OOMD Insem

Unit 1:

1. What is OO development? Explain the OO themes? [5]

Object-Oriented (OO) Development is a way of designing software by organizing it into objects. These objects
represent real-world entities or concepts and have two main components: attributes (which define the object's
characteristics) and methods (which define what the object can do). This approach helps in creating software
that is modular, easy to maintain, and scalable.
Key Themes of OO Development:
1. Abstraction:
o Abstraction involves simplifying complex systems by modeling only the essential details. In OO
development, this means focusing on the relevant properties of objects while ignoring unnecessary
details. This makes the system easier to understand and work with.
2. Encapsulation:
o Encapsulation is about bundling the data (attributes) and the methods that operate on the data into
a single unit, or object. It also involves restricting direct access to some of the object's components,
usually by using private or protected access modifiers. This ensures that the internal workings of an
object are hidden from the outside world, promoting security and integrity.
3. Inheritance:
o Inheritance allows a new class (child or subclass) to inherit attributes and methods from an existing
class (parent or superclass). This promotes code reusability, as common features need not be
rewritten. Instead, the subclass can extend or customize the existing behavior.
4. Polymorphism:
o Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to be treated as objects of a common superclass. It
means "many forms" and enables methods to be used in different ways depending on the object
that is calling them. This flexibility allows for designing systems that can handle different situations
with a single interface.
5. Classification:
o Classification involves grouping objects into classes based on their similarities. This makes it easier
to organize and manage objects, as each class can represent a category of objects with common
attributes and behaviors. This helps in reducing complexity and enhances the structure of the
system.
6. Identity:
o Identity refers to the unique nature of each object. Even if two objects have the same attributes and
behaviors, they are considered different if they have different identities. This concept is important
in OO development because it ensures that each object is distinct and can be individually
referenced.
7. Sharing:
o Sharing allows objects to share resources or data among themselves. This can be achieved through
references or pointers, where multiple objects can access the same data without duplicating it.
Sharing helps in optimizing memory usage and promotes efficient resource management.
8. Synergy:
o Synergy in OO development refers to the way different objects work together to achieve a greater
result than they could individually. The interaction and collaboration between objects allow the
system to perform complex tasks efficiently, leveraging the strengths of each object.
Detailed explanation of OO themes:
Here’s a brief explanation of each term with three key points:
1) Abstraction:
1. Simplifies Complexity: Abstraction reduces complexity by focusing on essential features of an object and
ignoring irrelevant details. This helps in managing large systems by dealing with higher-level concepts.
2. Real-World Modeling: It allows the creation of simplified models of real-world entities, capturing only
the necessary attributes and behaviors that are relevant to the application.
3. Enhanced Understandability: By using abstraction, systems are easier to understand, as unnecessary
details are hidden, making it easier for developers to work with the core aspects of the problem.
2) Encapsulation:
1. Data Protection: Encapsulation protects the internal state of an object by restricting direct access to its
data. This is done by keeping the data private and exposing only selected methods to interact with it.
2. Improved Maintainability: Encapsulation allows changes to the internal implementation of an object
without affecting the rest of the system, as long as the public interface remains the same.
3. Modularity: By bundling data and methods into a single unit (object), encapsulation promotes
modularity, making it easier to manage, understand, and reuse different parts of the code.
3) Inheritance:
1. Code Reusability: Inheritance allows a new class to inherit properties and methods from an existing class,
promoting code reuse and reducing redundancy in the codebase.
2. Hierarchical Relationships: It helps in establishing a hierarchical relationship between classes, where
more specific classes (subclasses) extend more general ones (superclasses), allowing for a clear and
organized structure.
3. Extensibility: Inheritance makes it easier to extend existing functionality. Subclasses can add or override
methods from their parent classes to provide specialized behavior.
4) Polymorphism:
1. Multiple Forms: Polymorphism allows methods to take on multiple forms. This means that a single
method can operate differently based on the object that invokes it, allowing for flexible and dynamic
code.
2. Unified Interface: It enables different objects to be treated as instances of a common superclass. This
allows for a unified interface to interact with various objects, simplifying code and reducing
dependencies.
3. Method Overriding and Overloading: Polymorphism supports method overriding (redefining a method in
a subclass) and overloading (same method name with different parameters), providing greater flexibility
in method implementation.
5) Classification:
1. Organizes Objects: Classification groups objects into classes based on their shared characteristics. This
helps in organizing and managing objects more effectively, making it easier to understand and work with
them.
2. Simplifies Complexity: By classifying objects, the complexity of a system is reduced. Each class represents
a category of objects with common properties and behaviors, simplifying the overall structure.
3. Foundation for Inheritance: Classification is the basis for inheritance, where classes can inherit
properties from more general classes, promoting reusability and a clear hierarchical structure.
6) Identity:
1. Uniqueness of Objects: Identity ensures that each object is unique, even if it has the same attributes as
another object. This distinct identity allows objects to be individually recognized and referenced.
2. Consistency in Object Behavior: Identity allows for consistent behavior of objects across the system. Each
object’s unique identity ensures that changes to one object do not affect others.
3. Key in Object Interaction: Identity is crucial when objects interact with each other. It allows objects to be
accurately identified and ensures that operations are performed on the correct instances.
7) Sharing:
1. Efficient Resource Utilization: Sharing allows multiple objects to access the same resources or data,
which reduces redundancy and optimizes memory usage by avoiding unnecessary duplication.
 2. Consistency Maintenance: By sharing data among objects, changes made in one place automatically
reflect in all related objects, ensuring that the system remains consistent and up-to-date.
3. Facilitates Collaboration: Sharing enables objects to work together effectively by allowing them to
interact with common data or resources, promoting synergy and cohesive system behavior.
8) Synergy:
1. Enhanced System Functionality: Synergy occurs when the combined effect of multiple objects working
together is greater than the sum of their individual effects, leading to more efficient and powerful system
performance.
2. Improved Problem Solving: By leveraging the strengths of different objects, synergy allows complex
problems to be solved more effectively, as objects can complement each other’s abilities.
3. Collaborative Efficiency: Synergy promotes collaboration between objects, enabling them to achieve
goals that would be difficult or impossible to accomplish individually, resulting in a more robust and
dynamic system.

