Roads Department

Standard Survey Methods

for Roads and Bridges

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 Roads Department

Ministry of Transport & Communications,

Roads Department
Private Bag 0026
Gaborone, Botswana
Phone + 267-3913511
Fax + 267-3191711

Printed by Government Printing and Publishing Services, Gaborone

MAY 2014
ISBN 978 – 99968 – 427 – 0 - 2

Reproduction of extracts from this Manual may be made subject to due acknowledgement
of the source. Although this guideline is believed to be correct at the time of printing, Roads
Department does not accept any contractual, tortious or other form of liability for its contents
or for any consequences arising from its use. Anyone using the information contained
in the Guideline should apply their own skill and judgment to the particular issue under
consideration.

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 Roads Department

FOREWORD
The Roads Department is currently striving to increase the efficiency and effectiveness
with which the construction and maintenance of the road network are carried out. This is
motivated by the recognition that the country’s Public Highway Network of over 18,300 km
constitutes one of the largest assets owned by the Government (estimated value in 2013 of 25
billion Pula), and that a less-than-optional system for the management and maintenance of
the asset, results in huge losses for the national economy. This occurs not only in the form
of road deterioration and substantial reductions in road asset value but, even more so, in the
form of increased vehicle operation costs which have to be borne by road users and which
reduce the competitiveness of the country in an increasingly global economy.

In exercising its vision “to have world class roads leading to prosperity”, its mission “the Roads
Department exists to enable provision of safe, reliable and cost effective road infrastructure in
an environmentally sustainable manner” and its values “botho, transparency, accountability
and integrity”, the Roads Department has directed the development of a series of Technical
Guidelines and the Roads Maintenance Manual. The Standard Survey Methods guidelines are
derived from published literature and experience obtained from professionals in the field of
Survey, as well as End-user expectations and requirements.

The Standard Survey Methods guideline is deemed to serve as a standard reference and source
of good practice for road construction and maintenance by both the public and private sector
practitioners.

The purpose of the Standard Survey Methods for Roads and Bridges document is to serve as
a nationally recognized guideline to be used by practicing Surveyors in Botswana covering
all survey applications and methods for road and bridge design and construction. The Land
Survey Act of Botswana must be used as a guideline and approval must be sought from the
Department of Surveys and Mapping when cadastral surveys are incorporated with road
surveys.The document is designed to assist the road surveyor working in Botswana. It does
not replace the relevant text books, nor is it a substitute for sound surveying knowledge,
experience and judgement. Standards are indicated which should be adhered to under normal
conditions. Abnormal conditions should be given special consideration in consultation with
the Director of Roads.

This Document is approved by the Ministry of Transport and Communications, Roads

Department.

Before using this document, confirmation should be obtained from the Director of the Roads
Department that this document is the latest issue available.

Mr. P. Mphathiwa
Acting Director of Roads
Roads Department
Ministry of Transport and Communication

Gaborone, May 2014

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 Roads Department

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This Manual is one of a series under the Institutional Co-operation Agreement between the
Roads Department and the Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA).

Roads Department gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions made by the Working
Group that guided the project and reviewed the manual at a number of stages as well as the
Project Team that was responsible for writing the Manual.

Working Group
C. Overby, NPRA – BRDM Coordinator, Chairman
S. Tlhabiwe, Roads Department, Volume 1 coordinator
N.N. Naidu, Roads Department
K. Kotokwe, Roads Department
A. Dennison, Roads Department
A. Nkaro, Roughton International, Botswana
T. Moeti, Bothakga Burrow, Botswana

Department of Surveys and Mapping

B.C. Malatsi (Director of Surveys and Mapping) and staff of the Department.

Lead Consultant: in association with

Aurecon Botswana Infra Africa (Pty) Ltd ACE Gibb
S. A. Kleynhans, Project Manager M. I. Pinard – Team Leader J. Louw
W. M. Akhosi
S. A. Mosielele
K. L. Mothibi
D. Rebaalotse
M. T. Moapare

Sub-consultant (Project Team)

F.J. Loock Land Surveyors, F. J. Loock
F.J. Loock Land Surveyors, L. Coetzee

Independent Consultant
Haas Consult Botswana

Photographs
C. Overby, NPRA
E. Kandodo, Aurecon Botswana

Layout
Edvardsen Design&Foto, Norway

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 Roads Department

ABBREVIATIONS
The following contains the abbreviations used throughout the document.
ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange
AUX – Temporary survey station – Tachy Surveys
BC – Beginning of Curve
BCC – Beginning of Circular Curve
BP – Borrow Pit
BM - Bench mark
BTC – Beginning of Transition Curve
C – Channel
CAD – Computer Aided Draughting
CCD – Charge-Coupled Device
CL – Centre Line of Staking
CLR – Centre Line of Existing Road
CP – Control Points
CS – Centre of Stream
DEM – Digital Elevation Model
DHM – Digital Height Model
DSM – Department of Surveys and Mapping
DTM – Digital Terrain Model
DVD – Digital Versatile/Video Disc
E.g. – Example
EC – End of Curve
EGS – Edge Gravel Shoulder of Existing Road
ET – Edge Tar of Existing Road
Etc – Etcetera
ETC – End of Transition Curve
ETS – Edge Tar Shoulder of Existing Road
EW – Edge of Water
F – Fence
FB – Foot of Bank (natural feature, river, donga, etc)
FC – Foot (toe) of Cut of Existing Road
FF – Foot (toe) of Fill of Existing Road
G – Gutter
GIS – Geographic Information System
GNSS – Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS – Global Positioning System
GR – Guardrail
GSD – Ground Sample Distance
HP – Horizontally fixed Photo Control Point
ID – Identify
ISO – International Organization for Standardization
JPEG – Joint Photographic Experts Group
K – Kerb
Kg – Kilogram

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 Roads Department

km – Kilometre
l – Litre
LER – Left Edge of Existing Road
LIDAR – Light Detection and Ranging
LO – Longitude Origin
LPC – Level Photo Control
LR – Left Reference Peg
mm – Millimetre
MPa – Mega Pascal
MSL – Mean Sea Level
NGBM – National Geodetic Benchmark
PC – Photo Control
PL – Power Line
ppm – Parts per Million
RER – Right Edge of Existing Road
RO – Reference Objects
RR – Right Reference Peg
SSRBW – Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works
SV – Stake Value
TB – Top of Bank (natural feature, river, donga, etc)
TC – Top of Cut of Existing Road
TDI – Time Delayed Integration
TF – Top of Fill of Existing Road
TiFF – Tagged Image File Format
TL – Telecommunication Line
USB – Universal Serial Bus
WGS 84 – World Geodetic System of 1984
wrt – With regards to

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 Roads Department

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD........................................................................................................................ iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT........................................................................................................ iv

ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................................................. v

TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................ vii

1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................... 1-3
1.1 Purpose and Scope....................................................................................... 1-3
1.2 Structure of the Chapters............................................................................. 1-3
1.3 Survey Methods and Uses............................................................................. 1-5
1.4 Order of Precedence..................................................................................... 1-5
1.5 General Notes.............................................................................................. 1-5
1.5.1 Entry into Private Property................................................................. 1-5
1.5.2 Destruction of Property...................................................................... 1-6
1.5.3 Traffic Control.................................................................................... 1-6
1.5.4 Survey Pegs....................................................................................... 1-6
1.5.5 Stake Value........................................................................................ 1-7
1.5.6 Field books........................................................................................ 1-7
1.5.7 Monthly Report.................................................................................. 1-7
1.5.8 Technical Report................................................................................ 1-7
1.5.9 Delivery Note..................................................................................... 1-7
1.5.10 Indemnity.......................................................................................... 1-7

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY......................................2-2

2.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 2-2
2.2 Units of Measurement.................................................................................. 2-2
2.3 Horizontal Control National Triangulation System........................................ 2-2
2.4 Horizontal Standards of Accuracy................................................................. 2-2
2.4.1 Triangulation - Permanent Survey Stations Allowable Error................. 2-2
2.4.2 Traverse and Polars-Permanent Survey Stations Allowable Error......... 2-2
2.4.3 GPS Survey - Permanent Survey Stations Allowable Error.................... 2-2
2.4.4 Vertical Control – Permanent Survey Stations...................................... 2-2
2.5 Vertical Standards of Accuracy for Permanent Survey Stations....................... 2-3
2.6 Detail Accuracy............................................................................................ 2-3
2.7 Contour Accuracy........................................................................................ 2-3
2.8 Spot Height Accuracy................................................................................... 2-3
2.9 Instrument Accuracy.................................................................................... 2-3
2.10 Digital Terrain Model (DTM) Accuracy..........................................................2-4
2.11 GPS Accuracy...............................................................................................2-4
2.11.1 Use of GPS for Road Surveys...............................................................2-4
2.12 LIDAR Accuracy........................................................................................... 2-5
2.13 Photo Ground Control Accuracy................................................................... 2-5
2.14 Staking Accuracy.......................................................................................... 2-5
2.14.1 Key Points.......................................................................................... 2-5
2.14.2 Intermediate Points............................................................................ 2-5
2.14.3 Curves...............................................................................................2-6
2.14.4 Heights..............................................................................................2-6

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3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL...............................................................3-2

3.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 3-2
3.2 Permanent Survey Stations and Ground Control............................................ 3-2
3.2.1 Permanent Survey Stations: Spacing, Sitting,
Numbering and Intervisibility.................................................................... 3-2
3.3 Construction of Permanent Survey Beacons.................................................. 3-2
3.3.1 Concrete Beacons............................................................................... 3-3
3.3.2 Pillar Beacons.................................................................................... 3-3
3.4 Horizontal Fixing of Permanent Survey Beacons........................................... 3-3
3.4.1 Traversing Method.............................................................................3-4
3.4.2 Triangulation Method........................................................................3-4
3.4.3 Global Positioning System Method......................................................3-4
3.4.4 Triangulation and Traverse Calculations............................................. 3-5
3.5 Vertical Fixing of Permanent Survey Beacons................................................ 3-5
3.5.1 Levelling............................................................................................ 3-5
3.5.2 Trigonometrical Height Traversing.....................................................3-6
3.5.3 GPS Heighting....................................................................................3-6
3.5.4 Elevations: Reduction and Calculation................................................3-6
3.6 Photo Ground Control..................................................................................3-6
3.6.1 Vertical Photo Control........................................................................3-6
3.6.2 Horizontal Photo Control Point........................................................... 3-7
3.6.3 Selection of PC Points on Existing Photography...................................3-8
3.6.4 Marking of Identified Ground Control.................................................3-8
3.6.5 Field Sketch.......................................................................................3-8
3.6.6 Marking of the Photograph.................................................................3-8
3.7 Premarking..................................................................................................3-8
3.8 Aerial Triangulation for Large Scale Mapping................................................3-9
3.8.1 Planimetric Photo Control by Aerial Triangulation...............................3-9
3.8.2 Planimetric and Height Photo Control by Aerial Triangulation.............3-9
3.8.3 Planning Photo Ground Control for Aerial Triangulation.................... 3-10
3.8.4 Photography for Aerial Triangulation................................................ 3-10
3.8.5 GPS Supported Aerial Triangulation.................................................. 3-10

4 SURVEY RECORDS................................................................................................. 4-2

4.1 Introduction................................................................................................4-2
4.2 General Requirements..................................................................................4-2
4.3 General Field Books.....................................................................................4-3
4.3.1 Types of Field Books..........................................................................4-3
4.3.2 Entries in Conventional Field Books....................................................4-3
4.3.3 Referencing.......................................................................................4-3
4.4 General and Cross-Referencing Calculations................................................ 4-4
4.5 Working Plan.............................................................................................. 4-4
4.6 Level Diagram............................................................................................. 4-4
4.7 Cadastral Key Plan.......................................................................................4-5
4.8 Co-ordinate List...........................................................................................4-5
4.9 Cadastral Data..............................................................................................4-5
4.10 Photogrammetric Setting Sheets...................................................................4-5
4.11 Records to be Submitted on Completion.......................................................4-5

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4.11.1 Photographic.....................................................................................4-5
4.11.2 Basic Survey......................................................................................4-5
4.11.3 Photo Control.....................................................................................4-6
4.11.4 Plotting Data......................................................................................4-6
4.11.5 Cadastral Data....................................................................................4-6
4.11.6 Electronic Data...................................................................................4-6
4.11.7 Technical Report................................................................................4-6
4.11.8 Delivery Note.....................................................................................4-6
4.11.9 Records to be Submitted to Department of Surveys and Mapping.........4-6

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY.........................................................................................5-2
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 5-2
5.2 Project Requirements................................................................................... 5-2
5.3 Purpose of Aerial Photography..................................................................... 5-2
5.4 Digital Aerial Survey Cameras....................................................................... 5-2
5.5 Operational Requirements............................................................................ 5-3
5.5.1 Area to be Photographed.................................................................... 5-3
5.5.2 Flight Lines........................................................................................ 5-3
5.5.3 Flight Overlap.................................................................................... 5-3
5.5.4 Flight Altitude.................................................................................... 5-3
5.5.5 Photographic Conditions.................................................................... 5-3
5.5.6 Solar Altitude..................................................................................... 5-3
5.5.7 Crab................................................................................................... 5-3
5.5.8 Tilt....................................................................................................5-4
5.5.9 Course Corrections.............................................................................5-4
5.5.10 Photographic Quality.........................................................................5-4
5.5.11 Digital Photography Information........................................................5-4.
5.6 Flight Plan...................................................................................................5-4
5.7 Photographic Records.................................................................................. 5-5
5.8 Aerial Triangulation..................................................................................... 5-5
5.9 GPS Supported Aerial Triangulation.............................................................. 5-5
5.10 Digital Scanning of Analogue Aerial Photographs.......................................... 5-5
5.10.1 Digital Scanning Process..................................................................... 5-5

6 SATELLITE IMAGES............................................................................................... 6-2

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 6-2
6.2 Purpose of the Images.................................................................................. 6-2
6.3 Benefits of Satellite Imagery......................................................................... 6-2
6.4 Uses .......................................................................................................... 6-2
6.5 Accuracy...................................................................................................... 6-2

7 CADASTRAL DATA..................................................................................................7-2
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 7-2
7.2 Purpose of Cadastral Data............................................................................. 7-2
7.3 Copies of Diagrams....................................................................................... 7-2
7.4 Cadastral Calculations.................................................................................. 7-2
7.5 Cadastral Plotting......................................................................................... 7-2

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7.6 Cadastral Draughting Requirements............................................................. 7-3

7.6.1 Pen and Letter Sizes........................................................................... 7-3
7.7 Cadastral Key Plan....................................................................................... 7-3
7.8 Filing .......................................................................................................... 7-3
7.8.1 Cadastral Records............................................................................... 7-3
7.9 Standard Accuracy: Cadastral Plotting..........................................................7-4

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS................................................. 8-2

8.1 Introduction................................................................................................8-2
8.2 Purpose of the Survey..................................................................................8-2
8.3 Phases of the Survey....................................................................................8-2
8.4 Scale and Units............................................................................................8-2
8.5 Photography................................................................................................8-2
8.6 Flight Plan and Sheet Layout........................................................................8-3
8.7 Photo Control..............................................................................................8-3
8.8 Aerial Triangulation.................................................................................... 8-4
8.9 Plotting....................................................................................................... 8-4
8.9.1 Plan Details........................................................................................8-5
8.10 Standards of Accuracy..................................................................................8-5
8.10.1 Photo Ground Control Points (PC’s).....................................................8-5
8.10.2 Planimetric........................................................................................8-5
8.10.3 Contours............................................................................................8-5
8.10.4 Spot Heights......................................................................................8-5
8.10.5 Co-Ordinate Grid................................................................................8-5
8.10.6 Co-Ordinate Points.............................................................................8-5
8.10.7 Cadastral Plotting...............................................................................8-6
8.11 Methods of Testing and Inspection...............................................................8-6
8.11.1 Photography......................................................................................8-6
8.11.2 Photo Control.....................................................................................8-6
8.11.3 Planimetry.........................................................................................8-6
8.11.4 Contours............................................................................................8-6
8.12 Records.......................................................................................................8-6

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS..................................................... 9-2

9.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 9-2
9.2 Purpose of the Survey.................................................................................. 9-2
9.3 Phases of the Survey.................................................................................... 9-2
9.4 Scale and Units............................................................................................ 9-3
9.5 Plotting........................................................................................................ 9-3
9.6 Details to be Surveyed................................................................................. 9-4
9.7 Standards of Accuracy..................................................................................9-6
9.7.1 General..............................................................................................9-6
9.8 Methods of Testing and Inspection...............................................................9-6
9.8.1 Photography......................................................................................9-6
9.8.2 Basic Survey and Photo Ground Control..............................................9-6
9.8.3 Planimetry.........................................................................................9-6

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9.8.4 Contours............................................................................................9-6
9.8.5 Completeness of Detail.......................................................................9-6.
9.8.6 General..............................................................................................9-6
9.9 Records.......................................................................................................9-6

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS............................. 10-2

10.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 10-2
10.2 Purpose of the Survey................................................................................ 10-2
10.3 Phases of the Survey.................................................................................. 10-2
10.4 Scale and Units.......................................................................................... 10-2
10.5 Plotting...................................................................................................... 10-3
10.6 Details to be Surveyed................................................................................ 10-4
10.7 Standards of Accuracy................................................................................ 10-6
10.8 Methods of Testing and Inspection............................................................. 10-6
10.9 Records..................................................................................................... 10-6

11ORTHOPHOTO MAPS.............................................................................................11-2
11.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 11-2
11.2 Purpose of Survey....................................................................................... 11-2
11.3 Phases of Survey......................................................................................... 11-2
11.4 Scales and Units.......................................................................................... 11-2
11.5 Orthophoto Process..................................................................................... 11-2
11.6 Final Orthophoto Map................................................................................. 11-3
11.6.1 Requirements for Grid Lines.............................................................. 11-3
11.6.2 Features to be Annotated...................................................................11-4
11.7 Standards of Accuracy.................................................................................11-4
11.8 Methods of Testing and Inspection..............................................................11-4
11.9 Records......................................................................................................11-4

12LIDAR SURVEYS.................................................................................................... 12-2

12.1 Introduction...............................................................................................12-2
12.2 Purpose of Survey.......................................................................................12-2
12.3 Phases of the Survey...................................................................................12-2
12.4 Scales and Units..........................................................................................12-2
12.5 Specifications.............................................................................................12-2
12.5.1 LIDAR Specifications.........................................................................12-2
12.5.2 Imagery Specifications......................................................................12-3
12.6 Standards of Accuracy.................................................................................12-3
12.7 Methods of Testing and Inspection..............................................................12-3
12.8 Records..................................................................................................... 12-4

13DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS......................................................... 13-2

13.1 Introduction...............................................................................................13-2
13.2 General.......................................................................................................13-2
13.3 Preparations of Sheets.................................................................................13-2
13.4 Layout of Sheets and Approval....................................................................13-2
13.4.1 Computer Aided Draughting Information...........................................13-3

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13.5 Co-Ordinate Grids and Grid Values...............................................................13-3

13.5.1 Grid Intervals....................................................................................13-3
13.6 Draughting..................................................................................................13-3
13.7 Spot Heights...............................................................................................13-3
13.8 Contours.....................................................................................................13-3
13.9 Control Points............................................................................................ 13-4
13.9.1 Ground Control................................................................................ 13-4
13.9.2 Photogrammetric Control................................................................. 13-4
13.10 Topographical Plan Details......................................................................... 13-4
13.10.1 Size of Symbols, Stencils and Line Thickness.................................... 13-4
13.10.2 Detail to be shown............................................................................13-5
13.10.3 Ink...................................................................................................13-5
13.10.4 Symbols...........................................................................................13-5
13.11 Utilities.......................................................................................................13-5
13.11.1 Roads...............................................................................................13-5
13.11.2 Culverts...........................................................................................13-5
13.11.3 Topography: Cut and Fills................................................................ 13-6
13.11.4 Railways......................................................................................... 13-6
13.11.5 Fibre Optical and Power Lines.......................................................... 13-6
13.11.6 Water and Sewer............................................................................. 13-6
13.12 Contours, Erosion, Etc................................................................................ 13-6
13.12.1 Contours......................................................................................... 13-6
13.12.2 Erosion............................................................................................13-7
13.13 Buildings, Trees and Special Features..........................................................13-7
13.13.1 Buildings.........................................................................................13-7
13.13.2 Trees................................................................................................13-7
13.13.3 Special Features...............................................................................13-7
13.14 Road Furniture............................................................................................13-7
13.15 Vegetation..................................................................................................13-7
13.15.1 Cultivation.......................................................................................13-7
13.15.2 Orchards, Vineyards and Hedges.......................................................13-7
13.15.3 Trees................................................................................................13-7
13.16 Cadastral....................................................................................................13-7
13.17 Title Block, North Direction and Sheet Index............................................... 13-8
13.17.1 Title Block....................................................................................... 13-8
13.17.2 North Direction............................................................................... 13-8
13.17.3 Sheet Index..................................................................................... 13-8
13.18 Office Check............................................................................................... 13-8
13.19 Draughting Symbols................................................................................... 13-8

14 STAKING............................................................................................................... 14-1
14.1 Introduction...............................................................................................14-1
14.2 Purpose of the Survey.................................................................................14-1
14.3 Phases of the Survey...................................................................................14-1
14.4 General Requirements.................................................................................14-1

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14.4.1 Staking Interval.................................................................................14-1

14.4.2 Stake Value...................................................................................... 14-2
14.4.3 Horizontal Alignment Pre-Calculation.............................................. 14-2
14.5 Basic Survey.............................................................................................. 14-2
14.6 Staking...................................................................................................... 14-2
14.6.1 Alignment Key and Intermediate Points............................................ 14-2
14.6.2 Heighting of Key and Intermediate Points......................................... 14-3
14.7 Sectioning.................................................................................................. 14-3
14.7.1 Cross Sections.................................................................................. 14-3
14.7.2 Longitudinal Sections....................................................................... 14-3
14.7.3 Measurement Requirements for Longitudinal and Cross Sections...... 14-3
14.7.4 Omissions from Plans....................................................................... 14-4
14.8 Offset Staking............................................................................................ 14-4
14.9 Staking with Referencing............................................................................ 14-4
14.9.1 Reference Pegs................................................................................. 14-4
14.9.2 Horizontal Accuracy......................................................................... 14-4
14.10 Numbering and Lettering........................................................................... 14-4
14.11 Standards of Accuracy................................................................................ 14-5
14.11.1 Horizontal Standard of Accuracy...................................................... 14-5
14.11.2 Vertical Standard of Accuracy of Levelling........................................ 14-5
14.12 Plotting Of Sections.................................................................................... 14-5
14.12.1 Plotting of Longitudinal Section (If Required)................................... 14-5
14.12.2 Plotting of Cross Sections................................................................ 14-6
14.13 Placing of Road Reserve Boundary Beacons................................................ 14-7
14.14 Records to be Submitted............................................................................. 14-7

15DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)......................................... 15-1

15.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 15-1
15.2 Purpose of the Survey................................................................................. 15-1
15.3 Phases of the Survey...................................................................................15-3
15.4 General Requirements................................................................................ 15-4
15.5 Permanent Survey Beacons........................................................................ 15-4
15.5.1 Placing of Permanent Survey Beacons............................................... 15-4
15.5.2 Construction of Permanent Survey Beacons...................................... 15-4
15.5.3 Horizontal Fixing............................................................................. 15-4
15.5.4 Vertical Fixing.................................................................................. 15-4
15.6 Detail Survey..............................................................................................15-5
15.6.1 Details to be Surveyed.......................................................................15-5
15.6.2 Digital Terrain Model (DTM) Tolerances.............................................15-5
15.7 Checking of Cross Sections......................................................................... 15-6
15.8 Records to be Submitted............................................................................. 15-6

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS......................................................................................... 16-2

16.1 Purpose of the Survey.................................................................................16-2
16.2 Phases of the Survey...................................................................................16-2
16.3 General Requirements.................................................................................16-2

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16.3.1 Permanent Survey Stations and Reference Pegs..................................16-2

16.3.2 Horizontal Control and Vertical Datum...............................................16-3
16.4 General Details to be Surveyed................................................................... 16-4
16.5 Details to be surveyed for Railway Crossings............................................... 16-5
16.6 Detail Requirements for Different Bridge Surveys........................................ 16-6
16.6.1 Grade Separated Road Crossings and Footbridges.............................. 16-6
16.6.2 River Crossings................................................................................ 16-8
16.6.3 Railway Crossings............................................................................ 16-9
16.6.4 Widening of Existing Structures....................................................... 16-11
16.7 Standards of Accuracy............................................................................... 16-12
16.7.1 Staking........................................................................................... 16-12
16.7.2 Levelling......................................................................................... 16-13
16.7.3 Permanent Survey Stations.............................................................. 16-13
16.7.4 Spot-Height and Contours............................................................... 16-13

17BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS........................................................... 17-2

17.1 Introduction...............................................................................................17-2
17.2 Phases of the Survey...................................................................................17-2
17.3 Field Survey................................................................................................17-2
17.3.1 Surveys where Blasting is to Take Place..............................................17-2
17.3.2 Surveys where No Blasting is to Take Place........................................17-3
17.3.3 Detail to be Surveyed........................................................................17-3
17.3.4 Boundary Surveys.............................................................................17-3
17.3.5 Co-ordinates.....................................................................................17-3
7.4 Cadastral....................................................................................................17-3
17.5 Draughting Requirements...........................................................................17-3
17.6 Survey Records.......................................................................................... 17-4
17.7 Standards of Accuracy................................................................................ 17-4

18SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES...... 18-2

18.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 18-2
18.2 Phases of the Survey.................................................................................. 18-2
18.3 Responsibilities of the Supervisory Surveyor.............................................. 18-3
18.4 Supervision Survey Standards.................................................................... 18-3
18.4.1 Construction Beacon Survey............................................................. 18-4
18.4.2 Protection of Beacons....................................................................... 18-4
18.4.3 Ground Line Survey (Reference Plane).............................................. 18-4
18.4.4 Preparation of a Design Datum Model............................................... 18-4
18.4.5 Taking of Levels............................................................................... 18-5
18.4.6 Field Spirit-Level Method................................................................. 18-5
18.4.7 Field Digital Terrain Model (DTM) Method........................................ 18-5
18.4.8 Submission of Measurements........................................................... 18-5
18.4.9 As Built Data.................................................................................... 18-5
18.4.10 Completion Surveys....................................................................... 18-5
18.5 Standards of Accuracy................................................................................ 18-6
18.6 Records..................................................................................................... 18-6

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 Roads Department

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS.............................................................. 19-2

19.1 Introduction...............................................................................................19-2
19.2 The Purpose of the Survey...........................................................................19-2
19.3 Phases of the Survey...................................................................................19-2
19.4 Scales and Units..........................................................................................19-2
19.5 Specifications.............................................................................................19-3
19.6 Imagery Specifications................................................................................19-3
19.7 Standards of Accuracy.................................................................................19-3
19.8 Methods of Testing and Inspection..............................................................19-3
19.9 Records......................................................................................................19-3

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................

APPENDICES ...............................................................................................................1

GLOSSARY OF TERMS.........................................................................................................47

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 1: Examples of Properties that may be Damaged while Surveying............ 1-6
Figure 2 1: Three Dimensional Transformation....................................................2-4
Figure 3 1: Aerial Observation of Premark Not Obscured by Tall Features..............3-9
Figure 6 1: Satellite Image................................................................................... 6-3
Figure 14 1: Photo of an Erosion and an example of Descriptors
(Point Annotation)........................................................................... 14-8
Figure 15 1: Example of a Digital Terrain Model....................................................15-2
Figure 15 2: Phases of the Survey.........................................................................15-3
Figure 16 1: Different Phases of the Survey...........................................................16-2
Figure 17 1: Phases of the Survey.........................................................................17-2
Figure 18 1: Separate Phases of the Survey.......................................................... 18-2
Figure 19 1: Example of Full Ground Control Points..............................................19-2

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 1: Survey Methods and Uses................................................................... 1-5
Table 2 1: Levels of Accuracy for Road Surveys................................................... 2-5
Table 4 1: Numbering of Calculation Pages.........................................................4-2
Table 5 1: Accuracy Guideline............................................................................5-6
Table 13 1: Grid Intervals for the Various Mapping Scales.................................... 13-6
Table 14 1: Descriptors used to describe features................................................ 14-7
Table 15 1: Digital Terrain Model Tolerances.......................................................15-5
Table 16 1: Details to be Surveyed...................................................................... 16-4
Table 16 2: Details to be Surveyed for Railway Crossings..................................... 16-6

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Guideline Framework for Technical Reports......................................... A
Appendix B: Accuracy of Fieldwork......................................................................... B
Appendix C: Digital Photography Information.......................................................... C
Appendix D: Co-Ordinate List.................................................................................. D
Appendix E: Field Book and Calculation Reference...................................................E

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 Roads Department

Appendix F: Standard Sheet Sizes.............................................................................F

Appendix G: Premarks............................................................................................. G
Appendix H: Angle of Skew..................................................................................... H
Appendix I: Pillar Beacon......................................................................................... I
Appendix J: Concrete Beacon................................................................................... J
Appendix K: Level Requirements on Power Lines..................................................... K
Appendix L: Level Diagram......................................................................................L
Appendix M: Working Plan......................................................................................M
Appendix N: Cadastral Key Plan............................................................................... N
Appendix O: Flight Plan.......................................................................................... O
Appendix P: Definitions............................................................................................P
Appendix Q: Draughting Symbols............................................................................ Q

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 Roads Department

LAYOUT OF THE MANUAL

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 INTRODUCTION Chapter 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose and Scope
The purpose of this document is to establish a uniform Standard of Survey Methods for Roads
and Bridges in order to control reporting accuracy for maps and spatial data of geographic and
geoscientific application. This document is written for the practising Surveyor and describes
recommended practise concerning surveys related to road- and bridge design and construction
in Botswana.

1.2 Structure of the Chapters

The Standard is divided into the following main chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction. This chapter defines the purpose, application, guidance and structure
of this standard. It also introduces the survey methods and its uses for a variety of applications.
A list of abbreviations, definitions and applicable documents are included in this chapter.
Chapter 2: Survey Regulations and Standards of Accuracy. This chapter covers the survey
regulations and standards of accuracy pertaining to road surveys.
Chapter 3: Survey and Photo Ground Control. This chapter covers ground control requirements
for photogrammetric mapping projects. The fundamental requirements for control network
configuration, point location, and image characteristics are discussed.
Chapter 4: Survey Records. This chapter details the documentation requirements necessary
to conduct an effective survey. Survey Records permits anyone to retrieve surveys and locate
the holders of surveys not available digitally.
Chapter 5: Aerial Photography. This chapter covers technical requirements, standards of
equipment, execution and recommended procedures for aerial photography as used for the
photogrammetric compilation of topographical maps and for natural features evaluation.
Chapter 6: Satellite Images. This chapter covers the benefits and uses of satellite imagery.
Chapter 7: Cadastral Data. This chapter covers the collection of all data defining the cadastral
boundaries of properties in respect of which deeds of tenure are registered in Deeds Registries.
Chapter 8: Small Scale (1V:5000H – 1V:10000H) Surveys. This chapter specifies the small
scale surveys (1V:5000H to 1V:10000H) to provide a global presentation of a large area for the
purpose of route comparisons and planning.
Chapter 9: Large Scale (1V:500H – 1V:2000H) Photogrammetric Surveys. This chapter specifies
large scale (1V:500H to 1V:2000H) photogrammetric surveys to provide a more detailed plan
which covers a smaller area than a small scale photogrammetric survey.
Chapter 10: Large Scale (1V:500H – 1V:2000H) Photogrammetric Completion Surveys.
The purpose of this survey shall be to provide accurate plans and digital data of completed
roads, showing all details of construction and to provide a backbone of permanently marked,
accurately fixed survey beacons for future use.
Chapter 11: Orthophoto Maps in scale to 1V:5000H – 1V:10000H. The purpose of this survey shall
be to provide accurate small and large scales orthophoto maps for design and planning purposes.
Chapter 12: LIDAR Surveys. LIDAR is an acronym for Light Detection and Ranging, commonly
called Airborne Laser Terrain Mapping. The LIDAR survey provides low-altitude, high speed
laser scanning up to 81 square kilometres per day. There are no operating constraints, such as:
vegetation cover, traffic, usage, or time of day.
Chapter 13: : Draughting of Topographical Plans. This chapter provides specifications and
standards to be able to draught topographic maps. Traditional definitions require a topographic
map to show both natural and man-made features. A topographic map is typically published
as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map.

