Unit 3 answers :-

1)
The loads acting on a gantry girder are a combination of vertical, horizontal, and
dynamic forces Below are the primary loads to consider:
1. Vertical Loads
These are the downward forces due to the weight of the crane and the loads it carries.
 Dead Load:
Includes the self-weight of the crane components such as the bridge, trolley, and hoist mechanism. It
also includes the self-weight of the gantry girder itself.
 Live Load (Lifted Load):
Represents the maximum weight of the materials or items being lifted by the crane.

 2. Horizontal Loads
 These are lateral forces caused by the operation and movement of the crane.
 Longitudinal Loads:
Generated by the acceleration or deceleration of the crane along the rails. These forces act along the
length of the gantry girder.
 Lateral Loads:
Arise from the movement of the trolley or misalignments in the rails. These forces act perpendicular to
the gantry girder, often influencing its lateral stability.

3. Dynamic Loads
Dynamic forces are caused by the motion of the crane and the lifted load. They include:
 Inertia Forces:
Result from the sudden stopping or starting of the trolley or bridge.
 Vibration Forces:
Induced by the operation of the machinery, particularly during lifting, lowering, or traveling.

4. Wind Load
For outdoor gantry girders or cranes, wind loads must be considered, especially in regions with high
wind speeds. These forces act horizontally and can significantly affect the design.

2) Design Procedure of Gantry Girder

Designing a gantry girder involves a systematic approach to account for all forces and constraints to
ensure safe and efficient operation.
Step 1: Gather Design Data
Crane Details:
Crane capacity
o Self-weight of the crane girder, trolley, and rail.
o Wheelbase of the crane.
o Minimum approach of the crane hook.
 Structural Details:
o Span of the gantry girder (distance between columns or supports).
o Center-to-center distance between crane rails.
o
o Operational Details:
o Type of crane (electric, hand-operated, etc.).
o Environmental factors like wind and seismic forces.

Step 2: Calculate Loads on the Gantry Girder

 Vertical Loads:
 Dead Load (DL): Self-weight of the girder, rails, and crane components.
o Live Load (LL): Weight of the lifted load (crane capacity).
 Horizontal Loads:
o Lateral Load: Due to movement of the trolley or crane.
o Longitudinal Load: Arising from crane acceleration or braking.
 Other Loads:
o Wind Load: For outdoor cranes, depending on location and height.
o

Step 3: Design the Cross-Section of the Girder

1. Select Preliminary Section:
o Choose an initial section (e.g., I-beam or built-up section) based on approximate bending moment and
shear force calculations.
2. Calculate Bending Moment:
o Determine maximum bending moment due to vertical and horizontal loads.
o Bending moment = M=wL2/8M = wL^2 / 8M=wL2/8 (for uniformly distributed load).
3. Calculate Shear Force:
o Determine the maximum shear force due to the load.
o Step 4: Check Serviceability Criteria
 Deflection:
o Calculate deflection and ensure it is within permissible limits (span/750 to span/1000, depending on
the code).
 Lateral Stability:
o Ensure the girder is laterally restrained to avoid buckling.

Step 7: Check Connections

 Design the connections between the gantry girder and the supports, considering bolt or weld strengths.

3)
 5) An industrial building is designed to house manufacturing processes, storage, assembly, or other
industrial activities.

1. Foundations
 Purpose: Transfer the load of the structure to the ground and provide stability.
 Types:
o Isolated footings for columns.
o Combined footings or raft foundations for areas with poor soil conditions.

2. Columns
 Purpose: Vertical load-bearing members that transfer the roof and other structural loads to the foundation.
 Materials:
o Steel columns for high-strength and large spans.
o Reinforced concrete columns for economic and fire-resistant designs.
3. Roof Structure
 Purpose: Protects the building from environmental elements and supports roof-mounted equipment or
services.
 Components:
o Roof Trusses: Steel or timber trusses provide support for long spans.
o Purlins: Secondary members that span between trusses to support roofing sheets.
o 4. Floors
 Purpose: Provide a stable surface for operations, machinery, and storage.
 Materials:
o Reinforced concrete for heavy-duty use.
o Steel grating for lightweight industrial setups.
5. Walls
 Purpose: Enclose the structure and provide lateral stability.
 Types:
o Masonry walls for durability and insulation.
o Pre-engineered steel panels for lightweight and rapid construction.