2. Explain the following terms with respect to object-oriented methodology. [5]

i) Abstraction:
1. Simplification of Complexity: Abstraction involves focusing on the essential features of an object while
hiding unnecessary details. It simplifies complex systems by modeling only what is relevant to the problem
at hand.
2. Real-World Representation: It helps in creating a simplified model of real-world entities by capturing their
most significant aspects. For example, a "Car" object in a program might focus only on properties like color,
model, and speed, ignoring other details like the material of the seats.
3. Layered Design: Abstraction allows for a layered approach in design, where higher levels of abstraction
provide a more general view of the system, and lower levels contain more detailed implementations. This
makes the system easier to understand and manage.
ii) Encapsulation:
1. Bundling Data and Methods: Encapsulation is the practice of combining data (attributes) and the methods
(functions) that operate on that data into a single unit or object. This ensures that an object’s internal state
is protected and can only be modified through its methods.
2. Access Control: It provides control over who can access the data within an object. By using access modifiers
like private, protected, and public, encapsulation restricts direct access to certain parts of the object, which
helps in maintaining the integrity of the data.
3. Improved Maintainability: Encapsulation leads to better maintainability because changes to the internal
implementation of an object do not affect the rest of the system, as long as the interface (methods) remains
consistent.
iii) Sharing:
1. Resource Optimization: Sharing allows multiple objects to use the same resources or data without
duplicating them. This is often achieved through references or pointers, where several objects can point to
the same piece of data in memory. This optimizes memory usage and reduces redundancy.
2. Consistency Across Objects: By sharing data among objects, it ensures consistency. For example, if multiple
objects share the same configuration settings, updating the settings in one place will automatically reflect in
all objects, keeping them synchronized.
3. Collaborative Interaction: Sharing enables objects to collaborate and interact more efficiently, as they can
work with common resources or data. This promotes a cohesive system where different objects can
function together to achieve complex tasks.