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 14: Staking. The purpose of this survey shall be to establish survey points, both
temporary and permanent on pre-calculated positions in the field, and to obtain sufficient
field data for the complete geometric design before construction.
Chapter 15: Digital Mapping and Terrain Modelling (DTM). The purpose of this survey is to
represent the original ground line as accurately as possible and to produce a comprehensive
topographical strip survey from which an accurate horizontal and vertical alignment can be
derived for design purposes. This will obviate the necessity for staking, referencing and cross
sectioning along the proposed alignment during the design stages. The setting out will only
take place immediately before construction. Furthermore, the Digital Terrain Model (DTM)
will also be used to accurately quantify volumes during construction.
Chapter 16: Bridge Site Surveys. The purpose of the survey is to provide plans showing
contours and other topographical details of the site as well as relevant longitudinal and cross
section pertaining to roads or waterways etc. for the design and accurate sighting of the
proposed structures, and to establish accurately fixed permanent survey stations for future
setting out of the structure, control of construction and subsequent monitoring.
Chapter 17: Borrow Pit and Quarry Site Surveys. The purpose of the survey is to produce plans
for borrow pit and quarry sites as required by the Inspector of the mines.
Chapter 18: Supervision Surveys for the Construction of Roads and Bridges. The purpose of
this survey shall be to provide adequate surveyed information to ensure that the road and
bridge works, are constructed within the tolerances of the design. The survey system shall
provide a management tool to the engineer for the evaluation of material quantities, claims
from the contractor, preparation of payment certificates, on site designs checking, setting out
works, comparison of quantities for quick and effective decision making by the engineer.
Chapter 19: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. This chapter covers technical requirements, standards
of equipment, execution and recommended procedures for aerial photography carried out
using unmanned aerial vehicles as used for the photogrammetric compilation of topographical
maps and for natural features evaluation.

1.3 Survey Methods and Uses

The different Survey methods and uses pertaining to Roads and Bridges are described in this
document and is summarised in Table 1 1:Survey Methods and Uses.

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 INTRODUCTION Chapter 1
Table 1-1: Survey Methods and Uses
Methods Uses Details
Conventional Road Surfaces Although conventional methods are
Methods i.e. permitted, more productive methods do
Total Stations, Bridge Sites exist.
Quarry Sites

Staking
GPS Road Surfaces GPS is permitted for all uses mentioned.
Total Stations may need to be used in areas
Bridge Sites and Borrow Pits where GPS do not operate (i.e under big
trees or bridges, next to big structures).
Quarry Sites

Staking
LIDAR Road Surveys GPS or Total Stations should be used for
the detailed surveying of features such as
Bridges, Culverts and Drains.

This method is to be the technologically

advanced version of Conventional Aerial
Photography.

This method is not weather dependent

such as the case is with its predecessor.

Observation and processing time is

reduced.
Aerial Photography Road Surveys GPS or Total Stations should be used for
the detailed surveying of features such as
Bridges, Culverts and Drains.

1.4 Order of Precedence

In the event of conflict between the text of this standard and the references cited herein, the
text of this standard takes precedence. The aforementioned statement is only valid where
legislation has no influence. Cadastral survey requirements as captured in the Botswana
Land Survey Act shall be adhered to when the boundary of the Road Reserve is established or
surveyed. Unless otherwise specified, current issues of these documents are the most recent
issues available at the Roads Department.

1.5 General Notes

The following general notes are applicable to any Practising Surveyor conducting road and
bridge surveys in Botswana. When surveying the boundary of the road servitude, the surveyor
should use the Land Survey Act of Botswana as reference.

1.5.1 Entry into Private Property

Before commencing field work on any property, the Surveyor shall personally call on the
owner, occupier, or person in charge of the property and request permission to proceed with
the survey. Surveyors should be aware of local custom regulations.

Should it be necessary to establish one’s bona fides and identity, a copy of the official letter of
appointment shall be produced.

Forms for notice to owners or occupiers of land shall be obtained from the Road Authority.

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Should the owner not be available at the time of calling, the procedure as laid down by the
Road Authority shall be followed. (Example: The Road Authority may have had a meeting with
the Kgosi or elders of a community and discussed the processes i.e. survey tasks, which would
take place. In the event of the owner of the particular area/property being absent, the Kgosi or
elder may approve entry on behalf of the owner).

In the event of the right of entry being refused, the Surveyor shall contact the Road Authority
as soon as possible.

1.5.2 Destruction of Property

Where the destruction of any kind of property becomes
necessary, the Surveyor shall keep a record of such
destruction, together with the name of the owner and
description of the property, and forward this information
to the Road Authority. The owner shall be consulted before
any destruction takes place and all local ordinances shall be
strictly adhered to.

The Following Records Shall Be Kept: The survey team shall not climb any fence
before authorisation is given from owner.
Sorghum Crops : Area, age and type.

Maize Crops : Area, age and type.

Other Crops : Area, age and type.

Timber : Number, mean circumference.

Ornamental shrubs & trees : Type & height.

Photo of Mowana Tree Photo of Maize Crop Photo of Sorghum Crop

Figure 1-1: Examples of Features that may be Damaged while Surveying

1.5.3 Traffic Control

Flags and warning signs in terms of the Traffic Ordinance shall be erected and moved with the
progression of the survey.

1.5.4 Survey Pegs

Survey pegs shall be installed along the route or within the area to be surveyed, and once their
coordinates and/or level has been established and checked with reference to existing bench
marks, such survey pegs can be used for local setting out. Survey pegs which are used for
control of construction activities should be checked at regular intervals against bench marks.
To prevent any damage to tyres of vehicles or injury to humans and livestock, the following
regulations shall be strictly adhered to:

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 INTRODUCTION Chapter 1
• Steel pegs in concrete shall not protrude more than 10 mm above the surface of the concrete

• Steel pegs not in concrete shall be driven down to within 5.0 mm of the surface of the
ground.

• Roofing screws or steel pegs used on a surfaced road shall be driven down flush with the
road surface.

• Steel pegs used on a gravel road shall be sunk to a depth of 70 mm below the road surface
and be backfilled with lime or gravel.

1.5.5 Stake Value

All surveys shall run from left to right or south to north in the direction of increasing route
section numbers or stake values, where applicable, unless otherwise specified.

1.5.6 Field books

If electronic Field books are not used, only survey book approved by the Road Authority shall
be used for levelling, triangulation and traversing. Reference is made to Appendix E: Field
Book and Calculation Reference.

1.5.7 Monthly Report

This report shall state the progress of any part of a survey project on a monthly basis, as a
percentage of e.g. basic survey, ground control, calculations, sectioning, and plotting, drawing
or cadastral compilation.

1.5.8 Technical Report

A technical report dealing with all aspects of the survey, e.g. methods, instruments used,
closures, name and height of level datum point, results of accuracy checks and any other
significant details regarding the survey project, shall be submitted on completion. Reference
is made to Appendix A: Guideline Framework for Technical Reports.

1.5.9 Delivery Note

A detailed list of all items delivered and of those still outstanding shall be submitted to the
officer responsible for the contract. The Surveyor shall ensure that all goods are handed to and
received in good order by the officer i.e. hardcopies of drawings etc.

1.5.10 Indemnity
The surveyor contracted by the Road Authority shall indemnify the Road Authority against
any claims for injury to persons or damage to property other than specified in Sub-section 1.5.2
Destruction of Property. The indemnity insurance is to be provided by the contracted surveyor
or by the consultant/engineer, if the Road Authority has contracted with the consultant/
engineer.

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

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 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY Chapter 2

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS

OF ACCURACY
2.1 Introduction
The Accuracy of Surveys conducted needs to be within the allowable limits of the application
of the survey, whether design or staking. This chapter covers the survey regulations and
standards of accuracy pertaining to road survey applications.

2.2 Units of Measurement

The units of measurement shall be metric and in Sexagesimal measure.

2.3 Horizontal Control National Triangulation System

Unless permission is granted in writing to the contrary, all surveys shall
be based on the appropriate LO System of the National Triangulation
network.

2.4 Horizontal Standards of Accuracy

2.4.1 Triangulation - Permanent Survey Stations
Allowable Error
Triangulation survey stations shall be, to class A accuracy. Reference is
made to Appendix B: Accuracy of Fieldwork. Photo of National Geodetic
S Benchmark
Where A is equal to 0.04 + 30000 and is the distance in metres between
the known and unknown survey station. The comparison is made between any observed
ray or measured distance from the final co-ordinate of the survey station fixed and a known
survey station.

2.4.2 Traverse and Polars-Permanent Survey Stations Allowable Error

Traversed survey stations shall be surveyed to class A accuracy. Reference is made to Appendix
B: Accuracy of Fieldwork.
S
Where A = 0.04 + 30000 and the comparison is made to the linear misclosure of the traverse,
where S is the total length of the traverse in metres.

2.4.3 GPS Survey - Permanent Survey Stations Allowable Error

S
GPS survey stations shall be to class A accuracy where A = 0.04 + 30000 . When a comparison
is made between the vector derived from the final co-ordinate and the measured vector after
the datum transformation has been applied. S is the distance between the known and the
unknown survey station. Reference is made to Appendix B: Accuracy of Fieldwork.

2.4.4 Vertical Control – Permanent Survey Stations

Wherever possible, elevations shall be based on the National Geodetic Benchmarks (NGBM).

When no NGBM can be found within 10 km of the survey, approval by the Road Authority shall
be requested by the surveyor to make use of a local elevation determined on site.

Any benchmark to be used in a survey shall be verified from at least one or preferably two
other benchmarks before its height can be adopted.

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 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY Chapter 2
The origin of the elevation and the datum level point shall be recorded in the field book,
calculation file and noted on the plan. (e.g. NGBM 34A26 = 1216.453 m or BM 20 = 1314.120 m).

2.5 Vertical Standards of Accuracy for

Permanent Survey Stations
The closing error (in metres) of a levelled circuit shall not
1.0 km of levelling consists of:
exceed: 0.003 √ setups, in height difference between the
• 10 setups forward levelling
forward and reverse levelling of successive permanent • 10 setups check levelling
survey stations. . ..10 + 10 = 20 Setups

Forward levelling and backward levelling shall not be For 1.0 km = 0.003 √20 setups = 0.013
checked simultaneously, meaning, check levelling, may only metres. The mean closing error of a levelled
circuit between terminal points shall not
start after forward levelling has been completed. exceed: 0.025 √K metre, where K is the
single length of the circuit in kilometres.
The final elevations of spirit levelled beacons shall be given
to 3 decimals of a metre.

2.6 Detail Accuracy

The position of all well-defined detail shall be plotted in relation to the co-ordinate grid so that
the positional error of the detail checked shall not exceed 0.5 mm on the plan.

2.7 Contour Accuracy

The accuracy of contours shall be such that the variation in elevation of 90% of the points
checked, determined by interpolation between contours, when compared with their elevations
as determined in the field shall not exceed 0.3 times the contour interval.

2.8 Spot Height Accuracy

The accuracy of spot heights shall be such that the variation in elevation of 90% of the points
as checked in the field shall not exceed 0.25 times the contour accuracy. Reference is made to
Section 2.7 Contour Accuracy.

2.9 Instrument Accuracy

The Surveyor shall ensure that all instruments and equipment used
in the survey, are in proper adjustment and calibration certificates
shall be submitted. Each instrument has its own limits and therefore
a calibration certificate should be issued by the supplier or a registered
technician in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications.

The standard method of the correction of distances (stated underneath)

was based on taped distances by means of a steel tape. This is not
a common practise anymore as total stations make use of laser
instruments for distance observations. Corrections are made by means
of a ppm value based on pressure and temperature which is keyed into
the instrument and instantaneously applied.

Temperature corrections when using steel tapes are made using the Photo of Total Station
following formula:
Cƒ = C x L(T-Ts)
Where:
• Cƒ = correction to be applied to tape due to temperature.
• T = The observed temperature or average observedtemperature at the time of
measurement.

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 Chapter 2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

• Ts = The temperature at which the tape was standardized.

• C = The coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape.
• L = The length of the tape or line measured.

2.10 Digital Terrain Model (DTM) Accuracy

Horizontal accuracy is 100 mm and vertical accuracy is 25 mm.

These tolerances apply to any part of the feature and not to the actual spot on which it was
surveyed. Reference is made to Sub-section 15.6.2 Digital Terrain Model (DTM) Tolerances.

The data supplied shall be such that accurate contours can be derived at 1.0 metre intervals,
but the density of the surveyed points shall permit interpolation to 0.5 metre intervals. (i.e.
YXZ points along photogrammetric contours shall not be accepted as surveyed points for
interpolation purposes).

2.11 GPS Accuracy

Reference is made to Sub-section 2.4.3 GPS Survey - Permanent Survey Stations Allowable Error.

2.11.1 Use of GPS for Road Surveys

Road Surveys conducted by GPS should adhere to the following:

• The baseline should not exceed 5.0 km.

• A three dimensional transformation should be done with levelled control beacons along
the road and additional levelled beacons on both sides of the road forming transformed
blocks of not more than 10 km along the length of the road and with a width of not less
than 1.0 km (500 metres each side of the road) with blocks overlapping with a distance of
at least 1.0 km. Reference is made to Figure 2 1.

• No extrapolation is permitted. The surveyed area must not exceed the perimeters of the
abovementioned transformed blocks.

Figure 2-1: Three Dimensional Transformation

Table 2-1 depicts the level of accuracy that shall apply with regard to road surveys:

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 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY Chapter 2
Table 2-1: Levels of Accuracy for Road Surveys
Feature Horizontal Accuracy Vertical Fixing
(mm) Accuracy (mm)
Kerbing and edge of asphalt 50 10
Road (bitumen/asphalt/concrete) 50 10
Storm water pipes 50 15
Lined drains 50 15
Gravel road surface 100 10
General topographic detail 100 10
of the road prism
Off the road prism 150 50
Detail accuracy The position of all well-defined detail shall be plotted in
relation to the co-ordinate grid so that the positional error
of the detail shall not exceed 0.5 mm on the plan.

2.12 LIDAR Accuracy

Horizontal accuracy should be ≤ 100 mm and vertical accuracy should be ≤ 80 mm. These
tolerances apply to any part of the feature and not to the actual spot on which it was surveyed.
The 1-sigma accuracies to be relative to the established ground control. Horizontal accuracies
are determined on imagery (which is based on laser-derived DTM) to also verify laser XY
accuracy.

Vertical accuracies are determined on laser data.

The data supplied shall be such that accurate contours can be derived at 1.0 metre intervals,
but the density of the surveyed points shall permit interpolation to 0.5 metre intervals. (i.e.
YXZ points along photogrammetric contours shall not be accepted as surveyed points for
interpolation purposes.)

2.13 Photo Ground Control Accuracy

Horizontal and vertical photo ground points shall be accurate enough to meet the requirements
as set out in Sections 2.4 Horizontal Standards of Accuracy and 2.5 Vertical Standards of Accuracy
for Permanent Survey Stations.

2.14 Staking Accuracy

2.14.1 Key Points
Key points shall be fixed to class accuracy and may not be more than 20 mm from their true
position.

2.14.2 Intermediate Points

The position of 20 metres staked points shall not differ from their required true position by
more than 20 mm, unless otherwise specified. The distance between any two consecutive
staked points must be within the accuracy 1V:1000H. Over any 500 metres length the distance
accuracy must be within 1V:5000H.

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2.14.3 Curves
In the case of curves, the closing error shall not exceed 1V:5000H. Any errors smaller than
1V:5000H must be adjusted pro-rata over the length of the curve. Where the error on curves
exceeds 1V:5000H the curve shall be re-staked so that the error is less than 1V:5000H and
subsequently adjusted pro-rata over the curve length.

2.14.4 Heights
Unless otherwise specified, the elevations of the permanent survey stations shall control the
levels of the staked line key points and the standard of accuracy shall be the same as that laid
down for the permanent survey stations. Reference is made to Section 2.5 Vertical Standards
of Accuracy For Permanent Survey Stations.

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 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL Chapter 3

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

3.1 Introduction
This chapter covers ground control requirements for photogrammetric mapping projects.
The fundamental requirements for control network configuration, point location, and image
characteristics are discussed, including the construction of permanent Survey Beacons and
Ground Control as well as the methods of fixing the horizontal and vertical of these beacons.

3.2 Permanent Survey Stations and Ground Control

It is stressed that the value of the survey depends largely on the permanency of its survey
stations. All Survey Beacons must be preserved at all times. In cases where they are destroyed,
the beacons must be replaced by a Registered Land Surveyor. The beacon should be replaced
within 1(one) month after destruction.

The survey to re-establish the Survey Beacons should be submitted to the Director of Surveys
and Mapping for records updating.

Any person who, for the purpose of carrying out any work which he may lawfully perform,
desires to remove or disturb any beacon or mark erected in connection with the survey of
land shall apply to the Director of Surveys and Mapping for authority to do so and the Director
may, at the expense of such applicant, employ any land surveyor to effect the removal or
disturbance and subsequent replacement of such beacon or mark in such manner as the
Director may direct.

3.2.1 Permanent Survey Stations: Spacing, Sitting, Numbering and

Intervisibility
Unless otherwise specified, a backbone of permanently marked survey stations shall be
established along any strip survey, spaced not more than 500 metres apart. Successive survey
stations shall be intervisible.

a. Care shall be taken to place the survey station in a safe position where it will be leastexposed
to disturbance or damage. Wherever it is possible to ascertain the position of the road
reserve boundary, the survey station should be placed as close to such boundary as convenient
and preferably 1.0 metre inside the reserve.

b. Survey stations may be placed alternately on either side of a road, if this will improve
intervisibility except where there is a possibility that median plants may obscure the
intervisibility.

c. From every survey station at least two permanent reference objects (RO’s), being either
survey stations of the same survey or trig beacons, shall be made visible at the time of the
survey.

d. Unless otherwise specified, all permanent survey stations shall be numbered in sequence
in the direction of increasing route and/or section numbers. The numbering shall be done
on a strip of aluminium 0.7 mm to 1.5 mm in thickness, firmly set in the concrete.

e. Unless otherwise specified, the following information shall be shown with lettering of not
less than 7.0 mm in size:

• Station number/year, e.g. BM 2/91 or KRM 105/6.

• Road & section number, e.g. A1/1.
• Project number, e.g. 274/360.

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3.3 Construction of Permanent Survey Beacons
3.3.1 Concrete Beacons
The following guidelines and procedures should be followed when constructing permanent
survey beacons:

a. Unless otherwise specified every permanent survey station

shall be marked by a 25 mm internal diameter, galvanized
pipe, driven into the ground in such a way that the top of
the pipe is not damaged or burred. The pipe shall be 460
mm long, flattened at the end to be driven into the ground,
so that 35 mm of the pipe protrudes above ground level. A
hole, 275 mm deep and 300 mm in diameter, shall be dug
around the pipe and filled with concrete consisting of a
mixture of one part fresh (minimum crushing strength of
concrete to be 15 MPa) so as to leave approximately 10 mm Photo of Concrete Beacon
of pipe clear above the concrete. Reference is made to Appendix J: Concrete Beacon.

b. A mould, 250 mm in diameter and not more than 100 mm in height, shall be used to shape
and finish off the top of the concrete beacon. The final height of the concrete shall not be
more than 25 mm above ground level.

c. In sandy, desert or black cotton soil conditions the depth of the concrete is to be increased
to an appropriate depth to suite the site conditions. In areas where animals such as elephants
might interfere, 1.5 metres Y-Standard pegs may be used. Each permanent survey station
shall be marked by means of a 1.8 metres iron standard, driven 400 mm into the ground.
The iron standard shall be painted with white enamel paint and be placed in such a position
as to protect the beacon from maintenance equipment in use within the road reserve or, as
otherwise specified.

d. If the above type of beacon is not suitable to the conditions of a particular survey, a
proposal shall be submitted by the surveyor and written approval from the Road Authority
shall be obtained for a more suitable type.

3.3.2 Pillar Beacons

Pillar beacons shall only be placed on request and in consultation with the Road Authority. For
specifications, Reference is made to Appendix I: Pillar Beacon.

3.4 Horizontal Fixing of Permanent Survey Beacons

Permanent survey stations shall be fixed by methods of triangulation, traversing and/or GPS
surveys.

The Surveyor shall at all times perform sufficient fieldwork to enable a thorough check to be
carried out on every part of the survey. Observations at any station or beacon shall consist of
at least one arc.

A traverse terminal point shall be fixed by traversing, triangulation, and/or GPS methods. For
limits and allowable errors, Reference is made to Sub-sections 2.4.1 Triangulation - Permanent
Survey Stations Allowable Error, 2.4.2 Traverse and Polars-Permanent Survey Stations Allowable
Error and 2.4.3 GPS Survey - Permanent Survey Stations Allowable Error.

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3.4.1 Traversing Method

The traversing method of fixing permanent survey stations shall be conducted as follows:

a. The maximum number of traverse legs between terminal points shall be 20 (twenty),
unless otherwise authorised. Observations for outside orientation shall be taken wherever
possible.

b. When traversing between two fixed points, observations must be taken at both fixed points
in order that the traverse may be properly adjusted. For limits and allowable errors,
Reference is made to Sub-section 2.4.2 Traverse and Polars-Permanent Survey Stations
Allowable Error.

c. Distances shall be measured with electronic distance measuring equipment unless written
approval has been obtained for the use of other instrumentation. All corrections shall be
applied to ensure the required accuracy.

3.4.2 Triangulation Method

The triangulation method of fixing permanent survey stations shall be conducted as follows:

a. When a permanent survey beacons position is determined by intersection or trilateration,

the angle at the vertex of any triangle used in such determination shall not be less than 30
degrees nor greater than 150 degrees.

b. Its position shall not be determined by resection from less than four surveyed points
favourably situated, and the observations used in such determination shall consist of not
less than two arcs, unless three of such surveyed points are within 3000 metres of the
survey point being determined, in which case only one arc is required.

c. Its position shall not be determined by a single triangle only, unless observations are made
at all three points and on at least two different parts of the circle.

3.4.3 Global Positioning System Method

In a GPS survey, the position of permanent survey beacons shall be
determined from at least two known LO points. Sufficient GPS vectors
shall be measured to determine the local relationship between the
GPS datum, i.e. World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84), and the
National Reference Survey Datum by connection to at least three
trigonometrical stations or permanent reference beacons. The survey
shall fall within the perimeter of these trigonometrical stations or
permanent reference beacons thus no extrapolation of surveys shall
be allowed. All GPS observation adjustments for the determination
of final co-ordinates of permanent survey beacons shall be done by
post processing, using a network adjustment program. Only the local
transformation parameters as determined by the GPS survey shall be
used for the transformation of the adjusted WGS 84 co-ordinates to
the LO system. Photo of GPS Base Station

The following must be submitted in a calculation file on completion of the GPS survey:

(i) A technical report dealing with all aspects of the survey, e.g. instruments used, methods,
checks carried out, problems encountered and any other significant details regarding the
survey.
(ii) A locality sketch.
(iii) A working diagram indicating all surveyed stations as well as all known co-ordinated
points used in the transformation.

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(iv) A full co-ordinate list shall be prepared showing the final co-ordinates and heights of all
the Survey stations. The elevation and description of the datum point of the survey shall
be shown on this list. Points shall be listed in numerical and/or alphabetical order.
(v) A hard copy printout of the actual transformed co-ordinates.
(vi) A copy of all the raw data in rinex format submitted digitally.
(vii) A text file of the detailed log file of the all processing computations in digital format.
(viii) A hard copy log file of the transformation parameter.
(ix) A list showing the comparison between the spirit and GPS levels.
(x) A disk containing all the final co-ordinates in ASCII format. The format shall be comma
delimited.

3.4.4 Triangulation and Traverse Calculations

Guidelines for triangulation and traverse calculations are as follows:
a. All measured distances shall be corrected in the fieldbooks or on the field sheets before
being used in the calculations, except where a computer program makes provision for
these corrections.

b. The field book and calculations reference (pages 2000-2999) shall show every survey point
used and determined during the survey. Reference is made to Appendix E: Field Book and
Calculation Reference.

c. A separate and full co-ordinate list (punched for filing in the same way as the calculation
pages – Reference is made to Section 4.2 General Requirements) shall be prepared to show
all the co-ordinates and heights of basic and photo control survey points. The elevation
and description of the datum point of the survey shall be shown on this list. All surveyed
points shall be listed in numerical and/or alphabetical order. Reference is made to Appendix
D: Co-ordinate List.

d. Triangulation, traverse and/or GPS calculations shall be adhered to as specified in Section

2.4 Horizontal Standards of Accuracy.

e. Legible copies of the original computer printout shall be bound and treated as part of the
calculation sheets. No thermal prints shall be allowed.

f. The Surveyor shall clearly indicate the methods of calculations used, and the computer
printout shall be sufficiently detailed with regard to printed headings and actual printed
data, to show all relevant data as accuracies, tolerances and in the case of GPS surveys
vector residuals as stated in the Survey Regulations as set out in Appendix B: Accuracy of
Fieldwork.

g. Final co-ordinates of surveyed beacons shall be given to the second decimal place.

3.5 Vertical Fixing of Permanent Survey Beacons

3.5.1 Levelling
For allowable errors and other relevant detail requirements, reference is made to Sub-sections
2.4.1 Triangulation - Permanent Survey Stations Allowable Error, 2.4.2 Traverse and Polars-
Permanent Survey Stations Allowable Error and 2.4.3 GPS Survey - Permanent Survey Stations
Allowable Error. The procedure to be followed in fixing the level of permanent survey beacons
is as follows:

a. The elevations of traverse station shall be determined by spirit levelling unless otherwise
specified. Level instrument adjustment checks shall be performed daily before the
commencement of surveys and be reflected in the field book

b. All stations elevations determined by spirit levelling shall be measured twice, i.e. by
forward and reverse levelling using the adjusted mean. Note: Simultaneous levelling on a
common staff is not allowed.

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c. The reduced level, given to 3 decimals of a metre for any survey beacon, shall be the top
of the peg marking the survey beacon. Where any peg protrudes more than 40 mm above
the ground, the height differs to the top of the peg above normal ground level shall be
quoted to two decimals of a metre, in addition to the reduced level of the top of the peg.

d. Wherever the framework of the levelling is such that two or more line of levels run parallel
to each other, they shall be interconnected by cross levelling at intervals of not more than
1.0 km. The adjustment of the spirit level shall be done in successive circuits, starting from
a terminal bench mark, along the left level line, cross over at 1.0 km distance to the right
level line and back to another terminal bench mark. For the successive circuits the survey
beacons at the cross over positions from the left to the right line shall be used as terminal
bench mark.

e. All spirit levelling of permanent survey stations shall be, in addition to the reverse levelling,
independently checked by GPS levels or Trigonometrically height determination at the
time of the traversing.

3.5.2 Trigonometrical Height Traversing

The Road Authority may allow the use of simultaneous reciprocal trigonometric levelling for
the determination of elevations in steep terrain. If this method of height determination is
allowed, distance between consecutive survey stations should be kept to within 500 metres
and the vertical angle shall be measured and recorded before as well as after the completion
of the observations. Written permission to use this method of height determination shall be
obtained from the Road Authority.

3.5.3 GPS Heighting

GPS survey methods shall not be used to determine the elevations of permanent survey beacons.

3.5.4 Elevations: Reduction and Calculation

The reduction of spirit levelling observation shall be done in the field books, either by the “rise
and fall” or “collimation” methods where reductions are not done by computerized method.
Computerized reductions shall be included in the calculation file.

On each page of every level book, any reducing, balancing, extending and cross referencing
shall be clearly shown.

In trigonometrical levelling, corrections for curvature and refraction shall be applied, except
in case of simultaneous reciprocal levelling.

3.6 Photo Ground Control

3.6.1 Vertical Photo Control
A level photo control (LPC) point shall be a point on the
ground which can be easily and positively identified on the
photograph. It shall permit maximum accuracy in height to be
obtained when observed stereoscopically.

The minimum requirements for a fully controlled stereo model

are 4 height control points (wing points, LPCs) and 3 premarked
or identified co-ordinated photo control points (PCs) along the
centre of the strip, or, alternatively, 6 points fixed by aerial
triangulation. Each model shall have one height control point Photo of Example of a Premark
(LPC) in each corner of the model which shall fall well outside the area to be mapped and not
less than 30 mm from the edge of the photograph. At a photo contact scale of 1 in 6000 the
height points (LPCs) shall be ±170 mm apart as measured on the photograph and ±1000 metres
as measured on the ground. No extrapolation shall be permitted.

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In adverse and extreme terrain conditions these requirements may, in consultation with the
Road Authority, be relaxed. The photographs concerned shall be submitted for inspection.
Reference is made to Sub-section 4.11.1.

GPS survey methods shall not be used to determine the elevation of photo control points
unless evidence can be shown that a sufficient number of known height points, spread over
the entire survey project, have been included in the observation to determine the exact Geoid
area, for interpolation to the Geoid on the new points.

Reference is made to Section 3.8 Aerial Triangulation for Large Scale Mapping, for the aerial
triangulation point distribution.

3.6.2 Horizontal Photo Control Point

The following shall be considered in selecting and establishing photo control points:

a. Permanent Survey Stations

Each permanent survey station to be used for a photogrammetric project shall be marked
by means of a white cross, provided under unusual conditions, e.g. on white sand, a black
cross may be used. The width of the Premark shall not be less than 1.3 metres. A cross will
be clearly seen on the photograph/image. The overall length of the cross will be 3.0 metres.
The length of each member will thus be 1.5 metres – Appendix G: Premarks. A black cross
shall be widened to at least 0.35 metres to offset the effect of halation (flare) and shall not
incorporate any shiny or reflecting material.

b. Photo Control Points (PC)

A PC shall be a Premark point or point of natural detail which can be easily and positively
identified on the photograph/image. It shall permit maximum accuracy in height and
planimetry to be obtained when observed stereoscopically and shall be fixed accordingly.

These points may be permanent survey stations and/or survey points between permanent
survey stations and will be used as planimetric control in each stereoscopic model, if aerial
triangulation is not employed. Three planimetric control points shall appear along the
centre of each model and be co-ordinated in Y, X and Z.

c. Distribution of Planimetric PC

(i) When full planimetric photo ground control is required for mapping and unless the
nature of the terrain dictates differently, the maximum spacing between photo control
points shall be calculated from the following formula:

0.031 x S

Where:

S = the contact scale of 60% overlapping photography.

(ii) When aerial triangulation is employed, the maximum distance between photo control
points shall be calculated from the following formula:

0.27 x S

Where:

S = the contract scale of the photography.

This represents three times the distance between the photo cetre of 60% overlapping
photography. For aerial triangulation Reference is made to Section 3.8 Aerial
Triangulation for Large Scale Mapping.

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3.6.3 Selection of PC Points on Existing Photography

The selection of photo control points on existing photography shall conducted in accordance
with the following guidelines:

a. A photo control point shall be selected on the photograph with the aid of a (pocket)
stereoscope so as to obtain an operator’s view.

b. The emphasis shall be on the quality of the selected point in terms of definition and level
ground, and not on the ease with which it can be fixed.

c. In difficult terrain additional points should be identified and fixed.

3.6.4 Marking of Identified Ground Control

The point(s) shall be marked only on the photograph on which it appears nearest to the photo
centre and shall be identified as either Photo Control Point(s) (PC) or Level Photo Control
(LPC). The point shall be pricked on the photograph in marked area, using a very fine needle.