6. Doors and Windows

 Purpose: Facilitate access, ventilation, and natural light.
 Types:
o Rolling shutters or sectional overhead doors for large openings.
o Standard steel or aluminum windows for ventilation.
7. Crane Systems
 Purpose: Support material handling within the building.
 Components:
o Gantry Girders: Structural beams supporting the crane rails.
8. Mezzanine Floors
 Purpose: Provide additional storage or workspace within the vertical space of the building.
 Materials: Typically steel or concrete, depending on the load and use.

9. Lighting Systems
 Purpose: Ensure adequate illumination for operations.
 Components:
o Skylights or translucent panels for natural lighting.
o LED or metal halide lamps for artificial lighting.

10. Utilities and Services

 Purpose: Support operational requirements.
 Examples:
o Electrical systems for machinery and lighting.
o Plumbing for water supply and drainage.
o Compressed air or gas pipelines for industrial processes.

11. Foundations for Machinery

 Purpose: Isolate vibrations and support heavy industrial equipment.
 Materials: Reinforced concrete pads with vibration isolators.

6) Draw types of roof trusses

8)
 Unit 4 answers :-

1) Trusses can be classified into different types based on the geometry, configuration, and load
distribution. Here’s an explanation of the major classifications of trusses:
1. Based on Geometry:
 Planar Trusses: These trusses lie in a single plane and are used for flat structures like roofs and bridges.
 Space Trusses: These trusses are three-dimensional and are used in large, complex structures such as towers or
in aerospace applications.
2. Based on Configuration:
 Howe Truss: The opposite of the Pratt truss, the Howe truss has diagonal members sloping away from the
center and vertical members in between. This design is often used in timber bridges.
 Fink Truss: This type uses a series of smaller triangles formed with diagonals and vertical members, commonly
used for roof construction.
3. Based on the Type of Load:
 Simple Truss: This truss is designed to support loads in one direction. It’s a straightforward design used in
simple applications like single-span bridges.
 Compound Truss: A more complex design used in multi-span bridges or large structures. It combines several
trusses to support different loads at multiple points.
 Overhead Trusses: These are used in buildings and support a roof or structure from above. They may be planar
or space trusses.
4. Based on Functionality:
 Roof Trusses: Used in the design of roofs, these can have different shapes like pitched, gabled, or curved.
 Bridge Trusses: Trusses designed specifically for use in bridges. They often include additional support for the
deck and roadway, typically using configurations like Warren or Pratt.
5. Based on Material:
 Timber Trusses: These are made of wood, suitable for smaller-scale structures like residential buildings.
 Steel Trusses: Made of steel, these are used for larger and more complex structures, providing greater strength
and flexibility.
 Concrete Trusses: These are typically used in heavy-duty applications like multi-story buildings or industrial
facilities.
2) Bridges loads can be classified into dead loads, live loads, environmental loads, and others. Below
is a detailed explanation of the different types of loads that act on bridges:
1. Dead Load (Permanent Load):
 Definition: These are the loads that are constant and do not change over time. They include the weight of the
bridge structure itself, including the deck, beams, piers, and other permanent elements.
 Components:
o Weight of the bridge superstructure (deck, beams, girders, and trusses)
o Weight of the substructure (abutments, piers, and foundations)
2. Live Load (Variable Load):
 Definition: These loads vary over time and are not permanent. Live loads represent the loads exerted on the
bridge by vehicles, pedestrians, or animals.
 Components:
o Vehicle load: The weight of moving vehicles such as cars, trucks, and trains. This includes dynamic effects like
acceleration, braking, and turning.
o Pedestrian load: The load caused by pedestrians walking across the bridge.
3. Impact Load (Dynamic Load):
o Vehicle acceleration/deceleration: When vehicles start, stop, or change speeds, they exert transient forces on
the bridge.
o Wheel impact: The pressure exerted by the tires on the road surface, especially in the case of trucks or vehicles
with large tires.
4. Wind Load:
o Horizontal wind force: Wind blowing across the bridge can apply a horizontal force on the structure, especially
on lighter or higher bridges such as suspension or cable-stayed types.
o Vertical wind force: Wind can lift or reduce the downward pressure on the structure, particularly affecting
bridges with large spans.
5. Seismic Load (Earthquake Load):
o Horizontal shaking: Lateral movement of the ground can create significant forces acting on the bridge,
especially in the form of twisting or swaying.
o Vertical shaking: Vertical accelerations can affect the bridge’s foundations and load distribution.