3. How you model class & object in UML? [4]

diagrams to represent their structure and interactions. Here’s how you model classes and objects in UML:
1. Modeling Classes
Class Diagram: The primary diagram used to model classes in UML is the class diagram. It shows the structure
of a system by depicting its classes, their attributes, methods, and the relationships among classes.
Components of a Class Diagram:
 Class Representation:
 o Notation: A class is represented by a rectangle divided into three compartments.
 Top Compartment: Class name.
 Middle Compartment: Attributes- Attributes are the properties or characteristics of a class
 Bottom Compartment: Methods- Operations are functions or methods that define the
behavior of a class.
 Relationships:
o Association: Solid line connecting classes, showing relationships.
o Inheritance (Generalization): Hollow arrow pointing to a superclass.
o Aggregation: Solid line with an empty diamond at the whole end.
o Composition: Solid line with a filled diamond at the whole end.
o Dependency: Dashed line with an arrow indicating a dependency.

2. Modeling Objects
Object Diagram: Used to model specific instances of classes and their relationships at a particular point in time.
It shows a snapshot of the objects and their links.
Components of an Object Diagram:
 Object Representation:
o Notation: An object is depicted as a rectangle with the object name followed by the class name.
 Format: objectName : ClassName
 Example: john : Customer
 Attributes:
o Notation: Attributes of an object can be shown inside the object rectangle.
 Format: attributeName = value
 Example: name = "John Doe", customerID = 12345
 Links:
o Notation: Solid lines connecting objects to show their relationships.
o Example: A line connecting john : Customer to order1 : Order if john has placed order1.

4. Define object? Explain components of object diagram in brief? [5]

An object in object-oriented design is like a thing or concept that’s important to a software application. An
object is an element in a program that has a specific identity and meaning. For example, if you're building a
system for managing a library, objects might include "Book," "Author," or "LibraryMember."
Components of an Object Diagram:
An Object Diagram in UML (Unified Modeling Language) is used to represent a snapshot of the instances in a
system and their relationships at a particular point in time. Here are the main components:
1. Objects:
o Definition: Objects are instances of classes shown in the diagram. Each object is depicted with its
name and class, typically written in a format like objectName : ClassName.
o Example: A specific instance of the "Car" class might be represented as myCar : Car.
2. Attributes:
o Definition: Attributes represent the state or properties of an object. They are shown within the
object’s box in the diagram.
o Example: For myCar : Car, attributes might include color = "red", model = "Sedan", and speed = 60.
3. Links:
o Definition: Links represent relationships or associations between objects. They show how objects
are connected or interact with each other.
o Types of links: There are various types of links- Association Link, Aggregation Link, Composition
Link, Dependency Link, Generalization Link, Realization Link.
o Example: If myCar is associated with a Driver object, a link would be drawn connecting myCar to
Driver, indicating some form of relationship, such as ownership or control.
4. Messages (Optional):
 o Definition: Messages represent interactions between objects. They show the communication or
method calls between objects.
o Example: A message might indicate that myCar is sending a request to Driver to startEngine().

5. Explain element of a class diagram with examples. [6]

A class diagram in UML (Unified Modeling Language) is a structural diagram that describes the structure of a
system by showing its classes, attributes, operations, and the relationships among objects. Here’s a breakdown
of the key elements of a class diagram with examples:
1. Class
 Definition: A class represents a blueprint or template for objects. It defines the attributes (properties) and
methods (operations) that objects created from the class will have.
 Notation: Represented as a rectangle divided into three sections: the top section for the class name, the
middle section for attributes, and the bottom section for operations.
2. Attributes
 Definition: Attributes are the properties or characteristics of a class. They define the data that an object of
the class will hold.
 Notation: Listed in the middle section of the class box, typically in the format visibility name: type.

3. Operations (Methods)
 Definition: Operations are functions or methods that define the behavior of a class. They describe what an
object of the class can do.
 Notation: Listed in the bottom section of the class box, typically in the format visibility name(): returnType.
 4. Relationships
 Definition: Relationships depict how classes are connected to each other. Common types of relationships in
class diagrams include associations, inheritance (generalization), aggregation, and composition.
Types of Relationships:
 Association: A basic relationship between two classes.
o Example: A Driver class might have an association with a Car class (A driver "drives" a car).
 Inheritance (Generalization): A relationship where one class (child) inherits attributes and operations from
another class (parent).
o Example: ElectricCar inherits from Car.
 Aggregation: A "whole-part" relationship where the part can exist independently of the whole.
o Example: A Car class might have an aggregation relationship with a Wheel class.
 Composition: A stronger "whole-part" relationship where the part cannot exist independently of the whole.
o Example: A House class might have a composition relationship with a Room class (Rooms cannot
exist without the House).