3.6.5 Field Sketch

A sketch of the point shall be prepared in the field in accordance with the following procedures
using a suitable pen.

a. The photograph shall be turned over longitudinally along the direction of the strip.

b. The sketch shall be drawn on the reverse side of the photograph and in the area relevant to
that point.

c. The sketch shall be drawn as seen under a stereoscope and not as seen on the ground.

d. The sketch shall be supplemented with a description of the point to assist the stereoplotter
operator in its identification.

e. Whenever the selection of a point on a raised position cannot be avoided, the Surveyor shall
state whether its height refers to the raised position or to ground level; the height difference
shall always be noted.

f. Sketches for LIDAR Photo Ground Control points may be made on a separate sheet of
paper. These Sketches must be submitted with the final data.

3.6.6 Marking of the Photograph

A photo control point shall be circumscribed by an ink circle of ± 5.0 mm diameter on the front
of the photograph and numbered accordingly.

The number shall be printed above the circle on the front of the photograph and above the
sketch on the back of the photograph.

3.7 Premarking
Each Permanent Survey Station shall be premarked. Reference is made to Sub-section 3.6.2
Horizontal Photo Control Point. The premarking shall be conducted as follows:

a. Photo ground control points shall be premarked on a contrasting background and shall be
positioned where they are least likely to be destroyed or covered by dust.

b. Care shall be taken to ensure that the point will not be in shadow at the time of the
photographic flight.

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c. The surveyor shall satisfy himself, that the point will not be obscured by tall features, i.e.
not less than 45 degrees from the horizontal, as illustrated in Figure 3 1 Aerial Observation
of Premark not Obscured by Tall Features.

d. To facilitate accurate heighting by the stereoplotter operator, premarks should not be

placed on steep slopes. For construction of premarks, reference is made to Appendix G:
Premarks.

Figure 3-1: Aerial Observation of Premark Not Obscured by Tall Features

3.8 Aerial Triangulation for Large Scale Mapping

3.8.1 Planimetric Photo Control by Aerial Triangulation
Where full height photo ground control (fixed in the field by the prescribed methods) is used
for mapping purposes, aerial triangulation may be used to obtain Y and X co-ordinates for
minor photo control points for each model, provided that the procedure and the results of the
adjustment of the aerial triangulation fulfil the following requirements:

a. Aerial triangulation shall be performed digitally with software approved by Road Authority.

b. The adjustment of the aerial triangulation observations may be performed by any accepted
block adjustment method and with the Road Authority’s prior approval of such method. A
direct solution for the block adjustment is recommended.

c. The method of “high flown/low flown” (Is a conventional method used in aerial surveys)
aerial triangulation shall not be allowed unless authorised by and under full control of the
Road Authority.

3.8.2 Planimetric and Height Photo Control by Aerial Triangulation

Wherever the Road Authority allow the use of aerial triangulation to obtain planimetric and
height photo control points for mapping purposes with the minimum of photo ground control
points, the following shall apply, unless otherwise specified.

a. Aerial triangulation on digital comparator will be allowed only if all corrections for known
errors, such as instrument errors, lens distortion, refraction and earth curvature are
applied to the triangulation observations.

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b. A rigorous, block adjustment program (e.g. Package Aerial Triangulation Model an

independent model block adjustment program) shall be used for the adjustment of the
aerial triangulation. The block adjustment shall be performed in such a manner that the
statistics will reflect the accuracy of the photogrammetric observations and the residual
errors at the planimetric and height ground control points.

c. All photo ground control points shall be premarked.

3.8.3 Planning Photo Ground Control for Aerial Triangulation

Perimeter planimetric PCs shall be planned to fall in the corners of the block of photography
and spaced not more than 4 model base lengths apart along the perimeter of the block.

Height LPCs shall be placed in lines across the strips forming the block and at the beginning
and at the end of each strip, not more than 2 model base lengths apart. Spacing may be relaxed
to 3 to 4 model base lengths inside the block, but shall remain 2 model base lengths along the
perimeter of the block unless otherwise specified by the Road Authority.

The height LPCs shall fall within the sidelap of any overlapping adjacent strips, as well as
along the perimeter of the photographic block, to fully control each strip for lateral tilt.

For single strips the photo ground control points (PCs) shall not be more than 2 model base
lengths apart.

3.8.4 Photography for Aerial Triangulation

When planning the photo coverage of an area to be mapped and where aerial triangulation is
to be used to obtain planimetric and height control, the following shall be born in mind:

In the aerial triangulation block adjustment the large errors occur along the edges of the block.
It is therefore imperative that the photo cover be extended beyond the borders of the area to
be mapped by at least by half a strip width along the borders covered by the photography.
The perimeter photo ground control points controlling the block will, as a result of the above
planned photo coverage, fall outside the borders of the area to be mapped, thus maintaining
a rigid control over the photographic block, with the largest error occurring outside the area
being mapped.

3.8.5 GPS Supported Aerial Triangulation

If aerial photography incorporating GPS method to fix the camera’s principal point at the
time of exposure is to be used for the purpose of reducing photo ground control for aerial
triangulation purposes, prior permission must be obtained from the Road Authority who will
issue the relevant specification.

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 SURVEY RECORD Chapter 4

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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4 SURVEY RECORDS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter details the documentation requirements necessary to conduct an effective survey.
Requirements of a general nature, and requirements specific to particular types of survey are
covered. These requirements are a guideline to the surveyor, and more detailed requirements
may be necessary for specific applications. The Land Survey Act must be used as the basis of
all survey standards and deliverables, where a survey of a cadastral nature, such as the road
reserve boundary is being conducted.

4.2 General Requirements

The arrangement of survey records and the methods of reduction shall be such that a simple
scrutiny of the results will allow an immediate assessment of:

• The standard of the work.

• The likelihood of the absence of errors.

This principle applies equally to calculations done by computer. The following requirements
shall also be observed:

a. The reference number allocated to the survey records shall be ascertained in advance and
shall be added to all field books and calculation pages as the work progresses.

b. All records shall be on non-thermal A4 size paper, orderly and fully annotated, cross-
referenced and adequately checked.

c. Plans, field books and sets of calculations shall bear the Surveyor’s signature and date.

d. Field books shall be numbered consecutively as one series for each project and the pages
in each book shall be numbered consecutively.

e. Calculation pages shall be numbered consecutively from 1000 upwards, as indicated in

Table 4-1.

Table 4-1: Numbering of Calculation Pages

Pages Item
Pages 1-999 Technical Report
Pages 1000-1999 Working plan and level diagram.
Pages 2000-2999 Field book and calculation reference summary page.
Pages 3000-4999 Orienting joints and - All calculations and directions sheets (except cadastral
calculations) arranged I their chronological order.
Pages 5000-5999 All elevations calculations in their chronological order.
Pages 6000-6999 Aerial triangulation calculation and printouts.
Pages 7000-7999 All photogrammetric setting records.
Pages 8000-8999 GPS records.
Pages 9000-9999 Any other not specified in this list (fieldwork).

Reference is made to Appendix A: Guideline Framework for Technical Report

f. Transcription of data shall be avoided to minimize the risk of mistakes.

g. Co-ordinate lists shall clearly indicate the level datum, Geodetic System, job description
and survey data.

h. The requirements of the Land Survey Act of Botswana shall be adhered to when surveying
or establishing the road servitude/reserve or boundary.

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 SURVEY RECORD Chapter 4
4.3 General Field Books
4.3.1 Types of Field Books
Only the Road Authority’s approved survey field books shall be used. Wherever electronic
data capturing is used, a hardcopy printout in accordance with the requirements as set out in
Sub-section 4.3.2 Entries in Conventional Field Books and 4.3.3 Referencing shall be placed on
the survey files, indexed as “Electronic Field Book”, complete with a legend of abbreviations/
symbols used. (Page 9000).

4.3.2 Entries in Conventional Field Books

All field entries shall be written boldly in pencil and shall be clear, legible and complete.

If so instructed by the Road Authority, the Surveyor shall repeat that part of all the survey work
for which the entries in the field books do not comply with the requirements of the following
clauses:

a. No erasers shall be permitted, nor shall any letter or figure be overwritten. Alterations shall
be made by crossing out the incorrect entry with a single line so that it remains legible and
by writing the correct entry above it. Where there is a possibility of confusion, the whole
series of entries may be crossed out and rewritten; however, no such copy shall be accepted
unless accompanied by the original, properly cross-referenced where necessary.

b. Entries made in field books in the office and final reductions of the observation shall be in ink.

c. The final descriptions, co-ordinates and reduced levels of benchmarks and permanent
survey stations shall be written in red ink in the field books, opposite the station concerned.
The same entries shall be made for temporary survey stations in blue ink in the field books.

d. Reduced levels shall be written in full as follows:

• Spirit levelling to 3 decimals for a metre.

• Trigonometrical height traversing to 2 decimals of a metre (3 decimals for simultaneous r

eciprocal observations).

• Trigonometrical levelling to 1 decimal of a metre.

The observer’s name, signature and the date shall be entered on the first and last pages of each
day’s observations. The index page of each book shall be properly completed.

4.3.3 Referencing
The referencing of field books shall comply with the following:

a. Every field book shall be given a unique reference number; the numbers of all books
pertaining to one project shall form a series.

b. Every field book shall have a title page giving the name and address of the Surveyor,
description/title of the survey, the year, the number of the book and an index page listing
the contents of the field book.

c. The source of all starting data (e.g. first orientation direction, elevation and name of
starting benchmark, etc.) shall be clearly stated in the field books.

d. Cross-referencing shall be done in and between field books.

e. Constants and factors used for the reduction of distances shall be entered on the first
page of each field book, referring to the number of the field book page on which the relevant
measurements were entered.

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 Chapter 4 SURVEY RECORDS

4.4 General and Cross-Referencing Calculations

Calculations will follow the principles in common use in Botswana. Reference is made to
Appendix B: Accuracy of Fieldwork. In addition, the following guideline shall apply:

a. Where a point has been measured or observed more than once, the comparison between
the various measurements and the finally adopted value shall be shown clearly, either in
the field book or in the calculations.

b. Cross referencing of the calculations shall be done meticulously along the following lines:

• The field book and calculation reference summary page (page 2000-2999) shall be
regarded as the key to the calculations and shall show, opposite each point, the page
number where the field observation and co-ordinate calculation can be found.
Reference is made to Appendix E: Field-book and Calculation Reference.

• The direction sheet (page 3000-4999) shall show the field book page numbers for each
set of observation at the triangulation points.

c. All hand calculations shall be entered in ink and on one side of the paper only.

d. Legible copies of the printouts of the computer calculations shall be bound. Computer
calculations shall be sufficiently detailed with regard to printed headings and actual
printed data.

4.5 Working Plan

A working plan shall accompany the basic survey calculations including GPS surveys and shall
be drawn on a stable base transparent material to any convenient scale, or on a transparent
1V:50000H topo-cadastral map. Reference is made to Appendix M: Working Plan and Appendix
N: Cadastral Key Plan and the Land Survey Act of Botswana. The following requirements for a
working plan shall be adhered to:

a. The working plan may be drawn in sections and shall not exceed 210 mm in width so that
it can be filed without lengthwise folding.

b. The plan shall show all trigonometric beacons and all permanent survey stations. If the
stipulated width of 210 mm is not sufficient, a separate plan at a smaller scale, showing all
the survey points, shall be produced.

c. All rays used to fix the terminal survey points shall be shown on the plan.

d. If the working plan is not compiled on a 1V:50000H topo-cadastral map it shall show
the approximate position of prominent features (towns, rivers, railways, etc.) which lie on
or across the survey route, in order to give a reasonable picture of the relative position of
the various sections of the survey.

e. The working plan shall show a suitable co-ordinate grid, north direction and approval final
sheet layout.’

4.6 Level Diagram

A level diagram, schematically showing all lines of levels, circuits, benchmarks, height
differences between adjacent benchmarks, lengths of lines, crossing errors and allowing
closing errors of all lines and circuits, shall be submitted. The direction in which a line was
levelled shall be indicated by an arrow. Reference is made to Appendix L: Level Diagram.

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 SURVEY RECORD Chapter 4
4.7 Cadastral Key Plan
The surveyor shall supply a cadastral key plan on a standard A0 Size sheet unless otherwise
specified, at a scale between 1V:5000H and 1V:25000H, depending on the density of the
cadastral information. The key plan shall show the following:

a. All survey sheets accurately scaled and plotted.

b. All farm boundaries, subdivisions and townships (only block corners and streets).

c. All cadastral beacons, numbered according to the cadastral data as calculated.

4.8 Co-ordinate List

The co-ordinate list shall provide all information reflected in Appendix D: Co-ordinate List.
Full co-ordinate list shall be shown and no constants shall be subtracted.

4.9 Cadastral Data

The purpose of cadastral data shall be to provide current, up to date and accurately calculated
cadastral information to compile detailed cadastral plans of a project. Reference is made to
Chapter 7: Cadastral Data and the Land Survey Act of Botswana.

4.10 Photogrammetric Setting Sheets

All points falling in the stereoscopic model shall be indicated on the setting sheet in their
relative positions in the model.

Final residual closures obtained from observations after the absolute orientation has been
accepted shall be indicated next to each point on the setting sheet or on the computer printout.
(Final residual closures are not the adopted absolute orientation residuals).

The following information shall be shown on the setting out sheet or computer printout: Job
name and number, software type, model number, strip number, photo scale, model scale,
plan scale camera type, operator’s name and date of compilation.

4.11 Records to be Submitted on Completion

The Surveyor shall submit all records as defined hereunder:

4.11.1 Photographic
The following records shall be submitted for approval by the Road Authority as soon as possible
after the photography has been completed and must be submitted to Survey and Mapping at
the end of the project:

• The digital images.

• The flight plan.

On completion of the survey, the following shall be submitted:

• All digital images and final ortho photo.

4.11.2 Basic Survey

All field books including printouts of electronic field books, calculations, working plans, level
diagrams and co-ordinate lists relating to the basic survey.

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4.11.3 Photo Control

All field books, including printouts of electronic field book, calculations, working plans, level
diagrams, sketches and co-ordinate lists relating to the survey of photo ground control points.

All prints used for annotation, ground and/or photogrammetric control purposes.
All photogrammetric calculations, aerial triangulation records and machine setting sheet.

4.11.4 Plotting Data

The set of survey plans together with the relevant key plans and digital data.

4.11.5 Cadastral Data

All cadastral data, diagrams, compilations, calculations, key plans and digital data.

4.11.6 Electronic Data

Common cad formats may include dwg, dxf and dgn.
All co-ordinates and heights of survey ground control, photo ground control and cadastral
calculations shall be supplied in separate files on good quality computer disks and labelled as
specified by the Road Authority.

All CAD data shall be supplied in a format specified by the Road Authority.

4.11.7 Technical Report

A technical report dealing with all aspects of the survey, e.g. methods, instruments used,
closures, name and height of level datum, results of accuracy check and any other significant
detail regarding the survey project, shall be submitted on completion. Reference is made to
Appendix A: Guideline Framework for Technical Reports.

4.11.8 Delivery Note

The delivery note shall consist of a detailed list of all items delivered and a list of all items
still outstanding. The contractor/surveyor shall ensure that all deliverables are handed to the
officer responsible for the contract.

4.11.9 Records to be Submitted to Department of Surveys and Mapping

All information and data pertaining to the establishment of benchmarks, road servitude
boundary and/or establishment of the road reserve shall be carried out in accordance to the
requirements of the Land Survey Act. On completion of the survey, all such information and
data shall be submitted to the Department of Surveys and Mapping for approval where so
required by the Land Survey Act, approval shall be sought from the relevant authorities before
any construction activities commence within the newly established or revised road reserve
boundary.

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 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY Chapter 5

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
5.1 Introduction
This chapter covers technical requirements, standards
of equipment, execution and recommended procedures
for aerial photography as used for the photogrammetric
compilation of topographical maps and for natural features
evaluation. The specifications that aerial photography
equipment shall adhere to are also covered.

5.2 Project Requirements

On commencement of an aerial photography project the
following should be discussed with the Road Authority: Photo of Aerial Photography Camera

a. The scale of conventional Aerial Photography must be defined by the Road Authority and/
or must be chosen so as to achieve the required accuracy for the survey project.

b. The ground sample distance (GSD) for digital cameras must be agreed by the Road
Authority.

c. Panchromatic, colour or infrared Aerial Photography must be defined by the Road

Authority.

d. The aerial photography coverage must be sufficient to produce Orthophotos or

photogrammetric mapping of the area required by the Road Authority.

5.3 Purpose of Aerial Photography

It is applicable to panchromatic, colour, infra-red and (false) colour infra-red photography.
Unless otherwise specified, an aerial photography contract shall include the supply of the
digital images and the flight plan.

5.4 Digital Aerial Survey Cameras

When aerial photography is undertaken using a digital camera, the following requirements
will apply:

a. The aerial photography shall be done using a large format digital frame camera.

b. The camera shall have digital frame sensors based on Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) arrays
using square or rectangular CCD arrays and shall have geometric characteristics similar to
a film based camera.

c. The camera shall be able to use Time Delayed Integration (TDI) methodology to control
image movement. The Surveyor shall ensure that no image smear is caused during this
process.

d. The camera shall have the ability to photograph four colour channels.

e. The camera shall be equipped with a sensor of at least 12000 Pixels at 12 micron CCD. The
focal length shall be 120 mm.

f. Within Flight Lines the largest Ground Sample Distance (GSD) should not exceed two times
the size of the smallest GSD. This is of particular importance in mountainous areas.

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 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY Chapter 5
5.5 Operational Requirements
5.5.1 Area to be Photographed
The location, size and boundaries of the area to be photographed or mapped shall be specified
by the Road Authority in the tender requirements.

5.5.2 Flight Lines

Each flight line shall be continuous and unbroken for its entire length over the area being
photographed. Breaks in strip continuity shall be allowed only where necessitated by
unfavourable weather conditions or when a change in altitude is required to comply with side
lap or scale requirements. When a break in strip continuity occurs, the separate sections of the
strip shall overlap by at least five exposures.

Coverage beyond the limits of the area to be mapped parallel to the flight lines shall not be
less than 20% of the width of the photographic strip. The first two exposures as well as the
last two exposures of each strip, including the required overlap, shall be completely outside
the area being mapped. Photographs covering more than 25% non-stereoscopic area will not
be acceptable.

5.5.3 Flight Overlap

Aerial photographs shall have fore/after, as well as side overlap, as follows:

a. Fore and After Overlap

The fore after overlap shall generally average 60%; any overlap less than 55% or more than
65% shall be considered sufficient grounds for rejection of the entire strip. In the event
of extreme variations in elevation in an area, deviations from the above requirement
may be permitted. Deviations shall be limited to the area where such conditions prevail
and complete stereoscopic coverage will be required at all times.

b. Sidelap
Unless otherwise specified, the sidelap (overlap between parallel strips) shall average 25%
and any sidelap less than 15% or more than 40% shall be considered sufficient grounds for r
ejection of the entire strip.

5.5.4 Flight Altitude

The departure from the required flying height above the mean ground elevation shall not
exceed 2.0% lower or 5.0% higher than the required flying height.

5.5.5 Photographic Conditions

Photography shall be undertaken only when conditions are such that acceptable images can be
produced. Photography shall not be attempted when the ground is obscured by haze, smoke,
dust or when cloud shadows may appear on any one photograph.

5.5.6 Solar Altitude

Unless otherwise specified, photography shall be undertaken with a solar altitude of not less
than 30 degrees. The Road Authority may place an upper limit on the solar altitude in which
case this will be defined in the tender requirements.

5.5.7 Crab
During the photographic flight the camera shall be compensated for crabbing of the aircraft,
such that the edges of the photographs in the strip are parallel to within 5.0 degrees with the
line of flight.

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 Chapter 5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

5.5.8 Tilt
Departure of the camera lens axis from the vertical shall not normally exceed 2.0 degrees
though isolated exposures with up to 4.0 degrees will be allowed in turbulent conditions.
Relative tilt shall not exceed 6.0 degrees. The correction may automatically be corrected if
camera is fitted with gyro stabilised mount.

5.5.9 Course Corrections

Corrections to the aircrafts course between successive photographs shall not exceed 3.0
degrees.

5.5.10 Photographic Quality

The photography shall be clear and sharp in detail, of uniform density and have the proper
degree of contrast for all detail to show clearly in both shadow and highlight areas. Photography
having excessive contrast, or low in contrast, may be rejected. It shall be free of clouds or
ground shadow, smoke and haze.

5.5.11 Digital Photography Information

As shown in Appendix C: Digital Photography Information, digital photography information
shall be submitted with every job and shall contain the following information: folder name,
job number, photo number and the date(s) of photography. The information can be submitted
on a DVD together with a hard copy index.

5.6 Flight Plan

A flight plan, drawn on a durable transparent in scale 1V:50000H topo-cadastral map, shall
be supplied with each photographic job and shall show the following (reference is made to
Appendix O: Flight Plan).

a. The approximate contact scale of the photography.

b. The date(s) of photography.

c. The brand and model of camera.

d. Route number, title and Job Number.

e. The scale of the flight plan, co-ordinate grid system and North sign.

f. The strip positions and extent of coverage.

g. Photo centres shall be plotted as accurately as possible at the beginning and end of each
strip and approximately every fifth photo centre on each strip shall be shown. The photo
centre’s shall be marked with a cross and labelled with their full exposure number.

h. Acceptable excess photographs beyond the specified requirement shall be numbered and
indicated on the flight plan by a broken line.

i. The numbers of the first and last exposure of each strip shall be reflected in tabular form.

j. The contractor’s identification mark.

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 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY Chapter 5
5.7 Photographic Records
The following records shall be supplied in respect of each job:

a. The Digital Photography Information as specified in Sub-section 5.6.5 Digital Photography

Information.

b. Sets of contact photographs as specified.

c. The flight plan as specified in Section 5.6 Flight Plan.

5.8 Aerial Triangulation

Photographic Coverage of the area to be mapped where aerial triangulation is to be used to
obtain planimetric and height control should adhere to the following:

• The Photo coverage should extend beyond the borders of the area to be mapped by at least
one model at the start and one model at the end of each strip, as well as at least half a strip
width along the borders.

• Photo control points should fall outside the borders of the area to be mapped to avoid any
extrapolation.

5.9 GPS Supported Aerial Triangulation

The Camera’s principal point (at the time of exposure) may be determined by GPS with the
following conditions:

• The Road Authority should provide approval of this method prior to execution as this
method results in the reduction of Photo control points required for the aerial triangulation.

• The Road Authority may provide additional specifications to be adhered to when making
use of this method.

• This Method may not be used for Large Scale Surveys.

5.10 Digital Scanning of Analogue Aerial Photographs

The scanning of Analogue Aerial Photographs for use in digital photogrammetry must
be undertaken with a high-resolution aerial photography scanner with the following
specifications:

• Output: 8-bits for black and white or 24-bits for colour photography.

• Format: TIFF or JPEG.

5.10.1 Digital Scanning Process

The digital scanning of all Analogue Aerial Photographs to a specified resolution; and subject
to the accuracy guideline, as depicted in Table 5-1, the scanning must be done to a resolution
of 21 micron unless otherwise specified. Digital data shall be supplied on clearly labelled DVD’s
or removable hard drives. All scanned images shall be checked prior to being submitted to the
Road Authority.

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 Chapter 5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Table 5-1: Accuracy Guideline

Photo Scale Pixel Size (Micron) Required Disk Pixel Size on
Space (Megabytes) Ground
for Grey Scale
TIFF Image (m)
1V:2500H 12.5 320 0.03
1V:2500H 25.0 80 0.06
1V:2500H 32.0 49 0.08
1V:5000H 12.5 320 0.06
1V:5000H 25.0 80 0.13
1V:5000H 32.0 49 0.16
1V:7500H 12.5 320 0.09
1V:7500H 25.0 80 0.19
1V:7500H 32.0 49 0.24
1V:10000H 12.5 320 0.13
1V:10000H 25.0 80 0.25
1V:10000H 32.0 49 0.32
1V:15000H 12.5 320 0.19
1V:15000H 25.0 80 0.38
1V:15000H 32.0 49 0.48
1V:20000H 12.5 320 0.25
1V:20000H 25.0 80 0.50
1V:20000H 32.0 49 0.64

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 SATELLITE IMAGES Chapter 6

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 6 SATELLITE IMAGES

6 SATELLITE IMAGES
6.1 Introduction
Satellite Images are high resolution images that are obtained from the satellites orbiting the
earth. The quality of these images is sufficient to be used in certain applications of Survey
which shall be addressed in the sections that follow.

6.2 Purpose of the Images

Satellite images may be used to generate Digital Terrain Models with grids specified by the
Road Authority (e.g. 30 metres by 30 metres) only for preliminary planning, route planning
and feasibility studies.

These up-to-date high resolution images can be acquired in a very short time with different
resolutions depending on the desired application.

Satellite imagery allows the collection of information over areas which are too costly, too
dangerous or too remote for human observers to directly access.

Figure 6 1: Satellite Image shows an example of a satellite image

6.3 Benefits of Satellite Imagery

The following benefits for satellite imagery are:

• The needs of a wide range of professional fields can be met. Geographic Information
Systems (GIS), Land Development, Engineering Surveys, Disaster Response etc.)

• Up-to-date information can be acquired as quickly as in 3 days depending on the availability

of the vendor.

• The lack of the need for flight plans, permits and approvals speeds up administration and
therefore reduces the time involved.

• It allows collection of information over areas which are too costly, too dangerous or too
remote for human observers to directly access.

6.4 Uses
The most common uses for Satellite Images include preliminary planning, route planning and
feasibility studies by means of:

• Geo-positioned Backdrops.

• Digital Terrain Models.

6.5 Accuracy
The accuracy of each application is determined by the resolution of the satellite used. The
capability of each satellite is supplied by its vendor. The Consultant shall consider the best
vendor for the required application as many factors have to be taken into consideration.

Available Satellites at date of publication are divided into two categories as follows:

a. High Spatial Resolution (0.6 metres – 4.0 metres):

• Geo Eye-1.

• WorldView-2.

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 SATELLITE IMAGES Chapter 6
• WorldView-3.

• QuickBird.

• IKONOS.

• FORMOSAT-2.

• ALOS.

• CARTOSAT-1.

• SPOT-5.

b. Medium Spatial Resolution (4.0 metres-30 metres):

• ASTER.

• LANDSAT7.

• CBERS-2.

Figure 6-1: Satellite Image of Kasane Area

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 Chapter 6 SATELLITE IMAGES

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 CADASTRAL DATA Chapter 7

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 7 CADASTRAL DATA

7 CADASTRAL DATA
7.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the collection of all data defining the cadastral boundaries of properties
registered at Land Boards and the Department of Surveys and Mapping. With regard to road
surveys, this chapter has particular relevance to the establishment of road reserve boundaries.
The survey work envisaged in this chapter falls under the jurisdiction of the Land Survey Act,
and all its requirements should be adhered to.

7.2 Purpose of Cadastral Data

The purpose of cadastral data shall be to provide current, up to date and accurately calculated
cadastral information to compile detailed cadastral plans of a project to:

a. Establish road reserves.

b. Produce expropriation plans.

c. Supplement and complete the final mapping project.

This shall exclude interior boundaries of separate mining titles which constitute single
mining properties, but shall include all farms, subdivisions, smallholdings, township lots,
servitudes, road proclamations, etc; falling within the surveyed area as at the date of the
survey. All cadastral surveys should be surveyed by registered Land Surveyors and submitted
to the Director of Surveys and Mapping for their approval as stated in the Land Survey Act of
Botswana.

7.3 Copies of Diagrams

The primary source of cadastral information shall be the office of the Department of Surveys
and Mapping, from which copies of existing cadastral compilation sheets and diagrams can
be obtained. Cadastral information may also be sourced from Land Boards, who are the
custodians at District Council level.

7.4 Cadastral Calculations

Calculations of co-ordinates for plotting purposes shall be checked and arranged in an orderly
manner. A complete co-ordinate list in numerical order shall be supplied.

7.5 Cadastral Plotting

Unless otherwise specified the plotting of cadastral lines on the survey sheets shall be extended
to at least 100 metres beyond the surveyed area. Reference is made to Sub-section 7.7.1 Pen and
Letter Sizes.

For ease of correlation, all beacons featured in the cadastral calculations shall be arranged in
numerical order. Such numbers shall be noted in red if on LO and in blue if on any other system,
on the compilation plans as well as on the individual diagrams. These numbers shall not be
annotated on the final plans, but only on the cadastral key plan, or as otherwise specified.

All boundaries of servitudes and rights of way shall be indicated by dashed lines, except where
these lines are also the boundaries of subdivisions.

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 CADASTRAL DATA Chapter 7
7.6 Cadastral Draughting Requirements
The following requirements should be adhered to when draughting cadastral plans:
a. All boundaries, beacons and property descriptions shall be drawn in black uppercase
lettering, or as otherwise specified, on the original plans. Prior authority shall be obtained for
any deviation from this instruction.

b. All cadastral farm names shall appear immediately outside and at the top or bottom of the
survey area. This will generally depend on the density, shape and size of the farm. It may
be necessary in some cases to reduce the size of the farm name to not less than 3.0 mm height,
to be able to accommodate the name outside of the area mapped.

c. Farm names shall at all times appear on the edges of the mapping and in a parallel position
along the main cadastral boundaries. All cadastral information shall form part of the digital
CAD contour and detail survey.

7.6.1 Pen and Letter Sizes

The following guidelines should be applied to pen and letter sizing on cadastral plans:

a. When the property sizes are small in area, as in township layouts, discretion shall be used
when annotating the property description and numbers.

b. Descriptions of both farms are required to be written along common boundary line and
adjacent to each other.

Note: Care shall be taken to ensure that property description and sub divisional numbers agree with their
respective diagrams.

c. The cadastral description i.e. farm name and Department of Surveys and Mapping number
shall be shown for each farm, subdivision, servitude and right of way.

7.7 Cadastral Key Plan

Unless otherwise specified, the surveyor shall supply a cadastral key plan on standard A0 size
sheets, as well as in a CAD format at a scale of between 1V:5000H, 1V:10000H or 1V:25000H,
depending on the density of the cadastral information.

The key plan shall show the following:

a. All survey sheets, accurately plotted on the A0 sheet. Separate CAD layer, with the survey
sheets plotted, shall accompany the digital CAD key plan.

b. All farm boundaries, subdivisions and townships. The full property affected by the survey
must be calculated and plotted.

c. The numbers of all cadastral beacons referring to the relevant cadastral calculations.

7.8 Filing
7.8.1 Cadastral Records
All cadastral data shall be filed in an A4 file and subject to the following specifications:

a. Index shall be grouped separately under the parent properties in an alphabetical order.

b. Diagrams shall be filed according to the index on the first page of the file and arranged in
numerical sequence according to sub divisional numbers.

c. Compilation sheets shall be folded in A4 format and filed in sequence, with the compilation
number on the outside of the folded sheet.

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 Chapter 7 CADASTRAL DATA

All co-ordinates shall be supplied on good quality discs in the prescribed ASCII format, labelled
to identify the contents.

7.9 Standard Accuracy: Cadastral Plotting

Errors in the plotting of cadastral boundaries, whether by co-ordinates or by angle and
distance, shall not exceed 1.0 mm in the co-ordinate grid.

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 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS Chapter 8

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

8.1 Introduction
This chapter specifies the requirements for carrying out small scale surveys as scales of
1V:5000H to 1V:10000H. These surveys are primarily carried out to assist the Road Authority
and designer in the feasibility and preliminary design stages of project development to provide
a global presentation of a large area for the purpose of route comparisons and planning. This
type of survey provides less detail but is less costly than large scale surveys.

8.2 Purpose of the Survey

The purpose of this survey shall be to provide digital data and detailed plans as specified by
the Road Authority for comparison of different routes with regard to gradients, curvature,
extent of earthworks, severance of properties, etc; as a preliminary to large scale surveys of
selected routes. The survey will further be used to identify the areas where the large scale
surveys will be carried out.

