use of special hardware program is usually often used when a program is usually
Write code that doesn’t take up much space distributed for program is being distributed for
Write code that runs very quickly general use. developed. general use.
Assembly language must be translated into machine
code using an assembler to run.

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Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer program loading and running, and security management,
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) making computers more user-friendly.
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) controls computer resources by carrying out specific
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
An IDE would usually have these features - management, and security.
Code Editor
Translator Application Software:
Debugger
Error Reports Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
Auto-Documenter text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
Pretty Printing importing images.
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
2.3. Types of Software and Interrupts using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, with
each cell identified using a unique combination of
columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
Types of Software
produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility calculations.
programs and device drivers Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
processor, etc. hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query and
report on data and add, delete, and modify records in a
System Software: table.
Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
these are a set of programs which control and manage interface with sensors and allow a computer or
the operations of hardware microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
gives a platform for other software to run control applications by comparing sensor data with stored
it is required to allow hardware and software to run data and altering process parameters accordingly.
without problems Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources from games to sophisticated software such as phone
banking. Common examples include video and music
Application Software: streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
computer’s resources including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a suite applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
of programs (for example, Microsoft Office) transitions between clips.
user can execute the software when they require, and it is Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows the
mostly not automatic manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with bitmap
graphics editors changing pixels to produce a different
Examples image, while vector graphics editors manipulate lines,
curves, and text to alter the stored image as required.
System Software:
Interrupts
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
tasks without re-compilation. from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler into pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt temporarily.
a single program, allowing the use of separately written Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:
code modules in the final program.
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the
communicate with a computer's operating system, microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific
without which a device like a printer would be unable to intervals.
work. Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or
Operating system: Software that manages basic printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in
computer functions such as input/output operations, the microprocessor's activities.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and movements to find the data.
address the hardware problem. When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
system's operation. A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing for
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes faster data access and retrieval.
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to The defragmentation process can free up previously
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
the microprocessor to handle the issues.
Backup Software

Backup software is a utility software that helps create and

manage backup copies of data files and programs.
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
drives are good practices, but operating system backup
utilities are also recommended.
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only backup
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) files if changes have been made to them.
There could be three file versions for total security: the
2.4. Utility Software current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
Computer users have access to utility programs as part of on cloud storage.
system software
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the Security Software
background without user input
Common utility programs include virus checkers, Security software is a utility software that manages
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
file compression and management software, backup such as virus and spyware checkers.
software, security tools, and screensavers. It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
prevent unauthorized access.
Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software Security software uses encryption and decryption to
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for decryption key.
protecting computers from malware. It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
They should be kept up to date and run in the background and prevent malicious software from being installed.
to maintain their effectiveness. Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.
loaded and compares possible viruses against a database
of known viruses. Screensavers
Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses that
are not yet on the database. Screensavers display moving and still images on the
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic monitor screen after computer inactivity.
deletion or for the user to decide. They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are from 'phosphor burn'.
constantly discovered. Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
Full system scans should be carried out regularly to detect device and as a part of computer security systems.
dormant viruses. They automatically log out of the user after a certain
period of inactivity.
Disk Defragmentation Software Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
virus scans and distributed computing applications.
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous Device Drivers
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
access time. Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become understood by the hardware device they are associated
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to with.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device number that allow the operating system to identify the
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised device.
by the operating system. Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial computer simultaneously.

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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