5. Multiplicity
 Definition: Multiplicity specifies how many instances of one class are associated with one instance of
another class in a relationship.
 Notation: Displayed as numbers near the ends of association lines.

6. Visibility
 Definition: Visibility defines the accessibility of attributes and operations. It is indicated by symbols:
o + Public: Accessible from anywhere.
o - Private: Accessible only within the class.
o # Protected: Accessible within the class and its subclasses.

6. Explain the types of relationship along with their notations. [5] / Explain different Relations in UML[5]

Association

An association represents a bi-directional relationship between two classes. It indicates that instances of one
class are connected to instances of another class. Associations are typically depicted as a solid line connecting
the classes, with optional arrows indicating the direction of the relationship.
Aggregation

Aggregation is a specialized form of association that represents a “whole-part” relationship. It denotes a

relationship where one class (the whole) contains or is composed of another class (the part). Aggregation is
represented by a diamond shape on the side of the whole class. In this kind of relationship, the child class can
exist independently of its parent class.

Composition
Composition is a stronger form of aggregation, indicating a more significant ownership or dependency
relationship. In composition, the part class cannot exist independently of the whole class. Composition is
represented by a filled diamond shape on the side of the whole class.
Generalization(Inheritance)
Inheritance represents an “is-a” relationship between classes, where one class (the subclass or child) inherits
the properties and behaviors of another class (the superclass or parent). Inheritance is depicted by a solid line
with a closed, hollow arrowhead pointing from the subclass to the superclass.

Dependency Relationship
A dependency exists between two classes when one class relies on another, but the relationship is not as
strong as association or inheritance. It represents a more loosely coupled connection between classes.
Dependencies are often depicted as a dashed arrow.
 Realization (Interface Implementation)
Realization indicates that a class implements the features of an interface. It is often used in cases where a class
realizes the operations defined by an interface. Realization is depicted by a dashed line with an open
arrowhead pointing from the implementing class to the interface.

7. Difference between link and association with suitable example. [5]

Aspect Link Association

Definition A link represents a specific An association represents a general

 relationship or connection between relationship between classes, indicating how
two instances (objects) at a particular objects of these classes are related in
point in time. general.

Scope Specific to a particular instance of an Generalizes the relationship between classes,

object and reflects a snapshot of the defining how objects of these classes interact
relationship between instances. or are connected.

Notation Typically shown as a line connecting Represented as a line connecting classes in a

specific objects in an object diagram. class diagram, often annotated with
multiplicity.

Example In an object diagram, a link between In a class diagram, an association between

john : Person and office1 : Office Person and Office indicates that any person
could represent that the specific may work at any office, without specifying
instance john works at office1. which specific instances are involved.

Multiplicity Not usually specified directly for Often specified using multiplicity indicators
links. (e.g., 1..*, 0..1) to show how many instances
of one class can be related to instances of
another class.

Instance vs. Deals with specific instances of Deals with classes themselves and defines
Class classes (i.e., objects). the potential relationships between their
instances.

Temporal Reflects a snapshot of the Describes a persistent relationship between

Aspect relationship between instances at a classes that applies to any instances of those
given time. classes.

Example:
Link:
 Object Diagram: john : Person linked to office1 : Office
o Indicates that john (a specific person) is currently associated with office1 (a specific office).
Association:
 Class Diagram: Association between Person and Office
o Indicates that any Person can be associated with any Office, and the nature of their relationship
(e.g., "works at").

8. What do you mean by Association class? [4]

An Association Class in object-oriented modeling is a special type of class that represents a relationship
between two or more classes and includes its own attributes and methods. It is used when the relationship
itself needs to carry additional information or functionality beyond what is provided by a simple association.
Key Points about Association Class:
1. Combination of Association and Class:
o An association class combines the features of a class and an association. It represents not just the
connection between classes but also encapsulates additional data and behavior that pertain
specifically to the association.
2. Attributes and Methods:
o The association class can have its own attributes and methods, which represent data or behavior
specific to the relationship between the connected classes. This allows the relationship to carry
information and perform operations related to the association itself.
3. Representation:
o In UML (Unified Modeling Language) diagrams, an association class is typically shown as a class
connected to an association with a dashed line. The class is linked to the association line with a
dashed line, indicating that the class is part of the association.
 4. Multiplicity in an association class defines the number of instances of one class that can be associated with
a single instance of another class. It specifies the minimum and maximum number of objects that can
participate in the relationship.