8.3 Phases of the Survey

The following are recognized as separated phases of the survey and shall be carried out or
omitted as specified in the Survey Requirements:

a. Photography, being the aerial photography. Reference is made to Chapter 5: Aerial

Photography.

b. The Photo Control, being all ground survey work required for the establishment of photo
control points, the annotations of detail on the photographs, the aerial triangulation and
the supply of all related records.

c. Plotting, being the photogrammetric compilation and electronic data capturing of all
detail, the drawing of the plans, the final checking in the office and the supply of all related
records. Reference is made to Chapter 13: Draughting of Topoghraphical Plans.

d. The Cadastral Phase, being the collection of the data defining all cadastral boundaries and
designations from the office of the Department of Surveys and Mapping and other sources;
the preparation and plotting thereof on the plans and supply of all related records. No
cadastral key plan is required. Reference is made to Chapter 7: Cadastral Data.

8.4 Scale and Units

The scale shall be 1V:5000H or as laid down in the Survey Requirements.

The width of the strip shall be 2000 metres or as laid down in the Survey Requirements.

The contour interval shall be as laid down in the Survey Requirements.

8.5 Photography
The photography shall adhere to the following:

a. The photography shall be taken at a mean flying height above ground elevation not
exceeding 3060 metres (1V:20000H) or as laid down in the Survey Requirements.

b. The centre line of the photography shall fall along the approximate middle of the area to
be surveyed and the average flying height shall not exceed 2.0% lower or 5.0% higher than the
specified height.

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 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS Chapter 8
8.6 Flight Plan and Sheet Layout
The Flight plan and Sheet Layout shall be determined by adhering to the following:

a. The survey shall run from left to right in the direction of increasing route/section numbers.

b. A sheet layout shall be submitted for approval before the draughting of the survey is
commenced, a working plan is not required. Reference is made to Appendix M: Working
Plan.

c. The flight plan shall be supplied as per Section 5.6 Flight Plan and Appendix O: Flight Plan.

8.7 Photo Control

The following needs to be adhered to when establishing Photo Control for the purpose of the
rectification of Imagery:

a. Each Model shall be fully controlled; The minimum amount of points required to control
scale and height in the spatial model (i.e. stereoscopic overlap) would be two co-ordinated
and three heighted points. (The co-ordinated points may be heighted points).

b. Ground control points fixed in the field may be supplemented by means of aerial
triangulation.

c. Photo ground control points, if not premarked, shall be positively identified in the
field under a stereoscope. Each point shall be pricked on one photograph only. To avoid
misidentification a description of each point shall be given and a sketch made on the back
of the photograph on which it appears. Reference is made to Sub-section 3.6.4 Marking of
Identified Ground Control: Photo Control (PC), and Level Photo Control (LPC) and Sub-
section 3.6.5 Field Sketch.

d. The position of the ground control points shall be such that the entire strip to be surveyed
falls inside the control pattern; extrapolation will not be allowed. Reference is made to Chapter
5: Aerial Photography, for GPS supported Triangulation.

e. If aerial triangulation is to be carried out, the spacing of the photo ground control points
shall be such that the number of models per section between photo ground control points
shall not exceed 3 base lengths.

f. Photo control points fixed by aerial triangulation may be suitable points of detail, identified
and marked on the photograph.

g. The LO co-ordinates and heights of the photo ground control points shall be fixed by
Global Positioning System (GPS) or normal survey methods from surrounding trig beacons.
The generally accepted principles, being adequate checking, orderly recording of field
notes and calculations, shall apply. Sufficient fieldwork shall be done to ensure that every
part of the field survey is checked. For GPS heighting. Reference is made to Sub-section 3.6.1
Vertical Photo Control.

h. A separated and full co-ordinate list, punched for filing as specified in Section 4.2.h General
Requirements, shall be prepared to show every photo control point with its co-ordinates
and height.

i. Although annotation is not generally a prerequisite for this type of survey, a certain amount
of annotation is required in order to identify important detail which may have a bearing on
the location of a road.

Names of homesteads, villages, stations, rivers, important features, such as graves, holy and
historic places, etc. shall be given as well as destinations of main roads and railways.

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8.8 Aerial Triangulation

The methods of Aerial Triangulation used in Small Scale Surveys are the same as those used
for Large Scale Mapping. Reference is made to Section 3.8 Aerial Triangulation for Large Scale
Mapping.

8.9 Plotting
When plotting small scale surveys, the following should be considered:

a. In general, all topographical features and manmade structures, consistent with the scale of
the plans and the purpose of the survey, shall be plotted. In addition to major detail,
the main requirements are the contours and the supplementary spot heights which shall
be sufficiently frequent to ensure accurate interpolation of heights for the comparison of
earthwork quantities of different routes.

Frequent spot heights shall be given on existing roads, railways and areas subject to flooding.

b. Where the ground is obscured by vegetation or other matter, the required detail shall be
surveyed in the field if requested. In this case, the contours shall be supplemented by means
of spot heights surveyed in the field and shown on the plan.

c. Unless otherwise specified, contours shall be plotted at 5.0 metres vertical intervals and
supplemented by spot heights wherever the contours are insufficient to portray ground
shapes faithfully.

d. A good quality double matt, stable based, transparent material of not less than 0.075 mm
or more than 0.15 mm thickness and a standard A0 sheet shall be used, unless otherwise
specified.

The first sheet and digital CAD data shall be submitted to the Road Authority for approval
before commencing with the remainder of the project.

e. Wherever a change of LO system occurs, except for the 15 minute exclusion zone, the co-
ordinate axes and values of both LO systems shall be shown on the sheet straddling the LO
meridian.

If survey does not extend for more than 15 minutes beyond the LO system of origin, only the
system of origin shall be used.

In addition, at least three adjoining survey points on the affected sheet shall be given on both
LO systems. Both sets of co-ordinates shall be given in the co-ordinate list and on the relevant
plan.

The remainder of the survey shall be completed in the new LO system.

f. All symbols used shall conform to those laid down in the drawing specifications.

Reference is made to Chapter 13: Draughting of Topographical Plans.

Plans and Digital CAD data shall be carefully checked after completion by the Surveyor, both
in the field and office. Wherever the ground is obscured by dense vegetation, contours shall be
supplemented by spot heights fixed in the field and shown on the plan. All records of the field
and office checks shall be submitted with the final plans.

The spelling of place names shall be strictly according to Botswana Place Names Commission
and the Department of Surveys and Mapping.

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 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS Chapter 8
8.9.1 Plan Details
The following minimum requirements shall be applied to the detailing of small scale surveys:

a. All details as prescribed in Section 8.9.(a) Plotting.

b. Co-ordinate grid lines and their full values. Reference is made to Section 13.6 Draughting.

c. Values of contours at intervals of approximately 400 mm along the contour and at the
end(s) of each contour.

d. A title block according to the Road Authority specifications.

e. All survey stations, photo control points and trig beacons which plots within the limits of
the sheet.

f. All photo centres.

All detail and contours shall be digitally captured in a format as specified by the Road Authority.
Reference is made to Section 13.8 Contours, or as otherwise specified.

8.10 Standards of Accuracy

8.10.1 Photo Ground Control Points (PC’s)
The planimetric photo control stations shall be surveyed to a class C accuracy. Reference is
made to Appendix B: Accuracy of Fieldwork.

8.10.2 Planimetric
The position of any well-defined point of detail on the plan shall agree to within 0.5 mm with
its position as derived by ground survey methods. Such point shall be tested only against such
fixed points in its vicinity as were actually used to fix it or are near enough to have been so
used under normal circumstances. The planimetric errors of 90% of all points checked shall
not exceed 0.5 mm.

8.10.3 Contours
The accuracy of the contours shall be such that the difference of the elevation of the checked
points as determined by interpolation between contours when compared with the elevation
as determined in the field, shall not exceed 0.05% of the flying height; e.g. if the scale of the
photography is 1 in 20000 and the focal length of the camera is 152 mm, the flying height is
thus 3060 metres and the accuracy of 90% of all contours checked shall be within 1.5 metres
of their true values.

8.10.4 Spot Heights

The accuracy of the photogrammetric spot heights is generally required to be approximately
twice the accuracy of the contours. In the above case of 1 in 20000 photography the accuracy
of 90% of all spot heights checked shall be within 0.75 metres of their true values.

8.10.5 Co-Ordinate Grid

The co-ordinate axes shall be plotted accurately at a spacing of 200 mm. The variation in the
spacing of any two grid lines shall not exceed 0.3 mm from this distance, nor shall the grid line
intersections deviate from the rectangular by more than 5 minutes.

8.10.6 Co-Ordinate Points

Co-ordinate points shall be plotted on the plan to within 0.5 mm of their true position in
relation to the co-ordinate grid.

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8.10.7 Cadastral Plotting

The positional error of a plotted cadastral point shall not exceed ± 1.0 mm in relation to the
co-ordinate grid.

8.11 Methods of Testing and Inspection

8.11.1 Photography
On receipt, the Road Authority shall visually inspect the digital image for photographic quality
and flight conditions. Further inspection or tests, deemed desirable after visual inspection,
and may be carried out by the Road Authority.

8.11.2 Photo Control

The errors in any control survey, carried out to test the accuracy of the photo ground control
points, shall not exceed the limits of allowable errors in fieldwork as laid down in Sub-section
8.10.1 Photo Ground Control Points (PC`s) and Appendix B: Accuracy of Fieldwork. A control
survey is usually carried out by a third party to check whether the final data are within the
allowable limits.

8.11.3 Planimetry
No mapping shall be rejected because of planimetric inaccuracy unless the error, derived
from at least twenty (20) check points, exceeds the tolerance specified in Sub-section 8.10.2
Planimetric. Check points shall be well distributed and shall be well defined points of detail.

8.11.4 Contours
No map sheet shall be rejected because of inaccuracy of the contours unless the error derived
from at least twenty (20) test points exceeds the tolerance specified in Sub-section 8.10.3
Contours. Check points shall be well distributed.

The completeness of topographic and cultural detail may be determined by an inspection in

the field.

8.12 Records
The surveyor shall submit all relevant records as specified in Chapter 4: Survey Records.

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 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS Chapter 9

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

9.1 Introduction
This chapter specifies the requirements for carrying out large scale surveys at a scale of
1V:500H to 1V:2000H. These surveys are carried out during later stages of project development
to provide more detailed plans, which cover smaller areas than a small scale photogrammetric
survey. This type of survey is more detailed, and costs more to cover the same area as a small
scale survey. The survey is used as a basis for production of detailed designs and construction
drawings.

Large Scale Surveys are carried out for the following applications:

a. Large Scale Photogrammetric Surveys are carried out to cater for large projects, but is
requested only at the discretion of the Road Authority, as as-built specifications differ
from each.

b. Conventional Methods may be requested for as-built surveys of large magnitude, of which
the time constraints are considered and approved by the Road Authority.

c. In many cases a combination of Large Scale Photogrammetric Surveys and Conventional

Methods are requested e.g. a Large Scale Photogrammetric Survey is conducted on the
entire planned road area and all road prisms and structures are surveyed by conventional
methods.

9.2 Purpose of the Survey

The purpose of this survey shall be to provide detailed plans and digital data for the selection
of a road centre line, to provide a backbone of permanently marked and accurately fixed survey
beacons for future use in staking, for revision surveys, to study the engineering requirements
of road construction and for rehabilitation and expropriation purposes.

9.3 Phases of the Survey

The following are recognized as separate phases of the survey and shall be carried out or
omitted as specified in the Survey Requirements.

a. The Photography, being the aerial photography, as specified in Chapter 5: Aerial Photography

b. The Basic Survey, being the establishment of a horizontal and vertical survey network of
permanent survey stations, and the supply of all related records. Reference is made to
Chapter 3: Survey and Photo Ground Control.

c. The Photo Ground Control, being all field survey work required for the establishment of
photo control points, the annotation of detail on the photographs, the aerial triangulation,
and the supply of all related records. Reference is made to Chapter 3: Survey and Photo
Ground Control.

d. Plotting, being the photogrammetric or other plotting and digital data recording of all
detail, the drawing for the plans, the final checking in the field and office, and the supply o
f all related records. Reference is made to Chapter 13: Draughting of Topographical Plans.

e. The Cadastral Compilation, being the collection of all data defining the cadastral boundaries
and designations from the office of the Director, Surveys and Mapping or other sources:
the preparation and plotting of the data on the plans, including all necessary field survey
and supply of all related records and key plans. Reference is made to Chapter 7: Cadastral
Data.

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 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS Chapter 9
9.4 Scale and Units
The scale of the survey shall be as laid down in the Survey Requirements. The following
guidelines regarding the units used and the width of strip surveyed:

• All horizontal and vertical measurements shall be recorded in metres.

• All angles shall be recorded in sexagesimal measure.

• The width of the strip to be surveyed shall normally be 750 metres for surveys of 1V:2000H
scale, 400 metres for surveys of 1V:1000H scale and 250 metres for surveys of 1V:500H scale
whenever the outline is not shown on the photographs or otherwise indicated or laid down
in the Survey Requirements.

9.5 Plotting
The following guidelines and requirements shall be adopted for plotting of the large scale
surveys:

a. A set of plans shall be plotted to the scale laid down in the Survey Requirements, using such
photogrammetric instruments and supplementary means as specified. Each plan or
a model of the whole project shall also be supplied in digital format according to the Road
Authority’s requirements. Reference is made to Section 13.2 General.

b. Before commencing plotting operations the Surveyor shall submit to the Road Authority
for approval, a provisional plan on a transparent topo-cadastral map at a scale of 1V:50000H
showing the proposed sheet layout. On completion of the survey project a final key plan
at a scale of 1V:50000H on a transparent topo-cadastral map shall be supplied, on which
the sheets are correctly shown. The sheet layout need not be a separate plan but may be
drawn on the working plan.

The survey shall run from left to right in the direction of increasing route/section numbers, or
as otherwise specified.

c. A double matt, stable based, transparent film material of good quality, not less than 0.075
mm nor more than 0.15 mm thick, 841 mm wide and 1189 mm long (A0 size) shall be used
for final plans, unless otherwise specified.

The first fair drawn sheet together with the corresponding digital CAD data shall be submitted
to the Road Authority for approval, before commencing with the remainder of the project.

d. Co-ordinate grid shall be plotted accurately at a spacing of 200 mm. The co-ordinate lines
shown shall be for those values which are multiples of: 100 metres for plans at 1V:500H,
200 metres for plans at 1V:1000H and 400 metres for plans at a 1V:2000H scale. Their full
values are to be indicated along the edges of the sheet.

e. Wherever a change of LO systems occurs, the co-ordinate axes and values of both LO
systems shall be shown on the sheet straddling the meridian.

In addition, at least three adjoining survey points on this sheet shall be given in both LO
systems; both sets of co-ordinates shall be given on the co-ordinate list and on the plan.

The balance of the survey shall be completed on the new LO system, except where the survey
does not extend more than 15 minutes beyond the adjacent system.

f. The plotted detail shall not extend beyond the margin of the plan. Unless otherwise
specified, the survey sheet shall overlap the adjoining sheets by not less than 50 mm
measured on the plan if the sheets are lying roughly in the same direction; if not, the
overlap shall be increased so that reasonable continuity is maintained. If grid intersections
do not fall within the overlap area it will be necessary to draw three well-spaced orientations
crosses the overlap. Reference is made to Section 13.5.c Co-ordinate Grids and Grid Values.

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 Chapter 9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

g. Drawing symbols for survey plans as specified in Chapter 13: Draughting of Topographical
Plans shall be strictly adhered to.

h. Plans and Digital CAD data shall be carefully checked after completion by the Surveyor,
both in the field and office. Wherever the ground is obscured by dense vegetation, contours
shall be supplemented by spot heights surveyed in the field and shown on the plan. All
records of field and office checks shall be submitted with the final plans.

Each sheet shall show:

(i) All details as prescribed in Section 9.6 Detail To Be Surveyed.

(ii) Co-ordinate grid lines and their full values without the deduction of any constant.

(iii) Contour values at the end(s) of contours and at approximately 400 mm intervals along the
contour.

(iv) A title block according to the Road Authority specifications,

• showing the title of the survey,

• route and section numbers,

• the name of the contracting firm and the date of survey,

• a co-ordinate list of permanent survey stations,

• the reference number and height of the benchmark of origin (level datum).

(v) All permanent survey stations, north direction, photogrammetric ground control points,
benchmarks and trig beacons which plot within the limits of the sheets.

(vi) All photo centres.

(vii) Sheet numbers shall increase in the direction of increasing route and section numbers
or as otherwise specified.

(viii) Space shall be allowed for a sheet index on all A0 sheets in the right hand bottom corner
of the working area of the sheet or, if so specified, in the individual title blocks. If due
to exceptional circumstances this cannot be done, the layout shall be drawn wherever
space allows. The sheet index shall show the sheet in relation to its adjoining sheets; only
sheet outlines and numbers need be shown. If separate cadastral overlays are necessary,
cross referencing in the space provided shall be used.

(ix) The sheet index on the topographical sheets shall show adjoining survey sheets whereas
on the cadastral overlay shall show the adjoining cadastral sheet(s).

9.6 Details to be Surveyed

In general all details which may have a bearing on the selection of the final road centre line
and on the engineering requirements for road construction shall be surveyed. Listed below are
some of the common features that should be included in the survey:

a. Spot heights for contours at 2.0 metres vertical intervals (unless otherwise specified),
supplemented by additional spot heights wherever the contours are insufficient to portray
ground shapes faithfully. In addition, spot heights at frequent intervals and on such
features as roads, railways and bridges, etc., where elevations may affect the engineering
design. In particular, deck levels of all bridges shall be given and spot heights at least every
100 metres on railway track and major roads. Sufficient heights shall appear on the plans
to enable a reliable longitudinal profile of the proposed road to be plotted.

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 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS Chapter 9
b. Rivers, streams, springs, canals, dams and their full supply levels, pans, marshes and areas
subject to tidal flooding (calling for additional spot heights); names, if any, of such features
and direction of flow where applicable, shall be indicated on the plans.

c. Highest known flood levels of main streams, as near as can be determined from local
evidence or information; the source of such information and the specific point and date
concerned, shall be indicated on the plans.

d. High tide marks high water marks of tidal rivers and water levels of streams and dams at
the date of survey.

e. Forest, bush, scrub, plantations, orchards, avenues, cultivated land, hedges, individual
trees which are landmarks, etc., with the outlines of such areas correctly shown.

f. Rock outcrops, cliffs, sand dunes, eroded areas and gullies.

g. Railways, The destination of all Botswana railway lines shall be indicated on the plans.

h. Roads, differentiating between earth and sand tracks, bitumen, concrete paved and
gravel surfaces, indicating status, number and destinations, foot plans, guard rails, kerbing,
manholes and side drainage shall be shown.

i. The destinations and descriptions of roads shall correspond with the route description in
the title block as supplied by the Road Authority.

j. Bridges (stating bridge numbers) and culverts, including detail regarding the dimensions
and types of construction relating to those structures which are situated on or across roads,
or which have a bearing on the drainage thereof.

k. Elevations of the centre of the road at the point of intersection of road and culvert, as well
as the invert levels of culverts, bridges and top inlets shall obtain by means of ground
survey methods, or as otherwise specified.

l. Drainage and irrigation furrow.

m. All buildings, differentiating between types of construction and stating the function of the
building other than domestic dwellings, e.g. store, school, etc.

n. National monuments and buildings or structures of historical interest, stating names.

o. Power and telecommunication lines, showing individual pylons and poles.

p. Underground pipe lines, cables and other features, the position of which shall be
ascertained from surface indications or from the responsible authorities.

q. Gates and fences, differentiating between boundary, cattle grids, stock proof, vermin proof
and security fencing, etc. All access points shall be shown.

r. Stone or brick walls, wells, boreholes and windmills, indicating depths and supply rating
when obtainable.

s. Cuttings, embankments, quarries, borrow pits, tunnels and mine workings.

t. Cemeteries and solitary graves.

u. Rock outcrops, loose boulders and bedrock.

v. Kilometre markers and all other road signs shall be indicated by the specified symbols.

w. Wherever a surveyed feature of any kind, in particular those listed under Sections 9.6
Details To Be Surveyed is contained, within well-defined outlines, the outlines shall be
shown in their true shape and the correct symbol.

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 Chapter 9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

x. In general, all topography and manmade structures, the plotting of which is consistent
with the scale of the plans.

y. In respect of such areas as built up townships, industrial or mining sites, etc. written
approval shall be obtained for the omission of detail which is considered to be irrelevant.

9.7 Standards of Accuracy

9.7.1 General
The standard of accuracy of the survey shall be taken as the standard of accuracy relative to
the trig beacons, bench marks or other reference points upon which the survey is based. When
comparing the results of a survey with the results of a control survey, due allowance shall
be made for the standard of accuracy of the latter. All the points in the stereoscopic model
shall be indicated on the setting sheet in their relative position to each other. Final absolute
closures shall be indicated next to each point on the setting sheet. For Accuracy Tolerances,
reference is made to Chapter 2: Survey Regulations and Standards of Accuracy.

9.8 Methods of Testing and Inspection

9.8.1 Photography
On receipt thereof the Road Authority shall visually inspect the digital image, for photographic
quality and flight conditions. Further inspections or tests, as deemed desirable may be carried
out by the Road Authority.

9.8.2 Basic Survey and Photo Ground Control

The errors in any control survey, carried out to test the accuracy of the basic survey and
photo ground control points, shall not exceed the tolerances as laid down in Chapter 2: Survey
Regulations and Standards of Accuracy.

9.8.3 Planimetry
No mapping sheet shall be rejected because of planimetric inaccuracy unless the error, derived
from at least twenty (20) check points, exceeds the tolerance as laid down in Section 2.6 Detail
Accuracy. Check points shall be evenly distributed and shall be well defined points of detail.

9.8.4 Contours
No mapping shall be rejected because of inaccuracy of the contours unless the error, derived
from at least twenty (20) test points, exceeds the tolerance as laid down in Section 2.7 Contour
Accuracy. Check points shall be evenly distributed and shall be well defined points of detail.

9.8.5 Completeness of Detail

The completeness of all topographic detail shall be determined by a thorough inspection in
the field.

9.8.6 General
In addition to a field inspection and other tests, the Road Authority reserves the right to inspect
any or all phases of the work at any time, either in the field or at the surveyor’s premises.

9.9 Records
The surveyor shall submit all records as defined in Chapter 4: Survey Records.

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 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS Chapter 10

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC

COMPLETION SURVEYS
10.1 Introduction
This chapter specifies the requirements for large scale surveys at a scale of 1V:1000H to
1V:2000H, undertaken after construction. These photogrammetric surveys are carried out to
provide a detailed record of the constructed road.

10.2 Purpose of the Survey

The purpose of this survey shall be to provide accurate plans and digital data of completed
roads, showing all details of construction and to provide a backbone of permanently marked,
accurately fixed survey beacons for future use.

10.3 Phases of the Survey

The following are recognized as separate phases of the survey and shall be carried out or
omitted as specified in the general survey requirements for large scale mapping.

a. The Photography, being the aerial photography. Reference is made to Chapter 5: Aerial
Photography.

b. The Basic Survey, being the establishment of a horizontal and vertical survey network of
permanent survey stations and the supply of all related records. Reference is made to
Chapter 3: Survey and Photo Ground Control.

c. The Photo Ground Control, being all field survey work required for the photo control, the
annotation of detail on the Sub-sections, the aerial triangulation and supply of all related
records. Reference is made to Chapter 3: Survey and Photo Ground Control.

d. Plotting, being the photogrammetric or other plotting and digital data recording of all
detail, the fair drawing of the plans, the final checking in the field office, and the supply of
all the related records. Reference is made to Chapter 13: Draughting of Topographical
Plans.

e. The Cadastral Phase, being the completion of all the data defining the cadastral boundaries
and designations obtained from the Department of Survey and Mapping or other sources.
The proper preparation and plotting on the plans, including such field survey as may be
necessary and the supply of all related records and key plan(s). Reference is made to
Chapter 7: Cadastral Data.

10.4 Scale and Units

The scale of the survey shall be as laid down in the Survey Requirements. The following
guidelines regarding the units used and the width of strip surveyed:

a. Lengths and distances, both horizontal and vertical, shall be recorded in metres.

b. Angles shall be recorded in sexagesimal measure.

c. The width of the strip to be surveyed shall normally cover 250 metres outside either road
reserve boundary for surveys of 1V:2000H and 1V:1000H scales. The width of the surveyed
strip shall be increased at all interchanges and road intersections to cover a radius of 500
metres from the intersection of the centre lines of such structures, unless otherwise
specified.

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 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS Chapter 10
10.5 Plotting
The following guidelines and requirements shall be adopted for plotting of the large scale
photogrammetric completions surveys:

a. A set of plans shall be plotted to a scale as laid down in the Survey Requirements, using such
photogrammetric instruments and supplementary means as specified. Each plan, or model
of the whole project shall also be supplied in digital format according to the Road Authority’s
requirements, unless otherwise specified.

b. A final key plan at a minimum of 1V:50000H, on a transparent topo-cadastral map, shall be

submitted at the completion of the survey project, on which the sheets are correctly
shown. The sheet layout need not be a separate plan, but may be drawn on the working
plan. The survey plan shall run from left to right in the direction of increasing route and
section numbers, unless otherwise specified.

c. A double matt, stable base transparent film material of good quality and not less than 0.075
mm nor more than 0.15 mm thick, 841 mm wide and 1189 mm long (A0 size), shall be used
for the final drawing of the survey sheet, unless otherwise specified. The first draughted
sheet together with the corresponding digital CAD data shall be submitted to the Road
Authority for approval before commencing with the remainder of the project.

d. Co-ordinate grids shall be plotted accurately at a spacing of 200 mm. The co-ordinate lines
shown shall be for those values which are multiples of: 100 metres for plans at 1V:500H,
200 metres for plans at 1V:1000H, and 400 metres for plans at 1V:2000H scales. The full
values shall be indicated along the edges of the sheet.

e. Wherever a change of LO system occurs, the co-ordinate axes and value of both LO systems
shall be shown on the sheet straddling the meridian at which the change of system occurs.
In addition, at least three adjoining survey points on this sheet shall be given on both LO
systems; both sets of co-ordinates shall be given on the co-ordinate list of the relevant
plan. The balance of the survey shall be completed on the new LO system, except when the
survey does not extend more than 15 minutes beyond the adjacent system.

f. The plotted detail shall not extend beyond the margin of the plan. Unless otherwise
specified, survey sheets shall overlap the adjoining sheets by not less than 50 mm, as
measured on the plan, if the sheets are lying roughly in the same direction. If not, the
overlap may be increased so that reasonable continuity is maintained. If the 200 mm grid
intersections do not fall in the overlap area it will be necessary to draw three well-spaced
orientation crosses for matching purposes.

g. The symbol as specified in the drawing specifications, Chapter 13: Draughting of

Topographical Plans, shall be used for the survey plans.

h. Plans and Digital CAD data shall be carefully checked after completion by the Surveyor,
both in the field and office. Wherever the ground is obscured by dense vegetation, contours
shall be supplemented by spot heights surveyed in the field and shown on the plan. All
records of the field and office checks shall be submitted with the final plans.

i. Each sheet shall show:

1. All detail as prescribed in Section 9.5 Plotting.

2. Co-ordinate lines and their full values without the deduction of any constant.

3. Contour values at frequent intervals on the contour. (± every 400 mm) and at the end
of the contour lines.

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 Chapter 10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

4. A title block according to the Road Authority’s specifications, showing the title of the
survey, the route and section numbers, the name of the Contractor and the date of the
survey; a co-ordinate list of permanent survey stations and the benchmark reference
number and elevation (Level datum).

5. All permanent survey stations, north direction, photo ground- and aerial triangulation
control points, any benchmarks and trig beacons which plot within the limits of the
sheets.

6. All photo centres.

7. Sheets shall be numbered in the direction of increasing route and section numbers, unless
otherwise specified.

8. Space shall be allowed for sheet index on all A0 sheets in the right hand bottom corner of
the working area of the sheet if provision is not already made for this in the individual title
blocks.

9. If in exceptional circumstances this cannot be done, the index shall be drawn where
space allows. The index shall show the sheet in relation to all adjoining sheets and
only sheets outlines and numbers need be shown. If separate cadastral overlays are
necessary, cross referencing in the space provided shall be used, the index on the
survey sheets shall show adjoining survey sheets only whereas the index on the
cadastral overlays shall show only the adjoining cadastral sheets.

10.6 Details to be Surveyed

In general, all detail within the specified width, including that which has resulted from the
construction of the road, with special regard to drainage and services, shall be surveyed and
plotted in ink.

Existing “As Built” plans of the road shall be used to support the annotation process; including:

a. Contours at 2.0 metres vertical intervals, unless otherwise specified, with supplementary
spot heights wherever the contours are insufficient to portray ground shapes faithfully;
frequent spot heights, round off to one decimal of a metre, on such features as roads,
railways and bridges, etc. where elevations may be necessary for engineering design; in
particular, spot heights shall appear on all bridge decks, culverts and at least at 100 metres
intervals on railway tracks and major roads. Sufficient heights shall appear on the plans to
enable a reliable longitudinal profile of the road to be plotted. The determination of the
roads horizontal and vertical alignments can be requested by the Road Authority.

b. Rivers, streams, springs, canals, dams, pans, marshes and areas subject to tidal flooding
(requiring additional spot heights), etc; the names, if any, of such features and the direction
of flow where applicable shall be indicated on the plans.

c. Highest known flood levels of main streams as near as can be determined from local
evidence or information. The source of such information and the specific point and date
concerned shall be indicated on the plans.

d. High tide marks and full supply levels of dams.

e. Forest, bush, shrub, plantations, orchards, avenues, hedges and individual trees which are
landmarks, etc. with the outlines of such areas correctly shown.

f. Cultivated land, rock outcrops, loose boulders, bedrock, cliffs and sand dunes, etc.

g. Eroded areas and gullies.

h. Railways.

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 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS Chapter 10
i. Roads, footpaths and tracks, differentiating between bitumen, concrete, paved and gravel
surfaces, indicating status and number of the road and the measured width of the surfaced
top with destinations at both ends of the road.

• Bridges (indicating bridge number) and culverts and their detail regarding the number,
dimensions and type of construction, relating to those structures which are situated
on or across roads, or which have a bearing on the drainage thereof.

• Elevations on the centre line of the road at the intersections of the road and culverts
as well as invert levels of culverts, bridges and drop inlets shall be obtained by means
of field survey methods, or as otherwise specified.

• The deck of every numbered bridge shall be accurately levelled and plotted on the map
sheet, using the wing walls and expansion joints of the deck to obtain the outline.

j. Drainage and irrigation furrows.

k. All buildings, differentiating between types of construction and stating their function
other than domestic dwellings, e.g. store, school, etc. and any important features.

l. National monuments and buildings or structures of historical interest, indicating names.

m. Power and telecommunication lines and carrier routes, showing individual poles and
pylons.

n. All underground services, such as pipe lines, cables and other features, the position of
which can be ascertained from surface indications shall be investigated, researched and
supplemented with cadastral servitudes.

o. Gates and fences, differentiating between cattle grids, boundary, stock proof, vermin
proof, security and cordon fences. All access points shall be shown.

p. Stone or brick walls.

q. Wells, boreholes, windmills, veterinary dips.

r. Kilometre markers.

s. Cuttings, embankments, quarries, bore pits, tunnels, mine workings.

t. Cemeteries and solitary graves.

u. Rock outcrops, loose boulders and bedrock.

v. All permanently placed and approved road signs, e.g. stop, yield, route information signs,
etc. shall be indicated on the plans by a black positional dot connected by a short black line
to an ellipse outside detailed survey area in which the relevant reference of that road sign
is indicated (Reference is made to Section 13.19 Draughting Symbols of the symbol list).

w. Wherever a surveyed feature of whatever nature, but in particular those listed under
Section 10.6 Details to be surveyed above, is contained within well-defined outlines, these
outlines shall be shown in their true shape with the correct symbol.

x. The survey shall show all topography and manmade structures, the plotting of which
is consistent with the scale of the plans, with the provision that in respect of such areas as
built up townships, industrial or mining sites, etc. written approval shall be obtained for
the omission of detail which is considered to be irrelevant.

y. Borrow pits located adjacent to the road reserve.