3) Bridge Design Procedure (Simplified):

1. Preliminary Studies:
o Conduct site surveys and feasibility studies.
o Define purpose, traffic volume, and potential future usage.
2. Conceptual Design:
o Choose the bridge type and layout based on span, site conditions, and aesthetics.
o Select suitable materials (steel, concrete, etc.).
3. Load Analysis:
o Identify all loads (dead, live, wind, seismic, etc.).
o Combine loads using design codes and apply safety factors.
4. Structural Analysis:
o Model the structure using software.
o Perform static and dynamic analysis to assess forces, moments, and stability.
5. Detailed Design:
o Design superstructure (beams, girders), substructure (piers, foundations), and deck.
o Ensure connections and bearings accommodate loads and movements.
6. Safety and Environmental Checks:
o Verify seismic, wind, and hydraulic performance.
o Conduct environmental impact assessments.
7. Cost Estimation and Optimization:
o Prepare cost estimates and optimize design for performance and budget.
8. Drawings and Approvals:
o Create detailed construction drawings and specifications.
o Submit for approval and finalize documentation.
9. Construction Support:
o Guide implementation and monitor for deviations during construction.
10. Inspection and Maintenance Planning:

4)
6) Advantages of Tubular Structures:
1. Efficient in resisting lateral loads (e.g., wind, seismic).
2. Lightweight with material savings and high strength.
3. Aesthetic and modern appearance.
4. Flexible design options for large spans and unique shapes.
5. Space-efficient with reduced internal columns.
6. Effective load distribution for improved stability.
7. Prefabrication simplifies construction.
 Disadvantages of Tubular Structures:

1. Complex and costly joint design.

2. Higher initial cost compared to solid sections.
3. Maintenance and inspection challenges.
4. Risk of local buckling, requiring careful design.
5. Requires specialized equipment and skilled labor.
6. Fireproofing often needed due to heat sensitivity.

7) Connections in Tubular Sections

Tubular section connections join hollow structural members like circular or rectangular tubes,
ensuring efficient load transfer.

Types:
1. Welded Connections:
o Direct Welds: Simple and common in trusses.
o Fillet Welds: For overlapping sections.
o Full Penetration Welds: Strong and reliable for critical joints.
2. Bolted Connections:
o End Plates: Welded plates bolted to other members.
o Gusset Plates: Bolt-connected plates, common in trusses.
o Hidden Bolts: Aesthetic, bolts placed inside tubes.
3. Cast Connections:
o Custom-cast steel nodes for complex or high-stress joints.
4. Sleeve Connections:
o Tubes joined via a sleeve and secured by bolts or welds.

Key Considerations:
 Load Transfer: Efficiently handle axial, bending, and shear forces.
 Fabrication: Simple and accessible for assembly.
 Fatigue Resistance: Especially for dynamic loads like bridges.
 Aesthetics: Important for exposed structures.

Applications:
Used in trusses, space frames, towers, bridges, and architectural structures for strength and visual
appeal.