Benefits of Using Association Classes:

 Detailed Relationship: Allows capturing additional details about the relationship that cannot be expressed
with a simple association.
 Encapsulation: Encapsulates relationship-specific data and behavior, which helps in organizing and
managing complex relationships.
 Flexibility: Provides a way to model more complex interactions and relationships in the system design.

9. Draw class diagram for ATM system. [5]*

10. What are different type of analysis classes? Explain with an example. [6]
In object-oriented analysis and design, analysis classes are used to represent the key concepts, entities, or
objects in a system and to facilitate understanding of how these entities interact. Different types of analysis
classes serve various roles in modeling and designing a system. Here are the main types of analysis classes:
1. Entity Classes
 Definition: Represent the core business objects or entities in the system that hold data and encapsulate
significant domain concepts. They typically map to real-world objects or concepts.
 Role: Manage and store the data relevant to the domain.
 Example: In a library management system, an Book class is an entity class. It has attributes like title, author,
ISBN, and publicationYear, and methods to access and modify these attributes.
2. Boundary Classes
 Definition: Represent the interfaces or interactions between the system and its external environment, such
as users or external systems. They are responsible for handling inputs and outputs.
 Role: Act as the interface between the system and external actors (users or other systems).
 Example: In a library management system, a LibraryWebInterface class could be a boundary class. It handles
user interactions, such as receiving book search requests from users and displaying search results.
3. Control Classes
 Definition: Represent the logic that coordinates the flow of data and control between entity classes and
boundary classes. They handle the processing and application logic of the system.
 Role: Manage the control flow of the system, handling use cases or business processes.
 Example: In a library management system, a BookLoanController class could be a control class. It manages
the process of checking out a book, updating the book's status, and recording the transaction in the system.
Example Scenario
Let’s consider an online shopping system to illustrate these types of analysis classes:
1. Entity Class: Product
o Attributes: productID, name, price, description
o Methods: getPrice(), setPrice(price: Double), getDescription()
2. Boundary Class: ShoppingCartUI
o Attributes: None (handles UI interactions)
o Methods: displayProducts(), addProductToCart (productID: String), showCartDetails()
3. Control Class: CartController
o Attributes: cart
o Methods: addProduct(productID: String), removeProduct(productID: String), calculateTotal()
Interaction Example
1. A user interacts with the ShoppingCartUI to add a product to their cart.
2. ShoppingCartUI sends a request to the CartController to add the product.
3. CartController interacts with the Product entity class to get product details and update the cart.
4. CartController calculates the total price and updates the ShoppingCartUI to show the updated cart.
Unit 2:
1. Write a short note on : [5]
i) Package
 Definition: A package is a UML construct that groups related classes, interfaces, and other elements into a
single unit. It helps in organizing and managing complex models by structuring related elements together.
 Purpose: Packages are used to encapsulate and organize model elements, promoting modularity and
reducing complexity in large systems. They help in defining boundaries and managing dependencies
between different parts of the system.
 Notation: In UML diagrams, a package is represented by a rectangle with a small tab or folder icon. It
contains a name and can include other packages or elements. Relationships between packages can be
shown using dependency arrows.

ii) Derived data

 Definition: Derived data refers to attributes or information that are calculated or derived from other data
rather than being directly stored. These attributes are computed based on existing data or other attributes
in the system.
 Purpose: Derived data is used to represent information that is not explicitly stored but can be inferred from
other data. This helps in reducing redundancy and ensures consistency by calculating values dynamically as
needed.
 Notation: In UML class diagrams, derived attributes are typically denoted with a slash (/) before the
attribute name. This notation indicates that the attribute's value is derived from other attributes or
calculations.

iii) Constraints
 Definition: Constraints in UML specify conditions or rules that must be satisfied for the system to be
considered correct. They define limitations or requirements that model elements must adhere to.
 Purpose: Constraints help in ensuring that the model adheres to certain rules or conditions, thereby
improving the accuracy and integrity of the system. They are used to enforce business rules, data integrity,
and other critical requirements.
 Notation: Constraints are usually represented in UML using curly braces {} and can be attached to various
model elements such as classes, attributes, or associations. They may include textual descriptions or
expressions that define the constraint.