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 Chapter 10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

10.7 Standards of Accuracy

Reference is made to Large Scale Mapping, Section 9.7 Standards of Accuracy.

For tolerance errors, Reference is made to Chapter 2: Survey Regulations and Standards of
Accuracy.

10.8 Methods of Testing and Inspection

The methods described in Section 9.8 Methods of Testing and Inspection as applicable to the
section.

10.9 Records
The Surveyor shall submit the records as defined in Chapter 4: Survey Records.

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 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS Chapter 11

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS
11.1 Introduction
This chapter specifies Orthophoto Maps in scale 1V:5000H to 1V:10000H which are used
in design and planning. An orthophoto is an aerial photograph geometrically corrected
(“orthorectified”) such that the scale is uniform: the photo has the same lack of distortion as
a map. Unlike an uncorrected aerial photograph, an orthophotograph can be used to measure
true distances, because it is an accurate representation of the Earth’s surface, having been
adjusted for topographic relief, lens distortion and camera tilt.

11.2 Purpose of Survey

The purpose of this survey shall be to provide accurate small and large scales orthophoto maps
for design and planning purposes.

11.3 Phases of Survey

The following are recognized as separate phases of the survey, to be carried out or omitted, as
specified in the Road Authority’s Survey Requirements.

a. The Photography, being the aerial photography, the processing and supply of the digital
images and flight plans are required. Reference is made to Chapter 5: Aerial Photography.
The photo scale shall depend on the final scale of the orthophoto.

b. The Photo Ground Control, being all field survey work required for the establishment
of photo ground control points, the annotation of detail on the photographs, the aerial
triangulation and the supply of all related records. Reference is made to Chapter 3: Survey
and Photo Ground Control or Section 8.7 Photo Control for small scale orthophotos.

c. The Orthophoto Process, being the digital photogrammetric process to produce orthophoto
maps.

d. The Cadastral Phase, being the collection of data defining all cadastral boundaries and
designations from the office of the Department of Surveys and Mapping or other sources.
The preparation and plotting, or overlaying thereof, on the orthophoto maps, including
such field surveys as may be necessary and the supply of all related records. Reference is
made to Chapter 7: Cadastral Data.

11.4 Scales and Units

The scale shall be as laid down in the Survey Requirements, as stated in the Terms of Reference.
The area to be mapped shall be indicated on a set of photographs or map(s) or as laid down in
the Survey Requirements, as stated in the Terms of Reference.

11.5 Orthophoto Process

The layout of the final map sheets shall be planned so as to allow as far as possible for three
parallel strips to be plotted per map sheet. Before commencing with the preparation of the
orthophotos the contractor shall submit for approval a provisional key plan on transparent
material to a scale of 1V:50000H, showing the proposed layout of the sheets. The plan shall
show major features such as rivers, towns, roads, railways and interchanges within the area to
be mapped. A final key plan on transparent material, on which the final sheets are shown, shall
be submitted on completion of the work.

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 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS Chapter 11
11.6 Final Orthophoto Map
The following submission shall be made to the Road Authority on completion of the ortho-
photo survey:
a. The final orthophoto map sheet as a composite, screened transparency, laterally reversed
on the emulsion side and comprising one or more road strips.

b. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) containing the raw observations and rigid grid on
compact disc in a format as specified by the Road Authority.

The following detail shall be shown on the final orthophoto maps:

• A title block according to the Road Authority’s specification, showing the title of the survey,
the sheet number, scale and a co-ordinate list of permanent survey stations.

• A Title block and data boxes, in accordance with the Road Authority’s specifications, shall
be drawn along the bottom of each sheet with one of the long edges as the bottom of the sheet.

• Grid lines, in accordance with the requirements set out in Sub-section 11.6.1 Requirements
for Grid Lines.

• Cadastral boundaries, including the limits of all road proclamations.

• The property name and number shall be entered on each separate property, provided that
when this is not possible, such as in a high density township layout, streets and blocks of
erven only need be shown.

• Contours at 2.0 metres vertical intervals, with spot heights on isolated features, unless
otherwise specified. Contour values shall be given at not less than 400 mm intervals.

• All permanent survey stations, benchmarks and trig beacons which plot within the limits
of the survey strip.

• The north direction for each survey strip. The layout of each strip shall always be from left
to right in the direction of increasing route and section numbers, unless otherwise
specified.

• The positions, names and descriptions of annotated detail, in accordance with Sub-section.
11.6.2 Features to be Annotated.

• The Final Orthophoto Map Sheet.

• The map shall be printed on a matt surfaced, positive film, laterally reversed so that direct
emulsion to emulsion printing is possible. The film should be approximately 0.1 mm thick.

11.6.1 Requirements for Grid Lines

The grid lines shall be plotted accurately along the length of the survey strip and shall be at a
spacing of 200 mm. At least two axes shall be shown across the strip and the spacing shall be
reduced to 100 mm, if necessary to achieve this. The full values, i.e. without the deduction
of any constant, are to be indicated along the edge of the survey strip. Reference is made to
Section 13.3 Preparations of Sheets.

Wherever a survey crosses from one LO system of the national triangulation to another,
the plotting may be continued on the first LO system across the meridian dividing the two
systems, provided that on the next sheet the appropriate LO system shall be used. In addition,
wherever a change of system occurs, the co-ordinate axes and values of both LO systems shall
be shown on the two survey strips concerned for alignment purposes. Reference is made to
Section 8.9 Plotting.

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 Chapter 11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

No overlap between strips is required if the road strips are lying roughly in the same direction;
if not, the overlap shall be not less than 50 mm so that reasonable continuity is maintained. In
the overlap area alone, the grid spacing shall be reduced to 100 mm and only crosses shall be
drawn at the intersection of the extra grid lines. At least three crosses shall fall in the overlap
area and shall be specifically drawn for matching purposes if necessary.

11.6.2 Features to be Annotated

The features listed below shall be annotated and described on the final orthophoto sheet. The
description of a feature shall be positioned to clearly indicate the feature. Where a feature is
large enough to be clearly visible on the final orthophoto, such as large rivers, dams, etc., the
name of the feature need only be given:

a. Power and telecommunication lines to be shown as symbols, not individual poles, but as
close to the correct position of the line as possible.

b. Underground services, such as pipe lines and cables, the position of which shall be
ascertained from surface indications or the responsible authorities. The positions of approved,
but not yet constructed, way leaves shall be obtained from the Road Authority and
indicated on the plans, using relevant symbols.

c. All fences shall be shown; particular attention shall be given to fences demarcating
properties, boundaries and road reserves. In built up areas internal fences may be omitted.

d. Kilometre markers, usually at every full km value.

e. River and stream names, springs, canals, boreholes, dams, pans, marshes and areas subject
to tidal flooding (with additional spot heights).

f. The type of crop grown on major cultivated lands.

g. The origin and destination of all roads and railways.

h. Cemeteries and individual graves.

i. Bridges and culverts.

j. An applicable note in an area of extensive rock outcrops.

11.7 Standards of Accuracy

The Standard of accuracy allowed for Orthophoto Maps are consistent with that of the Large
Scale and Small Scale Mapping Specifications depending on the Scale of the Orthophoto. Refer
to Section 8.10 for Standards of Accuracy and Section 9.7 Standards of Accuracy.

11.8 Methods of Testing and Inspection

The Testing and Inspection Methods used for Orthomaps are the same as those used in Large
Scale Mapping. Refer to Sub-section 9.8 Method of Testing and Inspection for details.

11.9 Records
The contractor shall submit all the relevant records as specified in Section 4.2 General
Requirements, together with all material that was used to produce the final orthophoto maps,
e.g. scanned ortho negatives, screened positives, overlay sheets and final orthophoto map
sheets. Reference is made to Section 10.5 Plotting.

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 LIDAR SURVEYS Chapter 12

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 12 LIDAR SURVEYS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS
12.1 Introduction
LIDAR is an acronym for Light Detection and Ranging, commonly called Airborne Laser
Terrain Mapping. The LIDAR survey provides low-altitude, high speed laser scanning up to
81 square kilometres per day. There are no operating constraints, such as: vegetation cover,
traffic, usage, or time of day.

12.2 Purpose of Survey

The purpose of this survey shall be to provide accurate small and large scale maps for design
and planning purposes.

12.3 Phases of the Survey

The following are recognized as separate phases of the survey, to be carried out or omitted, as
specified in the Survey Requirements.

a. The LIDAR Survey, being the aerial survey done by laser scanning which can be
superimposed on the digital maps produced by processing raw laser data.

b. The Photo Ground Control, being all field survey work required for the establishment of
photo ground control points:

(i) On typical corridors (e.g. road, pipe route etc.) at least one ground control point per
kilometre is required.

(ii) On large area surveys (e.g. green fields) at least one ground control point per square
kilometre would be sufficient.

(iii) There should be at least five ground control points per project with good spacing, e.g.
area corners, start and end of corridor, etc.

c. The dependency on ground control is less than for photogrammetry and therefore the
requirements significantly lower. Ground Control can be done by pre- or post-marking.

d. The Cadastral Phase, being the collection of data defining all cadastral boundaries and
designations from the office of the Department of Surveys and Mapping or other sources.
The preparation and plotting, or overlaying thereof, on the orthophoto maps, including
such field surveys as may be necessary and the supply of all related records. Reference is
made to Chapter 7: Cadastral Data.

12.4 Scales and Units

The scale shall be as laid down in the Survey Requirements. The area to be mapped shall be
indicated on a set of photographs or map(s) or as laid down in the Survey Requirements.

12.5 Specifications
12.5.1 LIDAR Specifications
The following specifications shall be adhered to when conducting LIDAR surveys:

a. Point Density
Average point density should be six or more points per square metre
(equivalent to an average point spacing of 0.4 metres or less).

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b. Footprint
Illuminated Footprint diameter should be ±120 mm.

It is extremely important to restrict footprint diameters to at least smaller than 150 mm.
A large footprint will cover a large area and consequently decreases the horizontal accuracy.

c. Multiple returns to be recorded

The Laser system should be able to penetrate vegetation and supply LIDAR data for both
the vegetation and the ground below the vegetation.

d. Laser data to be classified

Points should at least be classified as “ground”
and “non-ground” points. Further classification
can be project specific.

e. Digital Terrain Modelling (DTM) Filtering

The filter can be specific to the project, but a
typical filter which picks upsignificant vertical
changes will:
Photo of Ground and Non-Ground Point Classification
• Export all ground points with vertical change > 10 cm relative to surrounding points.

• Regardless of vertical profile, expert ground points with distance spacing < 3.0 metres.

12.5.2 Imagery Specifications

The following are the minimum requirements for Lidar imagery:

a. Conditions should preferably be cloud-free, with 24 bit full colour digital imagery. If cloud
shadows are present, these should be smoothed by radiometric techniques.

b. Image Resolution should be 10 cm pixel Geometric Standard Deviation (GSD) or smaller.

10 cm pixel GSD offers double the resolution of the 15 cm pixel GSD commonly encountered
in standard aerial photography; this is made possible by modern, higher resolution digital
cameras.

c. Forward motion compensation must be used or the forward motion should be kept to
below 50% of a pixel.

d. Images shall be 100% suitable high quality orthophotos.

12.6 Standards of Accuracy

Minimum accuracy requirements for Lidar survey shall be as follows:

a. Accuracy of X, Y and Z to be better than 100 mm.

b. These 1-sigma accuracies to be relative to the established ground control.

c. Horizontal accuracies determined on imagery (which is based on laser-derived DTM) to

also verify laser XY accuracy.

d. Vertical accuracies determined on laser data.

12.7 Methods of Testing and Inspection

The testing and inspection methods used in LIDAR Surveys are the same as those used
in Large Scale Mapping. Refer to Section 9.8 Methods Testing and Inspection for details.

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12.8 Records
The contractor shall submit all the relevant records as specified in Section 4.11 Records to
be Submitted on Completion, together with all material that was used to produce the final
orthophoto maps, e.g. digital images, overlay sheets and final orthophoto map sheets.

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 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS Chapter 13

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

13.1 Introduction
This chapter provides specifications and standards for draughting of topographic maps.
Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made
features. A topographic map is typically published as a map series, made up of two or more
map sheets that combine to form the whole map.

13.2 General
This chapter is also applicable for CAD drawings.

In the case of manual fair drawings, ISO size pens and stencils shall be used.

a. Lettering shall be placed such that it may be read from the bottom or the bottom right hand
corner of the plan.

b. Only specified draughting symbols shall be used, unless otherwise specified.

c. Unless otherwise specified, a minimum overlap of 50 mm shall be provided between

adjoining plans; the detail on the overlaps shall be identical to each other. Reference is
made to Section 13.5 Co-ordinate Grids and Grid Values.

d. The north direction sign shall be drawn in a prominent position on each plan.

e. The co-ordinates of all permanent survey stations appearing on the plan shall be listed on
the plans as indicated by the Road Authority.

f. The level datum shall be noted in the space provided for in the co-ordinate list block.

g. Unless otherwise specified by the Road Authority, a bar scale shall be shown in the lower
right hand border area of the sheet, the length shall be 100 mm of which the first 10 mm
shall be graduated in millimetres and the remainder in multiples of 1.0 cm.

h. All sheet numbers to be obtained from the Road Authority.

i. Material.

Unless otherwise specified, a double matt, stable base transparent film material of good quality
not less than 0.075 mm and not more than 0.15 mm thick; 841 mm wide and 1189 mm long (A0
Size), shall be used for the final drawing of the survey sheets.

13.3 Preparations of Sheets

The size of the sheet shall be based on the A0 Din size and be prepared according to the Survey
Requirements, or as specified by the Road Authority.

13.4 Layout of Sheets and Approval

The following guidelines and procedures shall be adopted in the draughting of topographic
plans:

a. The draughting space shall be utilized to the maximum; unless otherwise specified. The
sheet layout shall be from the left to the right, in the direction of increasing route and
section numbers.

b. Approval of Layout
Before any final draughting commences the surveyor shall submit to the Road Authority a
sheet layout on a key plan to a minimum scale of 1V:50000H for approval. Plan numbers
shall be allocated by the Road Authority and shall be entered on the final key plan in

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the appropriate spaces by the contractor. The final key plan forms part of the working plan.
Reference is made to Section 4.5 Working Plan.

c. Information on Sheet Layout/Key Plan (Working Plan)

All towns, major roads, railways and rivers falling in the surveyed area, as well as the
proposed outlines of the sheets shall be indicated. Reference is made to Section 4.5 Working
Plan.

13.4.1 Computer Aided Draughting Information

In addition to the requirements detailed in Section 13.4 Layout of Sheets and Approval, when
draughting topographic surveys in a CAD environment, the following shall also be observed:

a. Survey Map Sheet

Unless otherwise specified, all survey maps shall be supplied in CAD format in accordance
with the specifications of the Road Authority.

b. Standardization and Uniformity of Mapping Procedures

In order to standardize mapping procedures all digitally compiled Common cad formats may
maps shall be standardized in terms of CAD levels, colours, pen include dwg, dxf and dgn
sizes and symbols to ensure effective use in design and GIS. type of files.

To minimize editing, all line types and symbols shall be configured to be presented in
different colours and levels, before the mapping process starts.

Configuration data as specified for the compilation of digital maps shall be available from
the Road Authority.

As an example, General Configuration standards for the compilation of digital maps in

Microstation format using Usmart software with respect to the draughting standards as set
out in this manual.

13.5 Co-Ordinate Grids and Grid Values

A co-ordinate grid shall appear on each plan, with the following minimum requirements:

a. The grid lines shall be plotted 200 mm apart and drawn across the plan using a 0.25 mm
pen (solitary crosses at the intersections are not acceptable).

b. Full co-ordinate values shall be indicated at both ends of the grid lines; a 2.5 mm letter size
with a 0.25 mm pen shall be used.

c. Unless otherwise specified, a minimum of three grid intersections shall appear in the
overlap area of adjoining sheets, otherwise orientation crosses of 10 mm radius shall be
provided in the overlap area.

When an additional grid outside the mapped area is added to facilitate the plotting of cadastral
data, only grid intersection crosses shall be plotted and these shall have a radial length of 40
mm. Where these grid lines intersect the perimeter of the draughting area it shall be indicated
by a line 40 mm long. The full co-ordinate values prefixed by the appropriate survey/LO
system shall be indicated.

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13.5.1 Grid Intervals

Table 13-1 indicates the Grid Intervals for the various Mapping Scales, unless otherwise
specified.

Table 13-1: Grid Intervals for the Various Mapping Scales

Plan Scale Grid Interval (m)
1V:100H 20
1V:200H 40
1V:500H 100
1V:1000H 200
1V:2000H 400
1V:5000H 1000

All grid lines shall meet the following conditions and requirements:

a. Over a distance of one metre the measured distance must be within the 0.3 mm accuracy
with the grid or calculated distance.

b. Between two adjoining grid lines the measured grid differences must be within 0.3 mm
accuracy.

13.6 Draughting
The draughting shall be of a high quality and all work shall be neat, of a uniform standard and
opaque throughout. Lines shall be uniform in width and all annotations shall be done parallel
to the bottom edge of the plan.

13.7 Spot Heights

Spot heights generated from the DTM/DEM shall be illustrated, as follows:

a. Spot heights shall be inked parallel to the bottom edge of the plan.
1650 • 75
b. The same dot shall indicate the position and the decimal in the Example of a Spot Height
elevation. Elevation on a Plan

c. Spot heights shall have a 2.0 mm letter size.

13.8 Contours
Contours shall be drawn using black drawing ink.

Index contours, which occur at an interval five times that of the specified contour interval,
shall be drawn to a thickness of ± 0.5 mm and they shall reflect the full contour value above
Mean Sea Level (MSL). The intermediate contours shall be drawn to a thickness of ± 0.25 mm,
with only the last two digits of their own value shown.

Contour values shall be in 2.0 mm letter size and 0.35 mm pen size.

Contour values shall appear at both ends of each contour and at intervals of ± 400 mm along
the contour. Reference is made to Sub-section 13.12.1 Contours.

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13.9 Control Points
13.9.1 Ground Control
Ground Control shall conform to the following:

a. All concreted pegs shall be indicated by two concentric circles of 2.0 mm and 3.0 mm
diameter respectively.

b. Directional arrows shall be drawn between consecutive traverse stations. The length of
these arrows shall be 15 mm.

c. The number shall be indicated within a circle of 25 mm diameter placed in a convenient

position and joined to the beacon using a 0.35 mm pen.

d. The number shall correspond to that of the inscription on the aluminium plate, marking
the Survey beacon in the field and be indicated with a 0.35 mm pen and 2.5 mm letter height.

e. The elevation of permanent survey stations shall be given to three decimal places.

f. LPC’s shall be plotted by means of aerial triangulation co-ordinates or by stereoplotter

when co-ordinates are not available.

g. Level control points shall be indicated by a circle of ± 2.5 mm diameter with a vertical
diametric line. The centre of the circle shall be the position of the point.

h. The circle shall be the decimal for the elevation with the number of the point placed above
the circle.

i. The elevation shall be rounded off to two decimal places.

j. The point number and elevation shall be stencilled using 2.5 mm letter size and 0.35 mm pen.

k. The PC’s shall be indicated by a 2.5 mm diameter circle with a horizontal and vertical
diametric line. The elevation and numbering shall be as laid down in Sub-section 13.9.1 e
and Sub-section 13.9.1 f.

13.9.2 Photogrammetric Control

Photogrammetric control points shall be shown on all plans according the following
requirements:

a. Aerial triangulated points shall be indicated by a circle of 2.5 mm radius, with no diametric lines.

b. The elevation and numbering shall be as laid down in Sub-sections 13.9.1 Ground Control
(i) and Sub-section 13.9.1 Ground Control (j). The number and elevation shall be indicated
using a 2.5 mm letter size.

c. Tie points shall be shown as aerial triangulated points except that the number shall be
preceded by the prefix CP.

d. Photo centre shall be indicated by a cross of 4.0 mm diameter, using a 0.35 mm pen.

e. The number shall be written parallel to the direction of the strip using a 3.5 mm letter size.
The strip number shall be shown to the left of the cross and the exposure number, in full,
to the right. Both numbers shall be underlined with lines 15 mm long to which an arrowhead
is added in the direction of flight.

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13.10 Topographical Plan Details

13.10.1 Size of Symbols, Stencils and Line Thickness
The specification for details shown on the topographic plans shall be as follows:

a. Sizes of Symbols
Sizes of symbols shall be shown to scale where applicable, otherwise as laid down in these
specifications.

b. Letter Sizes
Letter sizes are indicated next to each symbol on the list of
symbols.

Letter sizes shall be laid down in these specifications

with a minimum size of 2.0 mm. All general annotation
shall be done with a 0.35 mm pen and 2.5 mm letter size.

c. Line Thicknesses
Line thicknesses are indicated next to each symbol on
the list of symbols.

Note: All lettering shall be upright; only capital letters and numerals
Example of Topographic Plan Lettering
shall be used, except in the case of graphical road sign boards.

13.10.2 Detail to be shown

Refer to the large and small scale survey specifications for the detail to be shown on the final plans.

13.10.3 Ink
Only black ink, suitable for use on polyester base draughting material, shall be used.

13.10.4 Symbols
Symbols used shall be strictly in accordance with the standards laid down in these specifications,
unless otherwise specified.

13.11 Utilities
13.11.1 Roads
Details of roads appearing on topographical plans shall at a minimum include the following:

a. Class and number of all classified roads shall be shown.

b. Names of streets shall be shown as indicated on the General Plan of the township or as
determined by field annotation.

c. Destinations shall be stated at the ends of each road on all plans.

The number and name of the bridge, i.e. B12: Ngoma Bridge shall be shown (this information
may be obtained from the Road Authority if a number is not displayed on the bridge
structure) including number of spans and horizontal and vertical dimensions, e.g. 3/1200
x 1600, i.e. number of openings/horizontal x vertical dimension.

13.11.2 Culverts
Unless otherwise specified culverts shall be identified by a
number and the relevant details provided in a table on each
sheet, giving the number of openings and the span & height
or diameter of each culvert as well as invert levels obtained by
Photo of a Box Culvert

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ground survey methods or as otherwise specified. Different types of culverts shall be identified as
follows:

a. Box culverts (BC) indicating the number of openings and

horizontal and vertical dimensions:

For example: 2/4000 mm x 2500 mm (BC).

b. Pipe culverts (PC) indicating the number of openings and

diameter:

For example: 600 mm PC or 3/800 mm Ø PC. Photo of a Pipe Culvert

13.11.3 Topography: Cut and Fills

Only straight lines (hatching) shall be used to indicate the symbol for all cuts and fills. Lines
shall not be thickened at the top.

13.11.4 Railways
Details of railways appearing on topographical plans shall at a minimum include the following:

a. The names of all railway stations and railway sidings shall be shown.

b. Destinations shall be stated at both ends of the railway line on each sheet.

c. State ownership, if not Botswana Railways.

13.11.5 Fibre Optical and Power Lines

Overhead telecommunication and power lines shall be represented on the topographical plan
as follows:

a. Telecommunication Lines
Telecommunication poles shall not be connected by a continuous line, but designated by
means of lines on either side of the symbol circles.

b. Power Lines
The appropriate symbol shall be used, i.e. power poles shall be connected by means of a
continuous line and the zigzag pattern inserted approximately halfway between power
poles or pylons.

13.11.6 Water and Sewer

Water and sewer lines shall be indicated by a solid line which will be labelled accordingly
(water/sewer) and pipe diameter also indicated along the line.

13.12 Contours, Erosion, Etc.

13.12.1 Contours
Contour values shall be read from the bottom or the right
hand side of the plan. They shall be placed approximately
10 mm from the end of the contour line and thereafter
approximately every (index) contours and only the last two
digits for intermediate contours shall be shown. Where the
space between the principal contours is less than 10 mm, no
intermediate values shall be shown.

Example of Labelling of Contours

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13.12.2 Erosion
All watercourses in the eroded area shall be shown and the appropriate symbol and arrows to
indicate direction of water flow shall be indicated.

13.13 Buildings, Trees and Special Features

13.13.1 Buildings
All buildings shall be shown to actual shape and size and permanent buildings shall be
hatched. Only buildings such as schools, police stations, shops, factories, flats, offices, garages,
hospitals, etc. shall be described according to function. Domestic buildings shall not bear a
description.

13.13.2 Trees
Forest, bush, shrub, plantations, orchards, avenues, hedges and individual trees which are
landmarks, etc. with the outlines of such areas correctly shown shall be described.

13.13.3 Special Features

The names of important features shall be shown.

13.14 Road Furniture

For completion surveys the positions of all road furniture
shall be indicated with a black dot, connected by a short black
line to an ellipse in which the relevant reference number.

For all other surveys the road signs shall be indicated as

shown in the symbol list.

13.15 Vegetation
Photo of a Bus Shelter as a Road Furniture
13.15.1 Cultivation
Only perennial crops shall be described.

13.15.2 Orchards, Vineyards and Hedges

These shall be properly described, e.g. “Vineyard”. In the case of orchards the type of fruit
shall be described.

13.15.3 Trees
Specified trees (i.e. Baobab) shall be described by its diameter
and type.

13.16 Cadastral
The symbolisation of cadastral boundaries shall be in strict
accordance with the line symbols for different features and
scales, as given in the list of symbols in this document. Photo of Baobab Trees
Descriptions shall be given exactly as they appear on the title deeds. Letter sizes shall be as
given in the list of symbols and may be adjusted to suit very small areas covered by a property,
but shall not be less than 5.0 mm in size.

Cadastral farm boundaries shall be highlighted according to the requirements of the Road
Authority.

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 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS Chapter 13
Information relating to existing proclamations shall, whenever available, be indicated on the
plans and symbolized in accordance with the list of symbols. Road reserve boundary lines
shall be solid where they coincide with boundary lines of registered properties, in all other
cases they shall be broken lines. The road reserve beacon point numbers shall be given exactly
as they appear on the proclamation.

The proclamation number, relevant Gazette number and date shall be indicated on each sheet
in an obvious place.

13.17 Title Block, North Direction and Sheet Index

13.17.1 Title Block
The title block layout and details shall be obtained from the Road Authority.

13.17.2 North Direction

A north direction sign in accordance with the requirements of the Road Authority shall appear
on all sheets.

13.17.3 Sheet Index

Unless otherwise specified, space shall be allowed for a sheet index in the right hand bottom
corner of the working area of the sheet if provision is not already made for this in the individual
title blocks.

13.18 Office Check

The surveyor shall submit the first completed sheet together with the relevant CAD data for
approval before commencing with the remainder of the survey draughting.

All plans shall be checked thoroughly by the surveyor after completion. All plans and further
data shall be submitted in a neat and clean condition. Damaged, folded or soiled plans will not
be acceptable.

All records of field and office checks shall be submitted with the final plans.

13.19 Draughting Symbols

For CAD and draughting symbols, reference is made to Appendix Q: Draughting Symbols.

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 STAKING Chapter 14

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 14 STAKING

14 STAKING
14.1 Introduction
Staking refers to the physical establishment of a pre-calculated survey point in the field.
Staking is typically used during the construction phase of project development to physically
locate the design on the ground. Through staking the construction team is given the location
of the road to be constructed in all three dimensions.

14.2 Purpose of the Survey

The purpose of this survey shall be to establish survey points, both temporary and permanent
on pre-calculated positions in the field, and to obtain sufficient field data for the complete
geometric design before construction.

14.3 Phases of the Survey

The following are recognized as separate phases of the survey and shall be carried out or
omitted as specified in the general survey requirements for staking.

a. The Basic Survey, being the establishment of a horizontal and vertical survey network of
permanent survey beacons and the supply of all related records in cases where no permanent
survey beacons were established during previous surveys. Reference is made to Chapter 3:
Survey and Photo Ground Control.

b. Staking is the establishing and fixing of alignment key points and alignment intermediate
points on terrain. It is done by centre line, offset, either with referencing or without
referencing staking methods.

c. Sectioning being the field work required to determine the ground profile for the producing
of long- and cross sections.

d. Plotting, being the extraction and plotting of long- and cross sections by computer or hard copy.

e. Checking being the final checking of all information and the supply of all related records.

14.4 General Requirements

Provision is made for four methods of staking:

a. Normal centre line staking without referencing.

b. Normal centre line staking with referencing.

c. Offset Staking without referencing.

d. Offset Staking with referencing.

It is essential that the Surveyor confirm which method of staking is required and whether cross
sections are required before starting the staking. For cross sections without staking, reference
is made to Chapter 15: Digital Mapping and Terrain Modelling (DTM).

14.4.1 Staking Interval

The standard staking interval shall be 20 metres, or 10 metres in the case of curves with radii
of less than 200 metres, unless otherwise specified by the Road Authority.

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14.4.2 Stake Value
The stake value of any point shall be recorded in metres and to three decimals of a metre, e.g.
1276.320.

14.4.3 Horizontal Alignment Pre-Calculation

The approved horizontal alignment will be supplied by the Road Authority.

14.5 Basic Survey

The basic survey consists of ground control and standards of accuracy associated with it. All
provisions of Chapter 3: Survey and Photo Ground Control are applicable to Staking applications.

14.6 Staking
14.6.1 Alignment Key and Intermediate Points
The key points, e.g. Beginning of Curve (BC), End of Curve (EC), Beginning of Transition Curve
(BTC), Beginning of Circular Curve (BCC), etc. and intermediate key points at every even 200
metres along straights, e.g. chainage 12200 and 12400, etc. and on curves every 100 metres,
e.g. chainage 14100 and 14200, etc. shall be established in the field from existing permanent
survey beacons. Intermediate key points closer than 5 metres to a key point need not to be
placed or referenced. In the case of curves of less than 200 metres radius, the peg nearest to
the centre of the curve shall be an intermediate key point.

The centre line intermediate points required for long- and cross sections shall be set out from
key points, intermediate key points or permanent survey beacon.

a. Peg Sizes
Steel pegs of minimum diameter of 10 mm and length of 300 mm In certain circumstances, the
shall be used for all key points. When staking in sand dunes, a Road Authority may change
steel peg with a minimum length of 500 mm shall be used and it the specification for the pegs
may be necessary to reinstate beacons and pegs more often due to from steel to wood.
movement of dunes.

b. Concreting of Key Points

Pegs for key points shall be firmly fixed with a concrete casting to a minimum depth of
200 mm below the ground. The concrete casting shall have a minimum diameter of 200
mm and shall be moulded to allow not more than 5.0 mm of the peg to protrude above the
surface of the concrete, unless otherwise specified. Reference is made to Sub-section 3.3.1
Concrete Beacons for strength of concrete and Section 14.10 Numbering and Lettering.

Key points shall not be used for survey purposes until the concrete has set.

c. Marking of Key Points

Key points specified in Sub-section 14.6.1 Alignment Key Points and Alignment Intermediate
Points shall be marked with a 1.8 metres “Y” iron standard driven 0.8 metres into the
ground, ± 0.5 metres from the peg and on line to the next key point, or by a stone cairn at
least 0.3 metres high, coated with white water resistant paint.

In sandy terrain, a 10 mm iron peg with a length of 500 mm should be used.

Intermediate points shall be suitably marked to facilitate the measuring and heighting of
the cross sections. Pegs are not required unless specified.

14.6.2 Heighting of Key and Intermediate Points

All staked key points as mentioned in Sub-section 14.6.1 Alignment Key Points and Alignment
Intermediate Points and references, if placed, shall be spirit levelled and their distances
recorded fully in metres in the level book. The following requirements shall also be met:

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a. All key points shall be level checked.

b. Forward and reverse levelling shall not be carried out simultaneously with one instrument,
even if two different staffs are used.

c. When using a conventional field book the final elevations of all staked points and BC’s,
EC’s, BTC’s, etc., shall be entered in blue ink and those of intermediate points in pencil. All
reference peg elevations shall be shown in red ink in the level book.

d. The height of intermediate points do not need to be levelled, but can be determined by
tachometric methods.

e. Differences of more than 50 mm between the top of the peg and ground level shall be
recorded and mentioned in the technical report.

14.7 Sectioning
14.7.1 Cross Sections
Cross sections shall be taken at 20 metres intervals perpendicular to the staked line and shall
extend 20 metres beyond the road reserve width, unless otherwise specified.

Section interval of 20 metres is too close in flat terrain. Typical sectioning intervals of 50
metres are generally acceptable. Surveyors should exercise discretion to close the intervals in
undulating terrain, in consultation with the Road Authority.

14.7.2 Longitudinal Sections

Long sections shall be derived from the cross section measurements as well as from additional
measurements taken on the centre line at features and changes of slopes.

14.7.3 Measurement Requirements for Longitudinal and Cross Sections

Levels shall be taken on the following features and their stake values recorded:

a. All changes of grade.

b. Top and toe of banks, water’s edge and bed levels of water courses.

c. Beginning and end of bridge decks.

d. Invert levels at both ends of culverts.

e. Railway tracks (both rails).

f. Road intersections (both edges).

g. Power and telephone lines (lowest wire). Elevations of the lowest wire shall be determined
at the centre line and both shoulder break points of the proposed road. Reference is made
to Appendix K: Level Requirements on Power Lines. Heights of power lines shall not be
measured with a staff or tape. Temperature at time of measuring shall be recorded in the
case of power lines and shown on the longitudinal section.

h. When the staked line ties into an existing road, levels shall be taken along the centre line
of the existing road at 20 metres intervals for at least 200 metres beyond the staking. On
minor accesses these levels shall be taken for 100 metres beyond the staking, unless
otherwise instructed.

14.7.4 Omissions from Plans

Any topographical feature which is incorrect or a feature that does not appear on the survey plan
within 50 metres of the staked line, shall be surveyed and updated on the existing survey plan.

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14.8 Offset Staking
All provisions of the following sections are applicable;

• Section 14.1 Introduction.

• Section 14.2 Purpose of the Survey.

• Section 14.3 Phases of the Survey.

• Section 14.4 General.

• Section 14.5 Basic Survey.

• Section 14.6 Staking.

• Section 14.7 Sectioning.

Offset staking shall be permitted only with the approval of the Road Authority.

The offset stake values shall be calculated perpendicular to the centre line. All key points
staked at an offset shall indicate the distance and direction from the centre line, e.g. 2200/5 m
R, on the beacon.

All information listed in Section 14.7 Sectioning shall relate to the centre line.

14.9 Staking with Referencing

All provisions of the previous sections in this chapter are applicable. Staking shall be at
intervals approved by the Road Authority, and shall in all instances be at intervals adequate
for the proper control of construction tolerances specified for the road.

14.9.1 Reference Pegs

On straight sections of roads, reference pegs shall be provided at intervals of 200 metres.

For curves - BC’s, BTC’s, EC’s, ETC’s – reference pegs shall be provided at intervals of 100
metres.

14.9.2 Horizontal Accuracy

Reference pegs shall be placed within 20 mm of their required true position in relation to the
centre line peg.

The distance from the centre line of each reference peg shall be noted in the level book opposite
the appropriate stake value.

14.10 Numbering and Lettering

The following requirements shall be met when numbering and lettering key
and intermediate points:

a. Pegs indicating the position of the key points shall be numbered and
lettered so as to be read when facing in the direction of the staking.

b. The point description (e.g. BC1, EC1, 12200, etc.) shall be punched with
lettering of not less than 7.0 mm in size on a strip of non-corrosive metal,
0.7 mm to 1.5 mm in thickness, firmly set in the concrete, or by white road
paint when pegs are placed in a tarmac or similar surface. See Point Labelling.

c. In the case of reference pegs, the letters R (right reference) or L (left

reference) and the offset distance shall be used. Point Labelling

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14.11 Standards of Accuracy

14.11.1 Horizontal Standard of Accuracy
The key points referred to in Sub-section 14.6.1 Alignment Key Points and Alignment Intermediate
Points shall be fixed to an accuracy of not less than that specified in Section 3.3 Construction of
Permanent Survey Beacons, and may not be more than 20 mm off their true position.

The position of 20 mm intermediate staked points shall not differ from their required true
position by more than 20 mm, unless otherwise specified.

The distance between any two consecutive pegs must be within the accuracy of 1V:5000H
with a maximum of 30 mm.

In the case of curves, the closing error shall not exceed 1V:5000H. Any error smaller than
1V:5000H, must be adjusted pro-rata over the length of the curve. Where the error on curves
exceeds 1V:5000H the curve shall be re-staked so that the accuracy is within 1V:5000H and
subsequently adjusted pro-rata over the curve length.

14.11.2 Vertical Standard of Accuracy of Levelling

Unless otherwise specified, the elevation of the permanent survey beacons shall control the
levels of the staked key points. The standard of accuracy shall be the same as the stipulated for
the basic survey beacons. Reference is made to Sub-section 3.5.1 Levelling.

14.12 Plotting Of Sections

14.12.1 Plotting of Longitudinal Section (If Required)
The following guidelines shall be followed when draughting and plotting longitudinal sections:

a. Unless otherwise specified, the longitudinal section shall be prepared on a standard A0

size sheet and the scale shall be 1V:100H Vertical and 1V:1000H Horizontal. A1 size sheets
are also acceptable.

b. The direction of the profile shall correspond to the direction of the increasing stake value
on the layout plan.

c. Each sheet shall start on an even kilometre distance and there shall be no overlap between
adjoining longitudinal sections.

d. When a staked line ties into an existing road alignment the profile shall be extended in
accordance with the levels referred to in Sub-section 14.7.3 Measurement Requirements
for Longitudinal and Cross Sections.

e. Additional features.

The stake values and elevations of the following features

shall be shown on the longitudinal section:

(i) Beginning and end of bridge decks.

(ii) Culvert dimensions and invert levels (i.e. inside bottom).

(iii) Railway tracks (both rails).

(iv) Intersecting road (both sides).

(v) Power and telephone lines, lowest line (bottom sags). Photo of a Marker for Water Utility Services
(Underground Pipe Line)
(vi) Underground pipes and cables.

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 STAKING Chapter 14
14.12.2 Plotting of Cross Sections
The following guidelines shall be followed when draughting and plotting cross sections:

a. Unless otherwise specified, the scale shall be 1V:100H.

b. Cross sections shall be plotted parallel to the horizontal edge of the sheet and the stake value
shall increase from the bottom edge of the sheet towards the top of the sheet, commencing
at the bottom left hand corner of the sheet.

Table 14 1 contains descriptions which are used specifically to describe the various elements
of a road or bridge cross section. These descriptors are illustrated in Table 14-1

Table 14-1: Descriptors used to describe features

Descriptors Features
BC Beginning of curve
BTC Beginning of transition curve
C Channel
CL Centre line of staking
CLR Centre line of existing road
CS Centre of stream
EC End of curve
EGS Edge gravel shoulder of existing road
ET Edge tar of existing road
ETC End of transition curve
ETS Edge tar shoulder of existing road
EW Edge of water
F Fence
FB Foot of bank (natural feature, river, donga, etc)
FC Foot (toe) of cut of existing road
FF Foot (toe) of fill of existing road
G Gutter
GR Guardrail
K Kerb
LER Left edge of existing road
LR Left reference peg
PL Power line
RER Right edge of existing road
RR Right reference peg
SV Stake value
TB Top of bank (natural feature, river, donga, etc)
TC Top of cut of existing road
TF Top of fill of existing road
TL Telecommunication line

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 Chapter 14 STAKING

Figure 14-1: Photo of an Erosion and an example of Descriptors (Point Annotation)

With features such as dongas, erosions, drains, etc. where the banks become self-evident from
the shape of the profile, all points should be annotated as this can simplify creation of accurate
DTMs.

14.13 Placing of Road Reserve Boundary Beacons

To demarcate the road reserve, permanent boundary beacons shall be placed at the bending
points of the proposed fence according to the co-ordinates (if available) as supplied by the
Road Authority. The placement of beacons shall adhere to the following:

a. The boundary beacons shall be “Y” type Iron standards weighing not less than 3.0 kg per
metre, or an iron peg of not less than 20 mm diameter, in each case not less than 1.0 metre
in length driven into the ground to a depth of at least 850 mm. If the boundary beacon is
on solid rock, a hole of 10 mm in diameter shall be drilled into the rock to a depth of 25 mm.
An identification aluminium tag shall be fixed to the iron standard/peg. If deemed
necessary, the iron standard or iron peg may be embedded in a symmetrical block of
concrete. When the boundary beacons falls in soft or sand ground the length of the iron
standard or iron peg shall be increased sufficient to ensure the stability and permanence of
the boundary beacon.

b. When a post of an existing fence falls on a bending point, it may be adopted as a boundary
beacon.

c. Where the road reserve boundary crosses a fenced cadastral boundary in rural and peri-
urban areas, wooden stakes shall be placed at the correct distance from the centre line of
the road to demarcate the proclaimed width of the road reserve.

d. Where the road reserve boundary crosses a cadastral boundary, the intersection of the
boundaries shall be calculated and marked as indicated in Section 14.13 Placing of Road
Reserve Boundary Beacons (b).

e. Care shall be taken to ensure that the wooden stakes are placed at the correct distance
from the centre line, i.e. they serve as line boundary beacons for the road reserve boundary.

14.14 Records to be Submitted

In all cases of staking, whether completed longitudinal sections are required by the Road
Authority or not, a comprehensive survey report is to be submitted under covering letter,
stating all relevant data such as:

• Job title.

• File number.

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• Contract number.

• Road number.

• Section number.

• Start and end kilometre distances.

• Plan numbers (if available).

The following information pertains to records to be submitted:

a. The survey records shall comprise of a fully indexed file of all relevant calculations,
grouped together according to data type.

b. Pages are to be numbered consecutively; the survey report, guidelines to which are
provided in Appendix A: Guideline Framework for Technical Reports, shall be the first
pages in the file.

c. Page 1000, the index, indicating page number and data type groupings shall be included.

d. Page 2000, an A4 extracts of the 1V:50000H sheets, showing the locality of the job shall be
included.

Two or more sheets should be used in the case of very long sections of road.

e. Page 3000, the co-ordinate list of centre line calculations shall be included, thereafter
other data type groupings will be included to the end of the file.

f. A list of co-ordinates of all basic survey beacons, traverse and co-ordinate calculations
(with reference to field book and page number for observations) shall be included.

For example:

If a basic survey was undertaken as part of the staking contract, these would be centre line
calculations and the following would be included in the survey report:

• A list of centre line heights.

• A list of reference point heights and offset distances.

• A list of culvert invert levels.

• Stake values.

• Any other relevant or special requirements such as bridge deck start and end distances and
elevations.

• Power line elevations, etc.

g. Thermal paper printouts will not be acceptable. Good quality non gloss Photo static copies,
(punched for filling in the required manner) shall be submitted, according to the
requirements of the Road Authority and filed in the prescribed cover.

h. Field books used shall be of a type prescribed by the Road Authority and shall not have
removable pages. Reference is made to Section 4.2 General Requirements.

i. Field book headings shall be completed daily. All entries shall be in pencil, cross referenced
in the index in the front of the field book. Only final reduced values shall be entered in ink.
Red ink shall be used only for trigonometric benchmark elevations, trigonometric beacon
co-ordinates or an elevation which has been independently checked twice after
determination relative to a trigonometric benchmark. No erasures shall be made. Incorrect
entries shall be crossed out and the correct entry made above the crossed out entry.

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j. Field books shall be clearly marked (e.g. “Book 1 of n - books”) and the route number and
section and job number shall be entered on the front page.

k. No permanent markings shall be made on the outside cover of the field book except by the
Road Authority after allocation of his survey record number.

l. Where electronic data capturing is used, a hardcopy printout in accordance with the
specifications for the survey file, shall appear in the file, indexed as “Electronic Field Book”
extracts, complete with a legend of symbols used. Reference is made to Sub- 14.12.2
Plotting of Cross Sections (if required) for examples.

m. In addition, a DVD or Flash (Stick) Memory, with data stored according to the Road
Authority’s specification for calculation and draughting, shall be submitted.

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 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM) Chapter 15

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

15.1 Introduction
A Digital Terrain Model is a digital model or 3-D representation of a terrain’s surface. The Model
is based on information acquired by means of a physical survey carried out in the field. There
are many applications for a Digital Terrain Model and is discussed in this chapter. Figure 15-1
shows an example of a Digital Terrain Model.

Figure 15-1: Example of a Digital Terrain Model

15.2 Purpose of the Survey

The purpose of this survey is to represent the original ground line as accurately as possible and
to produce a comprehensive topographical strip survey from which an accurate horizontal
and vertical alignment can be derived for design purposes. This will obviate the necessity for
staking, referencing and cross-sectioning along the proposed alignment during the design
stages. The setting out will only take place immediately prior to construction. Furthermore,
the Digital Terrain Model (DTM) will also be used to accurately quantify volumes before
construction.

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 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM) Chapter 15
15.3 Phases of the Survey
The survey shall include the following phases as shown in Figure 15-2.

Basic Survey
Reference is made to Chapters 2:Survey Regulations and Standards of
Accuracy and Chapter 3: Survey and Photo Ground Control.

The DTM Survey

Check Cross-Sections after Submission of the DTM Survey

Submitting of Records

Figure 15-2: Phases of the Survey

15.4 General Requirements

Conventional survey, photogrammetric or GPS equipment can be used, in conjunction with
a data capturing system with software that will process the data in the format as specified by
the Road Authority.

The Surveyor shall ensure that the instruments and other equipment used in the survey are in
proper adjustment.

The surveyed data shall be provided in the form of a DTM suitable for use in a specified
software package used to derive best fit horizontal and vertical alignments and other design
elements. Once the alignments are known, cross sections shall be derived digitally to:

a. Permit the design of the road longitudinal and cross section, drainage and other features.

b. Accurately calculate volumes of any earthworks for estimation purposes.

c. Accurately calculate volumes of pavement (each layer and surfacing) materials for
estimation purposes.

15.5 Permanent Survey Beacons

15.5.1 Placing of Permanent Survey Beacons
This entails the establishment of a network of permanent survey beacons, premarked for
aerial surveys, placed in suitable locations, for the ultimate setting out of the construction
works. Reference is made to Chapter 3: Survey and Photo Ground Control.

The permanent survey beacons shall be inter-visible and the distance between beacons shall
not exceed 500 metres.

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 Chapter 15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

15.5.2 Construction of Permanent Survey Beacons

The beacons shall be built to the specification as laid down in Section 3.3 Construction of
Permanent Survey Beacons.

15.5.3 Horizontal Fixing

The survey beacons shall be linked to the National LO System, unless otherwise specified.

The standard of accuracy shall comply with that laid down in Section 3.4 Horizontal Fixing of
Permanent Survey Beacons.

15.5.4 Vertical Fixing

The elevations of the survey beacons shall be based on the NGBM, unless otherwise specified.

Simultaneous reciprocal observations with a single theodolite may with approval from the
Road Authority be used to height beacons in difficult terrain. Application to use this method
shall be made in writing to the Road Authority.

The standard of accuracy shall comply with that laid down in Section 3.5 Vertical Fixing of
Permanent Survey Beacons.
Note: Departure from any of the above specifications is subject to prior approval of the Road Authority.

15.6 Detail Survey

15.6.1 Details to be Surveyed
The details to be surveyed for compiling a digital terrain map shall be the following:

a. The edges of all existing gravel roads, including the convex or concave shape of the road
surface and any super elevation.

b. The edges of an asphalt, and/or kerbing (top and bottom in the case of ground survey) of
all surfaced roads, including the convex or concave shape of the road surface and any
super elevation.

c. The position and inverts of all side drains (whether lined or not).

d. The positions and inverts of all drainage and storm water pipe inlets and outlets, even if
these extend beyond the defined strip.

e. All power and telecommunication lines.

f. Fences.

g. Cover, invert and ground levels of all manholes.

h. Valve chambers of existing water mains.

i. Top and toe of cut and fill batters and all changes in slope that might have an influence on
the creation of a Digital Height Model (DHM) and contours.

j. Existing accesses to properties.

k. Any encroachment within the road reserve.

l. Any erosion within the road reserves.

m. In addition, any feature not listed above, that may be required to accurately model the
surface or may affect earthworks and designs within the surveyed area.

n. Break lines that might have an influence on the creation of a DTM.

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 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM) Chapter 15
The detail may be surveyed by any suitable method with the provision that the required
tolerances are met.

Every point of detail shall be fixed in Y, X and Z and have a standard feature description. The
density of surveyed and breakline points shall be sufficient to enable cross sections to be
generated from the data at 10 metres intervals.

15.6.2 Digital Terrain Model (DTM) Tolerances

The following notes refer to the information displayed in Table 15 1.

• These tolerances are the permissible deviation (i.e. +/- value).

• The required accuracy shall dictate the survey method to be used.

• The tolerances apply to any part of the feature and not to the actual spots on which it was
surveyed.

• To satisfy the above tolerance after interpolation, it may be necessary to survey the feature
to a higher degree of accuracy.

• The data supplied shall be such that accurate contours can be derived at 1.0 metre intervals,
but the density of the surveyed points excluding contours captured photogrammetrically
shall permit interpolation to 0.5 metres intervals. (i.e. YXZ points along photogrammetrically
shall not be accepted as surveyed points for interpolation purposes).

• All features required for detail, but not required for the DTM, shall be isolated.

Table 15-1: Digital Terrain Model Tolerances

Ground Survey Aerial Survey
Feature Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Kerbing and edge of Bituminous
100 25 150 150
Surfacing and Concrete
Storm water pipes 100 25 200 150
Lined drains 100 25 200 150
Gravel roads 100 50 200 150
Unlined Drains 100 50 200 150
Sand Track / Earth road 100 50 200 150
General topographic data etc.: (normal tachometric standards)

15.7 Checking of Cross Sections

After the first two phases of the DTM survey are completed and supplied, the Road Authority
shall indicate the positions at, and extent to which cross sections shall be taken to check the
DTM. The number of cross sections may vary between two and five per kilometre, depending
on the terrain.

The position of the check cross section surveyed in the field, shall not differ by more than 2.0
metres from the position as indicated by the Road Authority and new Y, X and Z co-ordinates
shall be calculated. Reasons for shifting the position shall be clearly stated.

The surveyed check cross sections shall be compared against a digitally derived cross section
at the same point.

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 Chapter 15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

15.8 Records to be Submitted

The following records shall be provided on completion of the task. Reference is made to
Chapter 4: Survey Records.

a. Detailed survey plans normally at a scale of 1V:500H with contours at 1.0 metre vertical
intervals together with relevant CAD data, unless otherwise specified.

b. Survey data used to produce the plans shall be well labelled and supplied on a compact
disc (CD or DVD) or USB Flash Disk in a format as specified by the Road Authority. All
feature break lines shall be included. The surveyor shall indicate in the technical report the
number of surveyed points used in the DTM.

c. A separate data file of those points surveyed but not used in the DTM.

d. The check cross sections, field books and annotated plots of the cross sections.

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 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS Chapter 16

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

16.1 Purpose of the Survey
The purpose of the survey is to provide plans showing contours and other topographical
details of the Bridge site as well as relevant longitudinal and cross section pertaining to roads
or waterways etc. for the design and accurate sighting of the proposed structures, and to
establish accurately fixed permanent survey stations for future setting out of the structure,
control of construction and subsequent monitoring.

16.2 Phases of the Survey

The different Phases of the Survey is shown in Figure 16-1.

Basic Survey
Being the establishment and survey of the horizontal and vertical position of a network of
permanent survey stations in selected positions within the site area.

Detailed Survey
Being the survey of all natural and man-made features which may have an impact on the siting
of the bridge.

Sectioning
Being the ground survey work required to determine the ground profile of future and existing
roads, railway lines and river beds for the determination of long - and cross-sections as required
by the Road Authority.

Preparation of plans
Being the plotting of all details and contours for the preparation of final site plans, and the plotting
of cross-sections and long-sections in a format or medium as required by the Road Authority.

Figure 16-1: Different Phases of the Survey

16.3 General Requirements

Final survey requirements of rivers and streams are to be given by the Engineer/Road Authority.

Minimum requirements of surveys on rivers are:

• 20 metres detail survey surrounding the bridge.

• Cross sections at least 100 metres upstream.

• Cross sections at least 50 metres downstream.

16.3.1 Permanent Survey Stations and Reference Pegs

The position of all centre line pegs, key points, intermediate key points, reference pegs and
permanent survey stations shall be shown on the survey plan. If an offset reference line is
staked, a note as to the relevant position of the centre line must be made on the survey plan.

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 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS Chapter 16
It is important to note that the accuracy of both the horizontal and vertical setting out of the
proposed structure depends on the permanence and stability of all the survey pegs.

a. Permanent Survey Stations.

At least four permanent survey stations shall be placed in selected positions within every site
survey area to ensure proper control of the setting out and construction. The survey stations
shall be mutually visible and tied into the National Triangulation network.

Care shall be taken to ensure that survey stations are placed away from road shoulders and
drains, and as far as possible outside lands. Survey stations shall not be placed closer than 20
metres from the centre line of the proposed road.

It is important that at least four of the permanent survey stations, two on each side of the
crossing, remain functional after completion of the construction so that they can be used as
references for monitoring the deflections of the structure, as part of the bridge maintenance
programme. Care must be exercised in selecting their positions to ensure their stability and
safety from being disturbed during, and after construction. It is recommended that these
survey stations be placed no closer than 20 metres from the centre line of the road, and
preferably no further than 50 metres from the proposed bridge.

The appropriate sections of:

• Chapter 1: Introduction.

• Chapter 2: Survey Regulation and Standards Accuracy.

• Section 3.1 Introduction.

• Section 3.2 Permanent Survey Stations and Ground Control.

• Section 3.3 Construction of Permanent Survey Beacons.

• Section 3.4 Horizontal Fixing of Permanent Survey Beacons,

regarding procedure, general survey regulations and standards of accuracy, and survey control
shall apply to this specification.

b. Centre Line Pegs. Line Key Points, Intermediate Key Points and Reference Pegs Chapter 14:
Staking shall apply to this specification.

c. Co-ordinates
All centre line pegs, key points, intermediate key points, reference pegs and permanent
survey stations shall be co-ordinated on the appropriate LO System in accordance with the
standards of accuracy specified in Chapter 2: Survey Regulation and Standard Accuracy.
The co-ordinates shall be listed on the survey plan in the co-ordinate list block.

16.3.2 Horizontal Control and Vertical Datum

The horizontal control and vertical datum to be used depends on whether or not large scale
plans covering the area of the site exist. In either case the co-ordinate system and constants,
as well as the vertical datum and its origin must be stated on the survey plan.

a. Where Large Scale Plans Exist

Where large scale plans exist, the co-ordinate system as well as the height datum of the
existing plans must be adopted for the bridge site survey.

b. Where Large Scale Plans do not Exist

Where no large scale plans exist, the survey shall be based on the LO System. If LO System
co-ordinates are not readily available a local or arbitrary system may be used after obtaining
approval from the Road Authority.

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Elevations shall be based on NGBM in this case. In the absence of such datum points within
10 km of the bridge terrain, instructions shall be obtained from the Road Authority.

c. Digital Terrain Models

Bridge site surveys may be called for in digital format. This must be undertaken in
accordance with the specification contained in Chapter 15: Digital Mapping and Terrain
Modelling (DTM). The scale and complexity of the terrain must be carefully studied
to ensure that sufficient spot heights are taken to depict all break lines to facilitate the
extraction of accurate cross sections and longitudinal sections in any position, as may be
required by the Road Authority.

The format of presentation shall be either hand drawn, computer plotted or in appropriate
digital format, as required by the Road Authority.

16.4 General Details to be Surveyed

All natural and manmade features which may have an impact on the sighting of the bridge
(including the selection of the final position of the abutments and piers) and access ramps in
the case of an interchange, and on the engineering requirements of the bridge construction,
as well as information which may affect the bridge and the road approaches shall be surveyed.
The survey shall provide the information displayed in Table 16 1 as applicable.

Table 16-1: Details to be Surveyed

1) Contours to 0.5 metres vertical intervals on a scale of 1V:500H and to 1.0 metre on a scale
of 1V:1000H with supplementary spot heights wherever the contours are unable to portray
ground shapes faithfully. Frequent spot heights shall be given on features such as roads,
railways, bridges, etc where elevations may be necessary for engineering design. Tacheometric
spot heights shall be taken on all changes of slope, on top of ridges and in the bottom of
valleys. Reference is made to also Sub-section 16.7.4 Spot-Height and Contours.
2) Positions of survey stations.
3) Rivers, streams, springs, canals, dams, pans, marshes and areas subject to tidal flooding
together with names and direction of flow, as appropriate.
4) Highest known flood levels of main streams, as near as can be determined from local evidence
or information.
5) The source of such information and the specific point and date concerned must be indicated
on the plan.
6) High water marks of rivers, streams and dams.
7) A description of the bed of a stream, e.g. sandy, boulders, solid rock, silted etc.
8) Forest, bush, shrubs, plantations, orchards, avenues, hedges, individual trees which are
landmarks, or the preservation of which may be desirable for scenic purposes, etc.
9) Cultivated lands (differentiating between dry and irrigated), rocky outcrops and hard or
continuous rock, cliffs, sand dunes, etc.
10) Eroded areas and gullies.
11) Water mains.
12) Other services such as sewer, storm water and gas.
13) Manholes.
14) Spot heights.
15) Road Levels.
16) Cuttings and banks (road and rail).
17) Fences and property beacons.
18) Culvert dimension shall be given.

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Table 16-1: Details to be Surveyed cont.
19) Natural drainage and drainage improvements.
20) Structures affected by planning.
21) Existing access to adjoining properties.
22) Position of foundation test holes with reduced ground levels if available.
23) Any special features.
24) Roads and footpaths, differentiating between blacktop and other surfaces as well as between
national, provincial and other roads. The road numbers and destinations of the roads leaving
the surveyed area shall be given.
25) Structures, with details regarding the openings, sizes, structure number and types of construction
relating to those structures which are situated on or across primary and secondary roads, or
which have a bearing on their drainage. Measurements of sizes are to be given. Reference is
made to Sub-section 16.6.4 Widening of Existing Structures for detail on existing structures
which may be affected by the planned construction.
26) Drainage and irrigation furrows.
27) All individual buildings, differentiating between types of construction, and stating the general
use of the building or groups of buildings other than dwellings (e.g. store, school, etc).
28) National monuments and buildings or structures of historical interest. Describe briefly.
29) Power and telecommunication lines, showing individual poles or pylons in their surveyed
positions.
30) Underground pipe lines, cables and other buried services the positions of which shall be
determined from local authorities and surface indications, e.g. manholes, cable markers, etc, if
such services will be affected by the planned construction.
31) Other services e.g. signal cables, telecommunication cables, sewers, etc.
32) Gates and fences, differentiating between ordinary, stock proof, cattle grids, jackal proof,
security fences, etc.
33) Stone, brick or any other type of walls.
34) Wells, boreholes, windmills.
35) Kilometre markers.
36) Quarries, Borrow pits, tunnels, mine workings, etc.
37) Graves and cemeteries.
38) All cadastral and servitude information shall be shown in the surveyed strip with names
of owners and municipal boundaries, if applicable. Where it is difficult to supply cadastral
information and where such data can be omitted without detrimental effect, approval shall be
obtained from the Road Authority.
39) Angle of intersection between roads.
40) Fence gates.

16.5 Details to be surveyed for Railway Crossings

In the case of railway crossings falling inside the area to
be surveyed, the following additional information shall be
provided as displayed in Table 16-2.

Photo of a Railway Crossing

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Table 16-2: Details to be Surveyed for Railway Crossings

1) Angle of intersection between road and rail.
2) Rail kilometre value of point of intersection.
3) Rail kilometre value of existing level crossings.
4) Rail levels (Both rails).
5) Sufficient information to determine radii of road and rail curves.
6) Rail kilometre and grade posts.
7) Kilometre distance along road and rail.
8) Turnouts.
9) Signals.
10) Signal wire runs.
11) Electrification masts.
12) Telecommunication and telegraph routes.
13) Power Line routes.
14) Cables (signal, power and communication).
15) Railways, indicating ownership and destinations.
16) Road and railway layout with leading dimensions in respect of information width, and distance
between carriageways and between railway lines.
17) Position of overhead electric gantries and masts on railway lines.
18) Position of cross-overs and crossings on railway lines.
19) In general, all topography and man-made structures, the plotting of which is consistent
with the scale of the plan, shall be included. In the case of areas such as built-up townships,
industrial or mining sites, etc, written approval may be obtained for the omission of detail
which is considered to be irrelevant.

16.6 Detail Requirements for Different Bridge Surveys

The extent of each site survey vary from site to site, therefore the detail requirements of each
site shall be determined in consultation with the Road Authority. This section serves as a
guideline on details to be surveyed.

16.6.1 Grade Separated Road Crossings and Footbridges

The following detail shall be supplied when surveying grade separated road crossings and
footbridges:

a. Site Plan
The site plan shall contain the locality sketch, unless otherwise indicated, and the survey plan.

(i) Locality Sketch

The locality sketch shall be shown as an inset on the site plan, unless otherwise
indicated. All relevant detail such as longitude, latitude and reference to the 1V:50000H
map for locating the site from any direction shall be shown, including:

• Co-ordinate grid.

• The position and kilometre distance of the bridge site shall be clearly marked and the site
shall form the focal point of the plan.

• The direction of true north oriented the same as the survey plan.

• The scale of the plan (a scale of 1V:50000H is usually used).

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• Existing proclaimed and staked roads and railway lines with their numbers and
destinations.

• Rivers, streams and dams, showing the directions of flow together with names if
applicable.

• Cities, towns and railway stations.

• The position and names of interchanges.

• Kilometre distances at regular intervals.

• Distance to nearest residential centre if such centre is not shown on the sketch.

(ii) Survey Plan

The survey plan shall be an accurately drawn plan of the showing details and contours.

Any required staking shall be completed before the survey is done, if the appropriate
information is available.

Staking shall be done with referencing, or as otherwise agreed with the Road Authority,
in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 14: Staking.

The plan shall cover the terrain within a distance of 150 metres from each side and each
end of the structure, or as otherwise specified. The scope of the survey shall also include
the full extent of any deviations of existing services and/or natural watercourses as
supplied by the Road Authority.

Contours and spot heights shall satisfy the requirements of Section 16.4 General Details
to be Surveyed.

A scale of 1V:500H is preferred, but it may be changed to suit the area covered by the
survey relative to the size of the drawing sheet specified by the Road Authority.

In addition to the requirements listed in Section 16.4 General Details to be Surveyed the
following data shall be given:

• An indication of the true North and the scale.

• Co-ordinates in a co-ordinate list block.

• Existing road(s) with destinations in each direction.

• Any existing staked line including stake value of crossing point(s) and angle of skew.

The survey plan shall always be rotated so that the stake values or kilometre distances
of the bridge increase from left to right.

For a bridge crossing the proposed road, left shall be the left abutment of the proposed
bridge when looking in the direction of the increasing kilometre distances of the
proposed road.

b. Longitudinal Sections along Road Centre Lines

The longitudinal sections along the road centre lines are required for the proper vertical
alignment of the structure.

A section is required along the centre line of each road (proposed as well as existing)
involved in the bridge crossing. For dual carriageway roads, a section shall be taken along
the centre line of each carriageway.

The longitudinal sections shall cover a distance of at least 300 metres on either side of the
proposed bridge(s). However, the exact length shall be confirmed with the Road Authority.
Sections shall be taken in the direction of increasing kilometre distances.