2. Explain terms : [5]

i) Aggregation
Definition: Aggregation is a type of association in UML that represents a "whole-part" relationship between
classes. It indicates that one class (the whole) is made up of one or more instances of another class (the
parts), but the parts can exist independently of the whole.
Characteristics:
1. Weak Relationship: Aggregation implies a weaker relationship between the whole and its parts. The
lifecycle of the parts is independent of the lifecycle of the whole. If the whole is destroyed, the parts may
continue to exist.
2. Notation: In UML diagrams, aggregation is depicted by a solid line connecting the whole class to the part
class, with an empty diamond shape at the end of the line near the whole class.

3. Transitivity: If class A aggregates class B, and class B aggregates class C, then class A also indirectly
aggregates class C.
4. Antisymmetric: If class A aggregates class B, then class B does not aggregate class A; the relationship is not
bidirectional.
 5. For example: Here we are considering a car and a wheel example. A car cannot move without a wheel. But
the wheel can be independently used with the bike, scooter, cycle, or any other vehicle. The wheel object
can exist without the car object, which proves to be an aggregation relationship.

ii) Composition
Definition: Composition is a stronger form of aggregation that represents a "whole-part" relationship where
the parts' existence is strictly tied to the whole. If the whole is destroyed, the parts are also destroyed. It
indicates a more rigid lifecycle dependency between the whole and the parts.
Characteristics:
1. Strong Relationship: Composition implies a stronger relationship where the lifecycle of the parts is
dependent on the whole. If the whole object is deleted, the parts are also deleted. This reflects a stronger
ownership.
2. Notation: In UML diagrams, composition is represented by a solid line connecting the whole class to the
part class, with a filled diamond shape at the end of the line near the whole class.
3. Example: the composition association relationship connects the Person class with Brain class, Heart class,
and Legs class. If the person is destroyed, the brain, heart, and legs will also get discarded.

3. What do you mean by Association ends? Explain N-ary association in short. [5]
Association Ends
Definition: Association ends in UML represent the roles played by each class in an association. They specify how
classes are connected and the nature of their relationship in a model. Each end of an association can include
multiplicity, role names, and other details.
Components:
1. Role Name: Indicates the role or function that the class plays in the association. It is often used to clarify
the nature of the relationship from the perspective of each class.
2. Multiplicity: Defines the number of instances of a class that can be associated with instances of another
class. Common multiplicities include 1, 0..1, 1..*, and 0..*.
 3. Navigation: Shows whether the association is bidirectional or unidirectional. It indicates if instances of one
class can access instances of the associated class.
Example:
 In a class diagram with an association between Author and Book, the Author end might have a role name
like "writes" and a multiplicity of 1..*, while the Book end might have a role name like "written by" and a
multiplicity of 1.
N-ary Association
Definition: An N-ary association involves more than two classes and represents a relationship among three or
more classes. It is used to model complex relationships that cannot be adequately captured by binary
associations.
Characteristics:
1. Representation: N-ary associations are depicted as a diamond shape connecting multiple classes. The
diamond includes role names and multiplicities to describe how each class participates in the relationship.
2. Purpose: Useful for capturing complex relationships that involve multiple entities interacting together in a
system, such as transactions involving multiple participants or constraints involving several classes.
3. Example:

4. What is state? Explain with example, transitions and condition. [5]

State
Definition: In UML, a state represents a particular condition or situation of an object during its lifecycle. It
reflects the status of an object at a specific point in time, based on the events it has experienced or the actions
it has performed.
Components of State
1. State: A state is depicted as a rounded rectangle (or state box) in a state diagram. It includes the name of
the state and may contain entry and exit actions.
2. Transitions: Transitions are the movements from one state to another, triggered by events. They are
depicted as arrows connecting state boxes.
3. Conditions: Conditions (or guards) are boolean expressions that must be true for a transition to occur. They
are placed in square brackets next to the transition arrow.
Example
Consider a simple state machine for an Order object in an online shopping system.
1. States:
o Pending: The initial state when an order is placed but not yet processed.
o Shipped: The state when the order has been shipped to the customer.
o Delivered: The final state when the order has been delivered to the customer.
2. Transitions:
o From Pending to Shipped: Triggered by the event shipOrder.
o From Shipped to Delivered: Triggered by the event deliverOrder.
3. Conditions:
 o Pending to Shipped: The transition occurs when the shipOrder event happens and the order's
payment has been confirmed.
o Shipped to Delivered: The transition occurs when the deliverOrder event happens and the delivery
status is marked as complete.

5. Define event and explain in brief different types of events. [5]

Definition: In UML, an event is something that happens which causes a change in the state of an object or
triggers an action. It’s like a signal that tells the system to do something or move from one state to another. It
signifies a significant change or action that affects the system or an object.
Types of Events
1. Signal Event:
o Definition: Represents the receipt of a signal, which is an asynchronous message sent from one
object to another. It triggers a state transition or action in response to the signal.
o Example: A TimeoutSignal might trigger a transition from a Waiting state to a Timeout state in a
system.
2. Call Event:
o Definition: Occurs when an operation or method is called on an object, leading to a transition or
action within that object. It represents a synchronous call to an object’s method.
o Example: Calling the processOrder() method might trigger a transition from a Pending state to a
Processing state in an order management system.
3. Change Event:
o Definition: Occurs when a condition or property of an object changes, which can trigger a transition
if the condition is satisfied.
o Example: If an accountBalance changes to below zero, a LowBalance event might trigger a
transition to an Overdrawn state in a banking application.
4. Time Event:
o Definition: Represents the passage of time. A time event triggers a transition after a specified
duration has elapsed or at a specific time.
o Example: A Timeout event might trigger a transition from an Active state to a Timeout state after 30
minutes have passed in a session timeout scenario.
5. Trigger Event:
o Definition: Represents the occurrence of an event that triggers a state transition, including user
interactions, system messages, or other significant events.
o Example: A user clicking a Submit button might trigger a SubmitEvent that transitions from a
FormFilled state to a FormSubmitted state in a web application.

6. Explain following : [5]

i) Composite state
Definition: A composite state in UML is a state that contains other states, including nested states and
transitions. It allows you to group related states together, providing a way to model complex behaviors
within a single state.
Characteristics:
1. Nested States: A composite state can include multiple nested states, which represent different sub-states or
conditions within the composite state.
2. Hierarchy: It helps in organizing and managing complex state diagrams by breaking them into more
manageable parts. The composite state acts as a container for these nested states.
3. Example:
Scenario: In an online order system, an OrderProcessing composite state might include sub-states like
PaymentProcessing, Packaging, and Shipping. This shows that while an order is being processed, it goes
through several stages.
 ii) Self transition
Definition: A self-transition is when an object transitions from one state to the same state in response to an
event. It represents an internal action or condition that causes the object to stay in its current state but
perform additional processing.
Characteristics:
1. Internal Action: It typically signifies that some internal action or condition causes the object to perform a
specific operation without changing its state.
2. Example:
Scenario: In a Waiting state, an object might receive multiple Timeout events that trigger self-transitions.
Each Timeout event causes the object to perform an action like updating a timer without leaving the
Waiting state.
iii) orthogonal states with respect to state chart diagram.
Definition: Orthogonal states are independent sub-states within a composite state that operate
concurrently. Each orthogonal region represents a separate, concurrent state machine within the composite
state.
Characteristics:
1. Concurrent Behavior: Orthogonal states allow modeling multiple aspects of an object’s behavior that can
occur simultaneously.
2. Independent: Each orthogonal region functions independently of the others. Changes in one region do not
affect the other regions. Example:
3. Scenario: For a MediaPlayer object, you could have orthogonal states for Playback and VolumeControl.
While the media player is playing a video (Playing or Paused in Playback), you can independently adjust the
volume (Muted or VolumeUp in VolumeControl).
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/unified-modeling-language-uml-state-diagrams/