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A scale of 1V:100H vertically and 1V:1000H horizontally is preferred, but it may be changed
to suit the length of the section relative to the size of the drawing sheet specified by the
Road Authority.

Stake values shall increase from left to right. Longitudinal sections shall be drawn as
separate profiles on the same sheet, if possible.

The section along the centre line of a proposed road shall show the following:

(i) Stake values and the levels at staked line pegs.

(ii) Levels at slope changes.

(iii) Geometric data in respect of the vertical and horizontal alignment of the proposed
road, if available.

(iv) Road numbers and destinations.

(v) The position of any existing structures including drainage pipes and services.

The section along an existing road shall show the following:

(i) Levels taken on the road centre line together with the corresponding kilometre
distance or stake value, if available.

(ii)Geometric data in respect of the vertical and horizontal alignment of the existing
road, if available.

(iii) Road number and destination.

(iv) The position of existing structures including road drainage pipes and services.

c. Cross Sections along Road Centre Lines

Cross section of existing and proposed roads shall be taken at regular intervals of 20 metres
over the full length of the longitudinal sections as defined in Sub-section 16.6.1 Road
Crossings and Footbridges. The width of the sections must extend beyond the toe lines of
the proposed embankment but will have to be specified by the Road Authority.

These cross sections shall show the staked line or centre line, road surface, median, lane
shoulders and foot walk widths, cross fall or camber on the carriageway(s), the slopes
and natural ground line (as applicable). The recommended scale is 1V:100H vertically and
1V:1000H horizontally.

The format of presentation shall be either hand drawn, computer plotted or in appropriate
digital form, depending on the requirement of the Road Authority.

16.6.2 River Crossings

The following detail shall be supplied when surveying River
Crossings:

a. Site Plan
The site plan shall contain the locality sketch, unless
otherwise indicated, and the survey plan.

i. Locality Sketch
The locality sketch shall be shown as an inset on the
site plan. In addition to the required information
listed for road over road bridges, reference is made to Photo of a River Crossings to be Surveyed.
Sub-section 16.6.1 Road Crossings and Footbridges

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the position and size of existing structures within 3.0 km upstream or downstream from
the proposed structure shall be shown, together with a description of each structure.
Generally, it is not necessary to show more than two structures on either side.

ii. Survey Plan

The survey plan shall comply with the requirements as listed in Section 16.4 General
Details to be Surveyed.

b. Longitudinal Sections along Road Centre Lines

The longitudinal sections along the road centre lines are required for the proper vertical
alignment of the structure. The longitudinal sections shall comply with the requirements
as listed in Sub-section 16.6.1 Road Crossings and Footbridges with the addition that: the
section along the centre line of a proposed existing road shall also show:

• The profile of river channel.

• The highest known flood levels and approximate dates of flood levels as well as high
and low tide levels for tidal water, if close to the sea.

c. Cross Sections along Road Centre Lines

Cross section along the Road Centre lines shall comply with the requirements as listed in
Sub-section 16.6.1 Road Crossings and Footbridges with the exception that it shall be taken
at regular intervals of 20 metres over the full length of the longitudinal sections as defined
in Sub-section 16.6.1 b) Longitudinal Sections along a Road Centre Line.

d. Cross Sections of the River

• A minimum of three cross sections of the river, taken perpendicular to the direction
of river flow, shall be surveyed and drawn as required for the purposed of determining
the natural design flood level. The number, positions and extent of the sections
shall be as specified by the Road Authority and shall be agreed upon before the survey
is undertaken.

• The format of presentation shall either be hand drawn, computer plotted or in

appropriate digital form. Cross sections shall be shown with the left hand side of the
cross section being the approach side at the smallest stake value of the bridge,
irrespective the direction of the river long section Reference is made to Sub-section
16.6.3 Railway Crossings. A scale of 1V:100H horizontally and vertically is preferred.

• The position of the cross sections shall be shown on the survey plan.

e. Longitudinal Section along the Riverbed

• A Longitudinal section along the centre line of the riverbed ± 250 metres up and
downstream at a scale 1V:100H vertical and 1V:1 000H horizontal shall be surveyed and
plotted. The direction of the river longitudinal section shall be from left to right, where
left is the left side of the river when looking in the direction of the increasing kilometre
distance of the proposed road. This shall not always be in the direction of flow.

• Note: The direction of the cross section and the longitudinal section shall be clearly
indicated on the presentation with respect to the direction of flow.

16.6.3 Railway Crossings

The following detail shall be supplied when surveying Railway Crossings:

a. Site Plan
The site plan shall contain the locality sketch, unless otherwise indicated, and the survey plan.

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i. Locality Sketch
The locality sketch shall be shown as an inset on the site plan. The information to be
shown shall be taken as listed for road crossings. Reference is made to Sub-section
16.6.1 Road Crossings and Footbridges. The rail kilometres of the crossing point shall
also be shown.

ii. Survey Plan

The survey plan shall comply with the requirements as listed in Sub-section 16.6.1
Road Crossings and Footbridges except that it shall extend 200 metres either sides
and 150 metres from each end of the structure, or as otherwise specified. In addition,
the survey shall also cover a strip of 50 metres to either sides of the centre line of the
road which extends from 150 metres to 600 metres behind each end of the structure.
However, this distance shall be confirmed with the Road Authority. The scope of the
survey shall also include the full extent of any deviations of existing services and/or
natural watercourses as supplied by the Road Authority.

In addition to the requirements listed in Section 16.4 General Details to be Surveyed and
Sub-section 16.6.1 Road Crossings and Footbridges, the following data shall be given:

(i) Existing road(s) and rail(s) with destinations in each direction.

(ii) Any existing staked and/or centre lines including stake value of the road and the
kilometre distance of the rail at the crossing point(s) and angle of skew.

b. Longitudinal Section along Road Centre Line

The longitudinal section shall comply with the requirements as listed in Sub-section 16.6.1
Road Crossings and Footbridges with the exception that it shall cover a distance for at least
600 metres on each side of the bridge and that this long section shall extend a sufficient
distance on each side of the structure to cover the full extent of the proposed approach
embankments to the bridge (i.e. from original road level on the one side to original road
level on the other side). However, the exact length shall be confirmed with Road Authority.

In addition to Sub-section 16.6.1 Road Crossings and Footbridges the section along the centre
line of a proposed or existing road shall also show the rail kilometre distance and levels on
both rails at the crossing point.

The requirements of the appropriate railway authority for the longitudinal section along
the road centre line must also be met.

c. Cross Section along Road Centre Lines

Cross sections along the road centre lines shall comply with the requirements as listed in
Section 16.5 Details to be Surveyed for Railway Crossings (1) with the exception that it shall
be taken at regular intervals of 20 metres over the full length of the longitudinal section as
defined in Sub-section 16.6.4 Widening of Existing Structures.

d. Longitudinal Sections along Railway Tracks

A Longitudinal section is required along the centre line of each railway line (proposed as well
as existing) involved in the bridge crossing. The sections shall cover a distance of at least

300 metres on either side of the proposed bridge(s). However, the exact length shall be
confirmed with the Road Authority.

A scale of 1V:100H vertically and 1V:1000H horizontally is preferred.

Kilometre distances shall always increase from left to right. The format of presentation
shall be either hand drawn, computer plotted or in appropriate digital form and the
sections shall be shown as separate profiles.

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The section shall show the following:

• Levels on top of both rails at 10 metres intervals together with rail-kilometre distance.

• Formation levels and approximate original ground levels at 10 metres intervals.

• Geometric data in respect of the vertical and horizontal alignment of the rail track, if
available.

• The crossing point of the rail and road centre lines.

• Rail destinations.

• The position of existing structures including rail drainage pipes and services.

The requirements of the appropriate railway authority for the longitudinal section along
the rail must also be satisfied.

16.6.4 Widening of Existing Structures

In the case of the widening of an existing structure, the extent of the survey depends on the
nature of the envisaged works. It is therefore important that the exact scope of the survey and
the requirements of the drawings be agreed with Road Authority.

a. Site Plan
The site plan shall contain the locality sketch, unless otherwise indicated, and the survey plan.

b. Locality Sketch
The locality sketch shall be shown as an inset on the site plan and shall comply with the
requirements for the corresponding crossing as listed in Sub-section 16.6.1 Road Crossings
and Footbridges, Sub-section 16.6.3 Railway Crossings or Sub-section 16.6.4 Widening of
Existing Structures, as appropriate.

c. Survey Plan
The survey plan shall comply with the requirements for the corresponding crossing as
listed in Sub-section 16.6.1 Road Crossings and Footbridges, Sub-section 16.6.3 Railway
Crossings or Sub-section 16.6.4 Widening of Existing Structures, as appropriate.

In addition to these requirements, the position and leading dimensions of the existing
structure shall be shown.

d. Longitudinal Section along over passing Road Centre Line

The longitudinal section along the centre line or stake line of the over passing road shall
comply with the requirements for the corresponding crossing as listed in Sub-section
16.6.1 Road Crossings and Footbridges, Sub-section 16.6.3 Railway Crossings or Sub-section
16.6.4 Widening of Existing Structures, as appropriate.

In addition to these requirements, the stake value and level at the beginning and end of
each span of each deck shall be shown.

e. Longitudinal Sections along under passing Road/Rail Track Centre Line

The longitudinal section along the centre line or staked line of the under passing road/
rail shall comply with the requirements for the corresponding crossing as listed in Sub-
section 16.6.1 Road Crossings and Footbridges, and Sub-section 16.6.4 Widening of Existing
Structures as appropriate.

In addition to these requirements, the minimum vertical clearance as well as all levels on
the soffit profile above the centre line or staked line, as the case may be, shall be shown.

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f. Cross Sections along Road Centre Lines

The cross section along road lines shall comply with the requirements for the corresponding
crossings as listed in Sub-section 16.6.1 Road Crossings and Footbridges, Sub-section 16.6.3
Railway Crossings or Sub-section 16.6.4 Widening of Existing Structures, as appropriated.

g. Cross Section of the River

The cross section of the river shall comply with requirements as listed in Sub-section 16.6.3
Railway Crossings.

h. Elevations and Cross Sectional Profile of the Bridge

Elevations and cross sections shall be surveyed and drawn on a separate sheet showing the
following levels and dimensions, to be measured on each side of each deck:

• Total length of each span of each deck.

• Clear span of each span of each deck.

• Width and length of each support at top and bottom, if possible.

• Overall width of deck and each foot walk.

• Depth of deck.

• Levels on top of footings, if possible.

• Soffit levels.

• Roadway levels at regular intervals not exceeding 10 metres and at each end of each
span along each edge and centre line of deck.

• Kerb levels at support.

• Asphalt thickness at kerbs at ends of spans on each edge of deck.

For culvert type structures the following additional levels and dimensions shall be given:

• Level on top of headwall, level of soffit below headwall and level on top of deck directly
behind headwall at inlet and outlet. These levels are required on each side, left and
right or the structure.

• Invert level and inlet and outlet.

• Dimensions and relative positions of wing walls.

• Perpendicular width of each opening and each support at inlet and outlet, measured at
the top and bottom.

• Position of headwalls relative to the centre line or staked line of the road.

i. Culverts
The survey and drawing requirements for culverts shall be taken as specified for river
crossing. Reference is made to Sub-section 16.6.3 Railway Crossings. However, the exact
scope of the survey must be agreed with the Road Authority.

16.7 Standards of Accuracy

16.7.1 Staking
The requirements of Chapters 2: Survey Regulations and Standards of Accuracy and Chapter 14:
Staking shall apply to this specification. The following requirements shall also be adhered to:

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In case of curves, the closing error shall not exceed 1V:5000H. Any error smaller than
1V:5000H must be adjusted pro-rata over the length of the curve. Where the error on curves
exceeds 1V:5000H the curve shall be re-staked so that the error is less than 1V:5000H and
subsequently adjusted pro-rata over the curve length.

On straights the pegs may not be more than 20 mm from the designed position.

The distance between any two consecutive pegs must be within the accuracy 1V:5000H.

16.7.2 Levelling
The requirements of Chapter 2: Survey Regulations and Standards of Accuracy, Chapter 3:
Survey and Photo Ground Control and Chapter 14: Staking shall apply to this specification.

16.7.3 Permanent Survey Stations

The requirements of Chapter 2: Survey Regulations and Standards of Accuracy and Chapter
3: Survey and Photo Ground Control, shall apply to this specification. Also take note of Sub-
section 16.3.2 Horizontal Control and Vertical Datum.

16.7.4 Spot-Height and Contours

Contours shall be drawn to 0.5 metres vertical intervals on a scale 1V:500H and 1.0 metre
on a scale of 1V:1000H.

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 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS Chapter 17

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

17.1 Introduction
The purpose of the survey is to produce plans for borrow pit and quarry site as required by
the Inspector of the mines to be used for Volume Calculations, Monitoring and/or Locality.
The surveys are also used by the designer and contractor to determine the amount of material
available in the borrow pit for construction of the road.

17.2 Phases of the Survey

Field Survey
The survey of all details to produce the necessary plans.

Cadastral Survey
The compilation of all the data defining the cadastral boundaries.

Plotting
The plotting of all details and drafting of plans in the format as required by the Road Authority
and the Inspector of the mines.

Checking
The final checking of the borrow pit or quarry site survey including field
work and data processing, and the supply of all related records

Figure 17-1: Phases of the Survey.

17.3 Field Survey

17.3.1 Surveys where Blasting is to Take Place
Where blasting is to be carried out at a borrow pit or quarry
site, an area extending 500 metres from the perimeter of the
site is to be surveyed. This shall be contoured at 5.0 metres
intervals and plotted at a scale of 1V:2000H. Structures of
adjacent properties, and those within the survey extents,
should also be surveyed as base for assessment after blasting.
The survey of this area can be preceded by a condition
survey of structures and other developments, and the type
and extent of this condition survey depends on geological
and ground conditions, which can be evaluated on a project
Photo of a Quarry Site
basis.

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An area extending 20 metres from the perimeter of the borrow pit or quarry site is to be
surveyed in greater detail. This shall be contoured at 1.0 metre intervals, and plotted at a scale
of 1V:200H and 1V:500H so as to fit on an A0 sheet.

17.3.2 Surveys where No Blasting is to Take Place

An area extending 20 metres from the perimeter of the borrow pit or quarry site is to be
surveyed. Where details such as buildings and power or pipeline servitudes are within 100
metres of the perimeter of the site, the area must be extended to include them. This shall be
contoured at 1.0 metre intervals and plotted at a scale of 1V:200H or 1V:500H so as to fit on an
A0 sheet.

17.3.3 Detail to be Surveyed

All topography and man-made structures and details, which are consistent with the scale of
the final plan, shall be surveyed.

17.3.4 Boundary Surveys

If the site was fenced prior to survey, the position of corner posts and gate shall be surveyed
and listed.

If the site is unfenced, the Road Authority shall indicate the approximate position of the
proposed corner posts of the fence to be surveyed.

The Road Authority will indicate the required area to be set out.

Steel pegs 10 mm diameter and 460 mm long to demarcate the corner positions shall be used.
A substantial cairn of stones shall be placed over each peg and painted with a durable white
paint. Where a cairn of stones has for some reason not been placed over the peg a fencing
standard is to be driven in next to the peg and painted white, to indicate the approximate
position of the peg.

17.3.5 Co-ordinates
All corner post pegs shall be co-ordinated on the appropriate LO System of the Botswana
National Grid and the error shall not exceed the limits expressed in Section 2.4 Horizontal
Standards of Accuracy.

17.4 Cadastral
All cadastral boundaries shall be calculated and the appropriate property descriptions shall be
shown on each survey plan. Reference is made to Chapter 7: Cadastral Data. No cadastral key
plans are required.

17.5 Draughting Requirements

The drawings shall be produced on a standard A0 size (841 mm x 1189 mm) stable polyester
base transparent draughting material in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 13:
Draughting of Topographical Plans.

The titles and borrow pit/quarry site numbers of the drawings as well as the field books and
calculation file number shall be obtained from the Road Authority.

The co-ordinates of control pegs and corner pegs shall be listed on the drawing in the co-
ordinate list block.

The height datum and the origin of the elevation shall be stated on the drawing.

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 Chapter 17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

17.6 Survey Records

All records shall be submitted as stated in Chapter 4: Survey Records.

Locality sketch
The position of the borrow pit or quarry site shall be shown on an A4 size print of a 1V:50000H
topographic sheet and be bound into the calculation file.

The numbers of the relative field book and calculation file shall be listed on the drawing.

After the necessary checks have been performed the calculation files and field books shall be
submitted together with the complete plans.

17.7 Standards of Accuracy

The Standard of Accuracy for surveys pertaining to borrow pits and quarry sites is the same as
applications pertaining to Digital Terrain Model (DTM) surveys. Reference is made to Chapter
2: Survey Regulations and Standards of Accuracy.

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 Chapter 18
SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE
CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 18
SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE
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18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF

ROADS AND BRIDGES
18.1 Introduction
The purpose of this survey shall be to provide adequate surveyed information to ensure that
the road and bridge works, are constructed within the tolerances of the design. The survey
system shall provide a management tool to the engineer for the evaluation of material
quantities, claims from the contractor, preparation of payment certificates, on site designs
checking, setting out works, comparison of quantities for quick and effective decision making
by the engineer.

18.2 Phases of the Survey

The following are recognized as separate phases of the survey and shall be carried out or
omitted as specified in the requirements of the contract and is shown in Figure 18-1 shows
separate phases the survey.

Construction Beacon Survey

Survey of Ground Lines

Preparation of a Design Model

Checking of the Contractors

Measurement during the Progress of Construction Work

Utilization of the Design Model

Figure 18-1: Separate Phases of the Survey

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The Construction Beacon Survey being the establishment of a planimetric and vertical survey
network of permanent survey beacons and the supply of all related records. The permanent
survey beacons can either be pillar beacons or normal survey beacons, depending on the type
of terrain. Reference is made to Chapter3: Survey and Photo Ground Control.

a. The Survey of Ground Lines to serve as a reference datum for the determination of
quantities.

b. The Preparation of a Design Model which involves the merging of the design and the
original ground line on computer, to serve as a design model during the construction phase.

c. The Checking of the Contractors Staking by independent survey methods.

d. The Measurement during the progress of construction work, or after the completion
of a section, for the evaluation of specified dimensional tolerances and the controlling of
quantities.

e. The Utilization of the Design Model as a tool for supervision purposes which involves:

• Evaluation of design tolerances.

• Calculation of quantities for payment items as stipulated in the Bill of quantities.

• Design alterations and additional designs.

• Investigation of design alternatives for cost comparisons.

• Management tool for effective site supervision.

18.3 Responsibilities of the Supervisory Surveyor

At the beginning of the contract, the Supervisory Surveyor shall make himself acquainted
with the relevant Standard Specification for Road and Bridge Works. Particular attention shall
be paid to the sections which deal with measurements and payments.

The Supervisory Surveyor shall make himself acquainted with the contract documents, the
bill of quantities, the detail drawings and all surveying information.

The Supervisory Surveyor shall in co-operation with the Engineer, evaluate the contractor’s
setting out procedures to ensure that complicated elements of the road design like interchanges,
structures and other important sections, are placed accurately. Reference is made to the
relevant Standard Specifications.

An agreement must be reached between the Supervisory Surveyor’s measurement and

calculations and that of the Construction Surveyor, before any material is removed or covering
up of any work takes place. Agreement of differences of measurement shall be confirmed in
writing.

The primary role of the Supervisory Surveyor during the construction phase of the project
shall be to ensure that road infrastructure is constructed accurately to the design co-ordinates
and levels, and within tolerances specified in the SSRBW, or the design if a higher tolerance is
specified therein.

18.4 Supervision Survey Standards

The Road Authority will decide which survey methods shall be applicable for supervision
purposes depending on the extent of the project. The Survey can be done by either conventional
or advanced survey methods. The requirements of Standard Specification for Road and Bridge
Works shall also apply to surveys undertaken for control of construction activities.

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18.4.1 Construction Beacon Survey

The surveyor will be responsible for the timely establishment of the construction survey
beacons at positions as allowed by the topography and the design, but not further than 500
metres apart. These beacons can be effectively used for the measuring of works and the
breaking down of the survey network for establishing intermediate survey beacons and bench
marks.

The establishment of the construction beacons shall be done in accordance to the Road
Authority’s requirements and shall be based on the specifications for the establishing of
permanent reference points as set out in Chapter 3: Survey and Photo Ground Control.

a. Sufficient survey beacons, on which the original design survey was based on, shall be
incorporated into the construction beacon survey to determine horizontal and vertical
displacement between the two survey systems. When the linear displacement exceeds
more than 100 mm in the horizontal and 20 mm in the vertical, then the matter shall be
referred to the Road Authority for instructions in this regard.

b. The establishment and the fixing of construction beacons can be undertaken by outside
survey firms although the planning of the positions and the co-ordination of the survey
shall remain the responsibility of the surveyor. The Engineer shall issue the final co-
ordinates and levels of the construction beacons to the contractor prior to commencement
of any work. All surveys for the duration of the contract shall be based on these co-ordinates.

c. With the establishment of the construction beacons, tying into the beacons of adjacent
contracts shall be carried out meticulously. If any displacement is greater than specified as in
Sub-section 18.4.1 Construction Beacon Survey (b) the matter must be referred to the Road
Authority for further instructions.

18.4.2 Protection of Beacons

The replacement of any construction beacon, damaged during construction activities shall be
replaced by the Contractor, at his own cost, except for those beacons which the engineer has
given permission to destroy.

Any existing cadastral beacons which may be destroyed by construction must first be
referenced from any construction beacon by a registered professional Surveyor before it is
destroyed. This procedure does not exempt the Contractor from the requirements of the
Standard Specifications.

18.4.3 Ground Line Survey (Reference Plane)

A Ground line shall be surveyed as a reference plane for the determination of quantities.
Survey measurements shall be a regular cross section intervals or by random DTM Survey to
get a true representation of the terrain. A terrain model shall be created if the latter method is
used. Ground line surveys shall be undertaken at all areas affected by the construction works
and as dictated by the Bill of Quantities, for example, quarries, borrow pits, spoil areas, road
and bridgework areas etc.

18.4.4 Preparation of a Design Datum Model

This phase involves the merging of the design (alignment, cross sections, pavement layers,
edge of development etc.) with the original ground line. All interim surveys for the evaluation
of tolerances, and determination of quantities done as the construction progresses shall be
entered into the datum model as interim measurements. The interim measurements shall be
superimposed on the ground line and design cross sections, to serve as a data set for progress
measurements, design tolerances evaluation, and quantity determination for payment items.

All setting out done by the Contractor shall be checked by independent survey methods. All,
checks shall be based on the agreed construction beacon co-ordinates and levels.

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18.4.5 Taking of Levels

The measurement of any levels can be done by conventional spirit levelling or DTM methods.
For larger projects, it is recommended that the DTM method be applied to keep up with the
pace of the construction. The DTM method offers the further advantage of the simultaneous
collecting of positional data from which dimensional tolerances, progress and quantity
calculations can be carried out. Levels for layer checks shall be taken on the cross section at
positions agreed upon prior to the commencement of works between the Engineer and the
Contractor.

Design Levels shall be calculated for these agreed positions, and all layer checks shall be
surveyed on these agreed positions.

18.4.6 Field Spirit-Level Method

If levels are determined by means of a spirit level, the normal principles of closed level runs
shall be adhered to. No circular runs shall however be allowed. Layer check levels at the
positions as agreed upon in Sub-section 18.4.5 Taking of Levels shall be taken on the same
position in the form of a cross section at 20 metres intervals unless otherwise specified. All
levels taken to check design tolerances shall be taken at the design level positions.

18.4.7 Field Digital Terrain Model (DTM) Method

If survey measurements are carried out using tachometric methods, then the positions
measured can be taken at random or at agreed cross section intervals. If levels are not measured
in the same position as the design levels, then calculated levels shall be extracted in the same
position as the design levels. To stay within the allowable tolerances, DTM observations for
layer checks shall be restricted to a maximum distance of 100 metres.

The height of the theodolite may be determined by tape if adequate provision is made for
the offset error incurred by tape measurements. However, determination of the level of the
collimation line of the theodolite should preferably be utilized. This shall be done by means
of vertical triangulation methods. For interim DTM measurements to determine progress,
quantities etc. Reference is made to Chapter 15: Digital Mapping and Terrain Modelling (DTM).

18.4.8 Submission of Measurements

Data shall be submitted in the format of the relevant judgment plan, and out of specification
tolerances shall be highlighted, dated and signed by the supervisory surveyor, and shall
form part of the submission to the Engineer. All submissions shall be safeguarded and filed
in an orderly system with clear reference to chainage, layer and section phase. If computer
calculations are used, then clear reference shall be made with regards to the relevant computer
file information.

All phases of the construction shall be carefully checked. Under abnormal circumstances
when a 100% checking is not viable, a statistical judgment plan shall be applied until normal
test methods can be resumed. When any section is tested, whether a normal sized section or
an isolated section, all measurements shall be taken in a stratified random sampling method.

18.4.9 As Built Data

The collection of as built data is the responsibility of the supervisory surveyor. This process
involves the collection of all alterations to the original design and the noting of these alterations
on the copies of the design plans kept on site.

18.4.10 Completion Surveys

a. The survey and compilation of a completion survey involves the updating of the layout
plans after completion of the works. Relevant data collected for the as built purposes
shall form part of the completion plans. If no layout plans exist, a tachometric survey

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 Chapter 18
SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE
CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

shall be undertaken between the road reserve boundaries, as fenced. If layout plans do
exist, then a tachometric survey shall be undertaken at all areas that have been affected
by the construction works. Detail to be surveyed shall be done according to Chapter 10:
Large Scale Photogrammetric Completion Surveys.

b. The new strip survey of the construction area shall be clipped onto the original survey,
design or layout plan, by means of a photographic or draughting process. This shall be
done in consultation with the Road Authority. All relevant surveyed data previously
measured during the contract shall form part of the completion survey and only outstanding
information shall be surveyed and added to compile the completion plan. The supervisory
surveyor shall provide the strip survey information in a CAD and hard copy format as
specified in Chapter 13: Draughting of Topographical Plans.

18.5 Standards of Accuracy

The standards of accuracy for all surveys shall be taken as specified in this manual with
reference to the following:

• Chapter 8: Small Scale Surveys (1V:500H to 1V:10000H).

• Chapter 9: Large Scale Surveys (1V:500H to 1V:2000H).

• Chapter 10: Large Scale Photogrammetric Completion Surveys.

• Chapter 11: Orthophoto Maps.

• Chapter 12: Lidar Surveys.

• Chapter 14: Staking.

• Chapter 16: Bridge Site Surveys.

• Chapter 17: Borrow Pit and Quarry Site Surveys.

• Chapter 18: Supervision Surveys for the Construction of Roads and Bridges.

• Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works (SSRBW).

• Project Specifications.

18.6 Records
All survey records during the construction period shall be filed in an orderly manner to ensure
that information on all phases of the contract can be easily extracted when needed.

All survey records shall be continuously saved by a backup system and safeguarded at an
independent storage place. This is normally done by daily transferring electronic survey data
to Head Office of the supervisory firm.

Records for the completion survey, geometric alignment and levels for the final layer, shall
after completion of the contract, be provided on a computer disk. Clear reference shall be
made to the format of the data stored on the disk.

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 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS Chapter 19

1 INTRODUCTION

2 SURVEY REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

3 SURVEY AND PHOTO GROUND CONTROL

4 SURVEY RECORDS

5 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

6 SATELLITE IMAGES

7 CADASTRAL DATA

8 SMALL SCALE 1V:5000H TO 1V:10000H SURVEYS

9 LARGE SCALE 1V:500H TO 1V:2000H SURVEYS

10 LARGE SCALE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC COMPLETION SURVEYS

11 ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

12 LIDAR SURVEYS

13 DRAUGHTING OF TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS

14 STAKING

15 DIGITAL MAPPING AND TERRAIN MODELLING (DTM)

16 BRIDGE SITE SURVEYS

17 BORROW PIT AND QUARRY SITE SURVEYS

18 SUPERVISION SURVEYS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND BRIDGES

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

APPENDICES

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 Chapter 19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

19 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS

19.1 Introduction
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), also known as drone,
is an aircraft without a human pilot on-board. Its flight is
controlled either autonomously by computer: in the vehicle
or under the remote control of a pilot on the ground or in
another vehicle. The typical launch and recovery method
of an unmanned aircraft is by the function on an automatic
system of an external operator on the ground.
Photo of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
19.2 The Purpose of the Survey
The purpose of this survey is to provide mostly large scale maps for the design and planning
purposes.

19.3 Phases of the Survey

The following are recognised as separate phases of the survey, to be carried out or omitted, as
specified in the survey requirements.

The photo ground control, being all surveyed work required for the establishment of the photo
ground control points.

i. On typical corridors (eg. road, pipe route etc.). Full ground control is needed at atleast
every 300 metres to obtain best results as shown in Figure 19-1.

Figure 19-1: Example of Full Ground Control Points

ii. On large areas (eg. greenfields) atleast 10 ground control points per square kilometre is
needed.

The dependency on ground control is much more than for lidar but end result can be up
to 5.0 centimetres ground sample distance. Ground control can be done by pre- or post-
marking.

19.4 Scales and Units

See Section 12.4 Scales and Units.

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 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE SURVEYS Chapter 19
19.5 Specifications
The unmanned aerial survey should be used in open area with least vegetation to obtain best
results.

It is advised to consult the Road Authority first to discuss the survey areas and specifications
of drone before commencement of survey. Also see Sub-section 12.5.1 LIDAR Specifications.

19.6 Imagery Specifications

See Sub-section 12.5.2 Imagery Specifications.

19.7 Standards of Accuracy

See Section 12.6 Standards of Accuracy.

19.8 Methods of Testing and Inspection

See Section 12.7 Methods of Testing and Inspection.

19.9 Records
See Section 12.8 Records.

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 Roads Department

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Roads Department (November 1983): Standard Specifications for road and Bridge Works,
Ministry of Works and Transport, Gaborone.

Department of Surveys and Mapping, B.B.H. Morebodi (2008): The Land Survey Act of
Botswana, Ministry of Lands and Housing, Gaborone.

Department of Transport (February 2013): TechnicaLl Methods for Highways II (TMH II),
Committee of State Road Authorities (CSRA), National Institute for Transport and Road
Research (NITRR), Pretoria, South Africa.

Sensefly: www.sensefly.com.

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Guideline Framework for Technical Reports................................................. A
Appendix B: Accuracy of Fieldwork................................................................................. B
Appendix C: Digital Photography Information.................................................................. C
Appendix D: Co-Ordinate List.......................................................................................... D
Appendix E: Field Book and Calculation Reference.......................................................... E
Appendix F: Standard Sheet Sizes.................................................................................... F
Appendix G: Premarks .................................................................................................... G
Appendix H: Angle of Skew..............................................................................................H
Appendix I: Pillar Beacon................................................................................................ I
Appendix J: Concrete Beacon...........................................................................................J
Appendix K: Level Requirements on Power Lines............................................................. K
Appendix L: Level Diagram............................................................................................. L
Appendix M: Working Plan.............................................................................................. M
Appendix N: Cadastral Key Plan.......................................................................................N
Appendix O: Flight Plan................................................................................................... O
Appendix P: Definitions.................................................................................................. P
Appendix Q: Draughting Symbols.................................................................................... Q

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

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APPENDIX A:
GUIDELINE FRAMEWORK FOR TECHNICAL REPORTS

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 A
Roads Department

A technical survey report must at least cover the following topics, namely:

• Survey project description.

• Survey project number.

• Surveyed by (name of organization that performed the survey).

• Description of the project.

a. Locality of the survey area.

b. Terrain type description.

c. Size of the survey.

d. Date and duration of the survey.

e. Surveyors involved (names, qualification and registration numbers).

• Execution of the survey project.

a. Instrumentation and equipment used.

b. Special aids.

c. Application of special techniques.

d. Survey methods applied.

e. Problem situation and solving of problems.

f. Delays due to unforeseen circumstance.

g. Accuracies obtained and out of specification tolerances accepted.

h. Survey projection system and height datums.