7. Draw state diagram with composite states from ATM card reading & authentication system. [5]*
8. Explain different components of a state diagram. [5]
A state diagram in UML (Unified Modeling Language) is used to represent the dynamic behavior of an object by
showing its states, transitions, and events. Here are the main components of a state diagram:
1. States
Definition: States represent specific conditions or situations of an object during its lifecycle. Each state
describes a particular status the object can be in.
 Notation: Depicted as rounded rectangles (state boxes) with the state name inside.
 Example: For a Process object, states might include Started, Running, and Completed.
Example Representation:

2. Transitions
Definition: Transitions show the movement from one state to another triggered by events. They indicate how
and when an object changes from one state to another.
 Notation: Represented as arrows connecting states. The arrow points from the current state to the next
state.
 Example: A transition from Started to Running might be triggered by an event called startProcess.
Example Representation:
3. Events
Definition: Events are occurrences that trigger transitions between states. They can be signals, method calls,
changes, or time-based occurrences.
 Notation: Typically listed along the transition arrow to indicate what causes the transition.
 Example: The startProcess event triggers the transition from Started to Running.
Example Representation:
+-------------+ [startProcess] +--------------+
| Started | --------------------> | Running |
+-------------+ +--------------+

4. Actions
Definition: Actions are activities that are performed as a result of a transition or during the entry or exit of a
state. They define what happens when the object enters or exits a state.
 Notation: Actions are usually written inside the state box or next to the transition arrow, typically preceded
by keywords like entry/, exit/, or do/.
 Example: In the Running state, an action might be doProcessing(), which occurs continuously while the
object is in that state.
Example Representation:
+---------------------+
| Running |
| doProcessing() |
+---------------------+

5. Initial and Final States

Definition: Initial and final states represent the starting and ending points of the state machine.
 Initial State: Indicates the starting point of the state diagram, usually depicted as a filled circle.
 Final State: Represents the end of the state machine, usually depicted as a filled circle with a concentric
circle around it.
 Example:
(Initial) --> [Started] --> [Running] --> (Final)

One complete example:

9. Explain how you model different events in state diagram. [5]
1. Signal Events
Definition: Signal events are asynchronous messages sent from one object to another. They cause the object to
transition to a new state in response to receiving the signal.
Modeling:
 Notation: Represented by an arrow connecting two states, with the signal name written along the arrow.
 Example: If an object receives a WarningSignal, it might transition from Normal to Warning.
Example Diagram:
+-------------+ WarningSignal +-------------+
| Normal | -----------------------> | Warning |
+-------------+ +-------------+

2. Call Events
Definition: Call events occur when a method or operation is invoked on an object. They are synchronous and
lead to state transitions based on the method call.
Modeling:
 Notation: Represented by an arrow connecting two states, with the method name written along the arrow.
 Example: Calling the processOrder() method might transition from Pending to Processing.
Example Diagram:
+-------------+ processOrder() +-------------+
| Pending | -----------------------> | Processing |
+-------------+ +-------------+

3. Change Events
Definition: Change events are triggered by changes in conditions or properties of an object. These events cause
transitions when specific conditions become true.
Modeling:
 Notation: Represented by an arrow connecting two states, with a condition in square brackets written along
the arrow.
 Example: If an orderAmount exceeds a certain value, it might transition from UnderReview to Approved.
Example Diagram:
+-------------------+ [orderAmount > $100] +------------------+
| UnderReview | ------------------------------------> | Approved |
+-------------------+ +------------------+

4. Time Events
Definition: Time events are triggered by the passage of a certain amount of time. They cause transitions after a
specified duration has elapsed or at a specific time.
Modeling:
 Notation: Represented by an arrow connecting two states, with a time duration or time trigger written
along the arrow.
 Example: A timeout event might transition from Active to TimedOut after 30 minutes.
Example Diagram:
+-------------+ [after 30 minutes] +--------------+
| Active | -----------------------------> | TimedOut |
+-------------+ +--------------+

5. Trigger Events
Definition: Trigger events are general events that cause state transitions. They can include user interactions,
system notifications, or other significant occurrences.
Modeling:
 Notation: Represented by an arrow connecting two states, with the trigger event written along the arrow.
 Example: A user clicking a Submit button might transition from FormFilled to FormSubmitted.
Example Diagram:
+----------------+ SubmitButtonClick +--------------------+
| FormFilled | -------------------------> | FormSubmitted |
+----------------+ +--------------------+