• Records (records submitted to the Road Authority and the format of digital data
supplied).

• Recommendations (results of the survey to be kept in mind from future surveys in the
same area).

• General information (information which the surveyor wants to bring to the attention of
the Road Authority and not mentioned elsewhere in the report).

Signature.

Printed name.

Designation.

Date.

Note: can be supplemented with photographs included in the calculation file.

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APPENDIX B:
ACCURACY OF FIELDWORK

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LIMITS OF ALLOWABLE ERRORS IN FIELDWORK

When the position is determined by polars, traverse, triangulation, trilateration, Global
Positioning System (GPS) or a combination of these methods, the displacement between
any observed rays, measured distance or Global Positioning System (GPS) vector and the
equivalent quantity derived from the final co-ordinates of the point fixed shall not exceed the
limits expressed by the formulae in the following table:

Class of Survey Formula Applications

1. Determination of Reference Marks and Permanent
Survey Stations.
2. Fixing of Reference Marks in previously surveyed townships,
A Y metres
villages or settlements.
3. Other determinations that may be described in the
document
1. Determination of reference marks in new townships.
2. The survey of new townships.
3. Re-Survey or subdivision of a lot in an existing township,
village or settlement.
B 1.5Y metres 4. Survey for the replacement of a beacon in a township,
village or settlement.
5. The survey for the preparation of a diagram required
under any law relating to the registration of mining
titles in respect of precious stones and minerals
1. Survey for mining titles in respect of base minerals
C 3Y metres
2. All surveys not included in Class A or Class B.

Where:
S
Y = 0.04 +
30000
and
S= The distance in metres between the known and unknown point.

Provided that in the case of a GPS vector the comparison is made between the vector derived
from the final co-ordinates and the measured vector after the datum transformation has
been applied, provided further that in the case of a traverse the comparison is made to the
misclosure of the traverse, where S is the total length of the traverse in metres.

Accuracy Classes pertain to physical points that are set out in the field. These points can be
surveyed and check surveyed to establish a closing distance, this value is then compared with
the values of the classes A, B and C to then establish whether it is within the allowable limits.

Points surveyed on a road surface or open field cannot be tested against these classes, only
the control points these surveys are conducted from can be tested against the classes. For
example, control points pertaining to the determination of reference marks and permanent
survey stations should maintain a class A accuracy.

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 Roads Department

APPENDIX C:
DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY INFORMATION

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DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY INFORMATION

AUTHORITY OR DEPARTMENT:
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY:
JOB NUMBER: FLIGHT PLAN:
LOCALITY:
CONTACT SCALE:
FLIGHT PLAN SCALE:
FOLDER NAME: DATE:
ROUTE SECTION STRIP NUMBER PHOTO NUMBER REMARKS

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APPENDIX D:
CO-ORDINATE LIST

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CO-ORDINATE LIST
SURVEY RECORDS No.: SURVEY OF:

SYSTEM LO: NAME AND HEIGHT OF LEVEL DATUM:

DATE OF SURVEY:
SURVEY METRES METRES
REMARKS
STATION Y± X+

SURVEY BY: NAME......................................SIGNATURE........................................

CHECKED BY: NAME......................................SIGNATURE........................................

DATE: ......................................

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APPENDIX E:
FIELD BOOK AND CALCULATION REFERENCE

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FIELD BOOK AND CALCULATION REFERENCE

HORIZONTAL VERTICAL

OBSERVATIONS CALCULATIONS

Km DISTANCE OR
OBSERVATIONS CALCULATIONS

REMARKS
HEIGHT SPIRIT
HEIGHT TRAV.
TRAV. LEVELLING

P P P P P
SURVEY A A FIELD A FIELD A FILE A
FIELD BOOK FILE VOLUME
POINT G G BOOK G BOOK G VOLUME G
E E E E E

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APPENDIX F:
STANDARD SHEET SIZES

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STANDARD SHEETS – A0, A1, A2 AND A3

F C EJ

G
CUT LINE

CUT LINE
CUT LINE

SPACE FOR PUNCH HOLDS

B
G H

CUT LINE

DIMENSIONS
(mm) A B C D E F G H J
STANDARD SHEET
A0 1198 841 1099 741 30 60 20 60 36

A1 841 585

A2 594 420

A3 420 297

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APPENDIX G:
PREMARKS

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Roads Department

B
C

PREMARK FOR PHOTOGRAPHY (ALL SCALES)

60
A=( x SCALE FACTOR)
1000

A
B=
2

1 SCALE FACTOR
C= ( mm – A mm) mm
2 2

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APPENDIX H:
ANGLE OF SKEW

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Roads Department

EXAMPLE OF ANGLE OF SKEW

W
KE
FS
CASE 1

EO
TWO STRAIGHTS

GL
AN
ONE CL

RC
L
HE
OT

W
KE
FS
CASE 2

EO
R CL
A CURVE AND A STRAIGHT HE

GL
OT

AN
ONE CL
NT
GE
N
TA

W
KE
S

CASE 3
OF

R CL
E

TWO CURVES
GL

HE
OT
AN

ONE CL TANGENT
C
H ER L
OT
NT
GE
N
TA
DI
RE

CASE 4
CT
IO

RIVER CROSSINGS
N
OF

ANGLE OF SKEW ANGLE OF SKEW

FL
OW

CHAINAGLE INCREASE
DI
RE
CT
IO
N
OF
FL
OW

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APPENDIX I:
PILLAR BEACON

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Roads Department

PVC OR FIBRE CASTING

FILL WITH 4:3:1 CONCRETE

8mm Ø REINFORCED BARS WITH

WIRE BINDERS

SECTION A - A REMOVABLE TARKET 20 mm Ø

GALVANISED PIPE PAINTED RED,
RED WHITE AND BLACK

WHITE SCREED TOP TO SMOOTH

SURFACE
BLACK

200 mm LONG SLEEVE FOR

TARKET

A A
1300 mm

250 mm Ø BEACON COLUMN

WITH PVC OR PITCH FIBRE
CASTING PAINTED WHITE

BRASS / STAINLESS STEEL

STUD

GROUND LEVEL
500 mm

500 mm 500 mm

NOTES: 1. DRIVE IRON STANDARDINTO GROUND TO ENSURE STABILITY IN SOFT MATERIAL.

2. CONCRETE MIX TO BE IN THE PROPORTIONS OF 4:3:1 (STONE, SAND, CEMENT).

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APPENDIX J:
CONCRETE BEACON

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Roads Department

100mm FINISHING
LAYER

10
GROUND LEVEL

25
275

460
150

25mm Ø GALVANISED PIPE

OR AS OTHER SPECIFIED
250

300

ALL DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETRES

SCALE 1V:4H

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APPENDIX K:
LEVEL REQUIREMENTS ON POWER LINES

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Roads Department

SHOULDER CL
BREAKPOINT 1

LEVELS REQUIRED AT POINTS 1, 2 AND 3

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APPENDIX L:
LEVEL DIAGRAM

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L

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SET-UPS 102 (BM107-BM113)
CLOSING ERROR: 0.035
ALLOWABLE ERROR: 0.037

SET-UPS 20 (BM89-BM100) 13
CLOSING ERROR: 0.001 BM1
ALLOWABLE ERROR: 0.009

12
89 BM1
BM

0 11
BM1
99 B M11
BM
MODEL A1-25 LOBATSE TO GABORONE

108
BM
101 107
BM BM
106
105 BM
100 04 BM 109
BM BM1 BM

102 103
BM BM SET-UPS 92 (BM100-BM107)
CLOSING ERROR: 0.011
ALLOWABLE ERROR: 0.031

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APPENDIX M:
WORKING PLAN

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Roads Department

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APPENDIX N:
CADASTRAL KEY PLAN

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Roads Department

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APPENDIX O:
FLIGHT PLAN

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Roads Department

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APPENDIX P:
DEFINITIONS

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Roads Department

The following definitions are used in this document and are of significance:

Aerial Photography Aerial Photography is the collection of information on the

ground from an elevated position by means of a camera
mounted on an aircraft.
Aerial Survey A method of collecting information using aerial photography

Cadastral Survey Used to document land ownership, by the production of

documents, diagrams, plans, and maps.
Global Positioning System (GPS) The GPS is a space-based Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS) that provides location and time information in all
weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It
is maintained by the United States government and is freely
accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver with some technical
limitations which are only removed for military users.
Global Positioning System Surveys This type of survey is sufficient for the establishment of
Ground Control points, Digital Terrain Modelling and Road
Surveys.
LIDAR LIDAR Survey is used for small and large scale surveys. This
type of survey is a technological improvement on aerial
photography which is more cost effective and more efficient
in dense vegetated areas. Another benefit of LIDAR is that it
is not affected by cloudy weather conditions.
LIDAR (Light Detection This type of survey is a technological improvement on aerial
and Ranging) photography which is more cost effective and more efficient
in dense vegetated areas.
Sexagesimal Sexagesimal (base 60) is a numeral system with sixty as its
base.
Surveying The technique and science of measuring positions and
distances on Earth.
Topographical map A topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-
scale detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually
using contour lines in modern mapping, but historically using
a variety of methods.

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APPENDIX Q:
DRAUGHTING SYMBOLS

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Roads Department

204 0.35 PEN /

NUMBER AVOVE AND ELEVATION HEIGHT 2.5 mm
TRIG SURVEY BEACON AT GROWN LEVEL BELOW THE SYMBOL 1416.8 0.35 PEN

0.35 PEN /
416.812 HEIGHT 2.5 mm
TRIG SURVEY BENCHMARK INIDICATE ELEVATION AND NUMBER
0.35 PEN
38D40

0.35 PEN

BM 99
0.35 PEN /
1627.914
PERMANENT SURVEY FIXED TRIGOMETRICALLY OR GPS
HEIGHT 2.5 mm
STATION 0.25 PEN

0.35 PEN

BM 88 Ø25 mm
1630.552
PERMANENT SURVEY FIXED BY TRAVERSING Ø 30 mm AND
STATION 2 mm

0.25 PEN

Draughting Symbols 1

PROPERTY BEACON AND 0.35 /

STAKED LINE PEGS Ø 2 mm

AUX NR 6
TEMPORARY SURVEY STATION TACHE SURVEYS 0.35 PEN /
1120 86 HEIGHT 2.5 mm

0.35 PEN /
Ø 2.5 mm

HP 201 0.35 PEN /

PHOTO GROUND CONTROL 1633 02 HEIGHT 2.5 mm
FIXED HORIZONTALLY
POINT
0.35 PEN /
Ø 2.5 mm

LPC 201 0.35 PEN /

1844 29
PHOTO GROUND CONTROL HEIGHT 2.5 mm
FIXED VERTICALLY
POINT
0.35 PEN /
Ø 2.5 mm

Draughting Symbols 2

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PC 201 0.35 PEN /

PHOTO GROUND CONTROL POINT 2897 05 HEIGHT 2.5 mm

0.35 PEN /
Ø 2.5 mm

CP 234 / 1 0.35 PEN /

PHOTO GROUND CONTROL POINT 1234 05 HEIGHT 2.5 mm

0.35 PEN /
Ø 2.5 mm

4 DIGITS
2 mm 0.35 PEN /

AERIAL PHOTO PRINCIPAL POINT

444 HEIGHT 3.5 mm
0.35 PEN
15 mm
4 mn. CROSS

SPOT HEIGHT 52 5 0.25 PEN /

HEIGHT 2 mm

Draughting Symbols 3

MALAU STREET (AVENUE,

STREET NAMES GROVE, SINGLE) 0.50 PEN /
OR SMALLER HEIGHT 3.5 mm

SOUTH AFRICA 0.70 PEN

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY
BOTSWANA 0.50 PEN /
HEIGHT 3.5 mm

GHANZI 0.70 PEN

PROVINCIAL BOUNDARY KGALAGADI 0.50 PEN /
HEIGHT 3.5 mm

KANYE 0.70 PEN

DISTRICT OR MUNICIPAL BOUNDARY JWANENG 0.50 PEN /
HEIGHT 3.5 mm

0.70 PEN
GHANZI
TOWN OR FRAM BOUNDARIES
MMANKGODI 0.50 PEN /
HEIGHT 3.5 mm

Draughting Symbols 4

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URBAN OR FARM SUBDIVISION

0.50 PEN
BOUNDARY

0.35 PEN /
SERVITUDE OR APPROVED BUT PIPE LINE SERV. HEIGHT 3.5 mm
NOT REGISTERED SUBDIVISION 1.794 m WIDE
0.50 PEN

0.25 PEN

FENCE ON SUBDIVISION
BOUNDARY 0.50 PEN

0.50 PEN /
CENTRE LINE (MID RIVER) GHANZI HEIGHT 3.5 mm
MMANKGODOI
0.70 PEN

Draughting Symbols 5

NATIONAL ROAD RESERVE BOUNDARY 0.70 PEN

REGISTERS ON AN EXISTING
CADASTRAL BOUNDARY Ø 2 mm

NATIONAL ROAD RESERVE BOUNDARY 0.70 PEN

DOES NOT REGISTERS ON AN

EXISTING CAD. BOUNDARY Ø 2 mm

FARM OR TOWNSHIP NAMES MMANKGODOI 0.70 PEN /

1476 / 82 (S.G. NUMBER) HEIGHT 10 mm
OR SMALLER TO FIT AVAILABLE SPACE 0,35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2.5 mm

SUBDIVISION NUMBERS / REMAINDERS 0.50 PEN /

PTN 8 / REM HEIGHT 4.5 mm
1476 / 82 (S.G. NUMBER) 0,35 PEN /
OR SMALLER TO FIT AVAILABLE SPACE HEIGHT 2.5 mm

ERF OR AGRICUKTURAL HOLDINGS 679 0.50 PEN /

NUMBERS OR SMALLER TO FIT AVAILABLE SPACE HEIGHT 4.5 mm

Draughting Symbols 6

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Ø 2 mm
TELEPHONE LINES INDIVIDUAL POLE POSITIONS
NOT FIXED BY SURVEY 0,25 PEN

Ø 3 mm AND
INDIVIDUAL POLE POSITIONS 2 mm
TELEPHONE LINES NOT FIXED BY SURVEY

Ø 2 mm
POWER LINES INDIVIDUAL POLE POSITIONS
NOT FIXED BY SURVEY 0,25 PEN

Ø 3 mm AND
POWER LINES INDIVIDUAL POLE POSITIONS
NOT FIXED BY SURVEY 2 mm
0,25 PEN
Ø 2 mm
PYLONS
0,25 PEN

Ø 3 mm AND
LAMP POST (SOLITARY) 2 mm

Ø 3 mm AND
POWER POLE 2 mm

100 mm U/G SEWER 0,35 PEN /

BELOW GROUND
PIPE LINES OR CABLES (DESCRIBE APPROPRIATELY) HEIGHT 2,5 mm
0,35 PEN

Draughting Symbols 7

0,35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2,5 mm
PIPE LINES ABOVE GROUND: WATER, AIR, 300 mm Ø WATER MAIN
SEWER ETC.
0,35 PEN

0,35 PEN

CHURCH BUILDING DESCRIBE e.g.: CHURCH, MOSQUE, 0,25 PEN

SYNOGOGUE, ETC.
SPACING 1,5 mm

0,35 PEN

0,25 PEN
PERMANET BUILDINGS SPACING 1,5 mm

0,35 PEN

TEMPORARY BUILDINGS

0,35 PEN

0,35 PEN /
BUILDING UNDER CONSTRUCTION U/C R HEIGHT 2,5 mm
OR RUIN

Draughting Symbols 8

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DIP DIP 0,35 PEN /

HEIGHT 2.5 mm

0.35 PEN /
TROUGH TR
HEIGHT 2.5 mm

0.35 PEN

SILO 0.35 PEN

0,35 PEN /
TR HEIGHT 2.5 mm
CATTLE BEAD 0.35 PEN

0.35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2.5 mm
23 INDICATES THE NUMBER
PIPE CULVERTS ON THE SCHEDULE PC 23 0.35 PEN /
OR 600 mm Ø PC HEIGHT 2.5 mm
0,35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2.5 mm
BOX CULVERTS 8 INDICATES THE NUMBER BC 8 0.35 PEN
ON THE SCHEDULE
OR 22000 x 3000 BC HEIGHT 2.5 mm
(HOR.) x (VERT.)
0.35 PEN
ROUTH MARKERS N2 - 8X 0.35 PEN /
54 - 2E HEIGHT 2.5 mm
0.35 PEN
Ø 2 mm

Draughting Symbols 9

0,35 PEN /
CP HEIGHT 2.5 mm
CATCHIPT
CP 0.35 PEN

0.35 PEN /
MH HEIGHT 2.5 mm
MANHOLE
MH
0.35 PEN

0.35 PEN
INSPECTION HOLE IH 0.35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2.5 mm

MONUMENT 0.35 PEN

RADIO MAST 0.35 PEN

WINDMILL 0.35 PEN

WINDMILL AND WELL 0.35 PEN

Draughting Symbols 10

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0,35 PEN
0.50 PEN

SINGLE TRACK WERDA ± 30 mm

KHAKEA
0.50 PEN /
HEIGHT 4.5 mm

MULTIPLE TRACK 0.70 PEN

0.70 PEN

ELECTRIFIED SINGLE TRACK 0.70 PEN

0.70 PEN

ELECTRIFIED SINGLE TRACK 0.35 PEN

0.70 PEN
PRIVATE LINE
0.35 PEN

0.50 PEN /
HEIGHT 4.5 mm
SIDINGS AND HALTS
0.70 PEN

SIGNAL Ø 2 mm
SIGNALS 0.70 PEN

0.35 PEN

NB: FOR SCALE 1 : 5 000

Draughting Symbols 11

0.35 PEN

COCOPAN TRACK

AERIAL CABLEWAY 0.35 PEN

0.25 PEN

SECURITY FENCE

0.50 PEN

FENCE, GATE AND MOTORGRID

0.25 PEN

0.35 PEN

CATTLE GUARDS 0.25 PEN

RAILWAY 0.70 PEN

Draughting Symbols 12

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0,35 PEN
0.35 PEN
HEIGHT 2 mm
Ø 3 mm AND
2 mm
Ø 2 mm
km
50
WIDTH
10mm 10mm

MULTIPLE TRACK WERDA KHAKEA

SAR
0.50 PEN /
HEIGHT 4,5 mm
WIDTH
POLES AS
SURVEYED
0.35 PEN /
HEIGHT
km
5.5
10mm 10mm 0,35 PEN

SINGLE TRACK WERDA SAR

KHAKEA
(SIZES AS
ABOVE)

NB: FOR SCALES : 500,1: 1 000, 1: 2 000

Draughting Symbols 13

0,35 PEN
0.35 PEN
101 HEIGHT 2.5 mm
ROAD SIGNS 0.25 PEN
(COMPLETION SURVEYS ONLY (RD. SIGN NOR) Ø 2 mm

Ø 1.5 mm

ROAD SIGNS 0.35 PEN

0,35 PEN
0.50 PEN
TARRED ROAD GRAVEL SHOULDERS 0,35 PEN /
P6 - 4 HEIGHT 3.5 mm
0.35 PEN /
km
EDGE OF TAR Ø 2mm
5.0
HEIGHT 2 mm

TARRED ROAD FREEWAY, WITH PAVED

SHOULDERS
A1 GABORONE
0.50 PEN /
1 mm Ø KLERBING HEIGHT 5 mm
0.25 PEN
GUARDRAIL, KERBING AND
CONCRETE FURROW 0.50 PEN
GUARDRAIL CONC. FURROW 0.35 PEN

GRAVEL ROAD 0.35 PEN

FOOTPATH 0.35 PEN

Draughting Symbols 14

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FOUNTAIN 0.35 PEN /

FIN HEIGHT 2.5 mm

0.35 PEN /
BOREHOLE BN HEIGHT 2.5 mm

0.35 PEN /
WELL W HEIGHT 2.5 mm

WATRER TANK 0.35 PEN /

WT HEIGHT 2.5 mm

0.35 PEN /
FUEL TANK FT
HEIGHT 2.5 mm

Draughting Symbols 15

0.25 PEN

DAMS 0.25 PEN

PERMANENT DRY 0.35 PEN

0.35 PEN
LAKES
0.35 PEN

PANS 0.35 PEN

0.35 PEN
DRY

CANAL 0.35 PEN

WEIR WEIR
0.35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2.5 mm

S/P 0.35 PEN

SWIMMING POOL POOL
0.35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2.5 mm

Draughting Symbols 16

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SWAMP / MARSH

Draughting Symbols 17

0.25 PEN

0.50 PEN
CLIFF

0.25 PEN

DONGA WITH ROCK CHECKS 0.35 PEN

WALLS (BRICK, CONCRETE, 0.25 PEN

MASONNRY

WALLS (DRY STONE) 0.25 PEN

HARBOUR LIGHT, LIGHT HOUSE

0.25 PEN

0.25 PEN
BUOY

Draughting Symbols 18

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0.50 PEN
1100
02 0.25 PEN
CONTOURS ( 2 m INTERVALS) 04
06
08
1110
0.35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2 mm
500
CONTOURS ( 5 m INTERVALS) 05
10
0.50 PEN
15 0.25 PEN
20
525 0.35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2 mm
02 0.35 PEN /
600 HEIGHT 2 mm
CONTOURS IN A DEPRESSION 0.50 PEN
0.25 PEN

0.35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2 mm
SURFACE EROSION EROSION 0.35 PEN
0.35 PEN
0.25 PEN

PROSPECTING 0.35 PEN

SAND / PROSPECTING PIT PIT 0.35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2 mm

Draughting Symbols 19

0.25 PEN

CUTTING 0.50 PEN

0.25 PEN

EMBANKMENT 0.50 PEN

0.25 PEN
QUARRY / BORROWPIT AND QUARRY DUMP 0.35 PEN /
DUMP HEIGHT 2,5 mm

NATURAL EMBANKMENT AND 0.25 PEN

SINKHOLE

Draughting Symbols 20

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0.25 PEN
ROCK OUTCROP

SCATTERED ROCK
0.25 PEN

SOLID ROCK
0.25 PEN

0.25 PEN
GRAVEYARD
0.35 PEN

GRAVE INTERSECTION OF CROSS INDICARES

POSITION 0.35 PEN

Draughting Symbols 21

0.25 PEN
DESCRIBE AND DENCE, MEDIUM OR
BUSH SCATTERED BUSH 0.35 PEN /
HEIGHT 2.5 mm

Draughting Symbols 22

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0.25 PEN

IRRIGATED CULTIVATION

0.25 PEN

PLANTATION BLUE GUM 0.35 PEN /

(INDICATE TYPT OF TREE) HEIGHT 2.5 mm

Draughting Symbols 23

0.25 PEN

CULTIVATION

0.25 PEN

ORCHARD OR VINEYARD 0.35 PEN /

APPLES
(DESCRIBE) HEIGHT 2.5 mm

0.25 PEN

0.35 PEN /
IRRIGATED ORCHARD OR APPLES HEIGHT 2.5 mm
VINEYARD (DESCRIBE)

Draughting Symbols 24

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0.25 PEN

BLACK WATTLE 0.35 PEN /

FOREST (INDICATE NAME) HEIGHT 2.5 mm

SINGLE LINE OR TREES 0.25 PEN

0.25 PEN
AVENUE
0.25 PEN

HEDGE 0.25 PEN

SINGLE TREE 0.25 PEN

Draughting Symbols 25

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A
Aerial photography The collection of information on the ground from an elevated
position by means of a camera mounted on an aircraft.

Aerial triangulation The process of determining the positions and heights of points by
means of triangles.

Aerial survey a. A method of collecting information using aerial photography

b. An aerial survey conducted from aircraft. Aerial cameras take
photographs of the surface of the earth in overlapping strips of land.

B
Benchmark A relatively permanent and fixed reference point of known
elevation above the assumed datum.

Borrow pit A term used in construction and civil Engineering. It describes an

area where material (usually soil, gravel or sand) is dug for use at
another location.

C
CAD Computer Aided Design - is the use of computer systems to assist
in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.

Cadastral beacons Beacons that represents the boundaries between properties in the
ground.

Cadastral data Co-ordinates of cadastral beacons shown on a diagram/plan.

Cadastral key plan The compilation of cadastral data on one plan.

Cadastral map A map that shows the boundaries and ownership of land plots.
Some cadastral maps show additional details, such as
survey district names, unique identifying numbers for parcels,
certificate of title numbers, positions of existing structures, section
or lot numbers and their respective areas, adjoining and adjacent
street names, selected boundary dimensions and references to
prior maps.

Cadastral survey A survey used to document land ownership, by the production of

documents, diagrams, plans, and maps.

Charge coupled device A light sensitive integrated circuit used in digital photography for
the capture and conversion of images into electrical charge (digital
format).

Check survey A survey that is carried out to confirm the accuracy of a larger
detailed survey.

Closure Traverse Involves placing survey stations along a line or path of travel, and
then using the previously surveyed points as a base for observing
the next point. Meaning the closure between previous surveyed
points.

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Contour A contour is a line drawn through all adjacent points of the same
altitude, above a given datum. This is the most accurate and
important method of indicating relief.

Contour accuracy The accuracy of the DTM from which the contour is generated.

Contour interval The difference in elevation between successive contour lines.

Control points Fixed points of known coordinates. Such can have only an
elevation or can have all coordinates in all 3 planes. Control points
are determined by high-accuracy surveys.

Control survey The survey and placing of more distant beacons from where
individual points/stations can be surveyed.

Correction for curvatures The curvature correction is introduced due to the fact that
the surface of the earth is not a horizontal plane. The error due to
curvature is the departure, for any given distance, of the tangent
to the earth’s surface at the point of observation, from the
imaginary curve representing the earth’s surface.

Correction for refraction Owing to terrestrial refraction, a line of sight is not straight, but
is concave to the earth’s surface. The effect of refraction is to make
a distant object appear higher than it actually is, so that the
correction is always negative.

Crabbing To fly with wings level on a heading that will correct for drift from
crosswinds.

Cross section The traverse elements of the longitudinal elements.

D
Datum a. A standard position or level that measurements are taken from.
b. A fixed starting point of a scale. For example, the datum-level
for elevation is typically taken as mean sea level. The datum for
latitude is the prime meridian (through the Royal Observatory in
Greenwich, England).

Every datum is arbitrary However, judicious selection of a datum can make life easier

Delivery note A document that lists the description and quantity of the goods
delivered.

Descriptors A piece of stored data that indicates how other data is stored.

Digital mapping The process by which a collection of data is compiled and formatted
into a virtual image (also called digital cartography).

Draughting The process of producing engineering drawings

E
Engineering surveys A survey of local topographic features for engineering purposes.

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F
Field books Standard forms for recording of survey data as it is collected. There
are different types of field books that are common for different
types of surveys.

The left side of the ‘page’ is usually ruled into six columns (some
books have eight columns). The right ‘page’ usually looks like a
sort of graph paper. This is where most of the differences occur.
Various types are: transit, engineer’s, cruisers, leveling, etc.

The pages of a field book are typically numbered in pairs, i.e., the
left and right pages that face each other are given one number and
are considered as a unit containing related information.

The transit book is very commonly used and is recommended for

class use.

There are many conventions and methods for staking and marking.
The particular practice will depend on the type of job and the type
of information that must be communicated.

G
Geodetic survey The scientific discipline of surveying the earth with regards to its
shape.

GIS A computer based system for the capture, storage, manipulation,

analysis, display and management of geographic data.

Geo-positioned Digital ortho-rectified image imported into CAD environment

backdrops as a background to a plan view of an area. The image will be to
scale and imported to the correct co-ordinates to suit the CAD image.

GPS A space-based Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) that

provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere
on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to
four or more GPS satellites.

GPS heighting Surveying heights of points with a GPS.

Ground sample distance The distance between pixel centers measured on the ground.

H
High flown/low flown A conventional method used in aerial surveys.
method In a less rigorous sense, control points for a construction project
can be established conveniently around the project area using high-
accuracy procedures. Such points would then be used throughout
the project for referencing subsequent survey work, such as
locating foundations, pipes, etc.

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L
LO System The co-ordinate system is based upon the Gauss Conform
Projection, also known as the Transverse Mercator Projection.
The system consists of belts running north south, 2o of longitude
wide, the central meridians being every odd meridian, i.e.,19o,
21o23o. Each Belt is referred to as Lo 19o, Lo 21o, etc. The
intersection of the central meridian of each belt with the equator is
the origin of that belt. The zero direction of the co-ordinate system
is south.

Locality sketch A sketch showing the location of the area on a map.

Longitudinal sections These are sections run along the line (usually the centre line) of a
proposed engineering project, such as a road, railway or pipeline,
to enable the engineer to plan the elevational details of the project
in relation to the existing ground levels.

O
Orthophoto maps A map made by merging orthophotos — aerial or satellite
photographs which have been transformed to correct for
perspective so that they appear to have been taken from vertically
above at an infinite distance.

P
Photo control points It shall be a point on the ground which can be easily and positively
identified on the photograph. It shall permit maximum accuracy in
height to be obtained when observed stereoscopically.

Photogrammetric Aerial survey methods, where data, including levels may be

surveys derived from aerial images.

Photogrammetric A detailed aerial survey of a small area.

Photogrammetry The science, technology and art of obtaining reliable information

from noncontact imaging and other sensor systems about the Earth
and its environment, and other physical objects and processes
through recording, measuring, analysing and representation
(ISPRS).

Pillar beacons Same as trigonometrical beacons ( white pillar beacon ).

Premark A white cross or mark on the ground constructed before aerial s

urvey takes place, and used for photo control.

Q
Quarry A place from which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate,
riprap, sand, gravel, or slate is excavated from the ground. A quarry
is distinct different from an open-pit mine from which minerals
are extracted

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R
Reciprocal leveling The level method used over rivers, lakes or gorges to compensate
for curvature refraction and instrumental error.

Reverse leveling Leveling in opposite direction.

Road Authority The agency and any other authority with responsibility for the
construction and maintenance of roads.

Road reserve A road reserve is a legally described area within which facilities
such as roads, footpaths, and associated features may be
constructed for public travel.

S
Satellite images Images of the earth taken from satellites

Sexagesimal Sexagesimal (base 60) is a numeral system with sixty as its base.

Sidelap The amount of overlap across the photographic block in aerial

surveys.

Solar altitudes The angle of the sun 90 degrees or less above the horizon.

Spirit levelling Leveling according to the indications of a spirit level.

Spot heights The heights of points above a chosen datum, usually mean sea
level, to show elevational details.

Staking The placement of markers on a site to identify certain locations

(such as the corners of a building, the right-of-way of a road, the
extent of the slope faces of a dam, etc.) with corresponding
information (such as cut or fill for earthmoving) is the process of
staking out a project. It is the transferal of information from
the plan to the actual site --- in a manner that the work crews will
understand and use. It is therefore very important that the
information be as simple and as clear as possible.

Stereo model Two images overlapping to create a 3D-image.

Stereo plotter A stereoplotter uses stereo photographs to determine elevations.

It has been the primary method to plot contour lines on topographic
maps.

Stereoscope A stereoscope is a device for viewing a stereoscopic pair of separate

images, depicting left-eye and right-eye views of the same scene.

Supervision survey General Administration of Quality Supervision and Inspection of a

survey

Survey pegs Usually 12mm Iron pegs.

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T
Terrain modeling 3D representation of a terrain’s surface.

Topographical maps A topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-scale

detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using
contour lines in modern mapping, but historically using a variety
of methods.

Traversing method A type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines form
the framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines
are measured with the help of an angle measuring instrument and
a tape or chain respectively.

Triangulation: A method of surveying; the area is divided into triangles and the
length of one side and its angles with the other two are measured,
then the lengths of the other sides can be calculated.

Trigonometric leveling In its strictest sense, trigonometrical leveling embraces all methods
of height determination by the use of vertical angles, distances and
trigonometrical functions.

V
Vertical control The elevations (or approximations thereto) associated with control
points.

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