CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions, seasonal
variations and extremes of weather in the region. Such conditions which average over a long
period at least 30 years is called climate.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990 and 1992 published best
available evidence about past climate change, the green house effect and recent changes in global
temperature. It is observed that earth’s temperature has changed considerably during the
geological times. It has experienced several glacial and inter glacial periods.
However, during the past 10000 years of the current inter glacial period, the mean average
temperature has fluctuated by 0.51˚ c over 100 to 200 year period. We have relatively stable
climate for thousands of years due to which we have practiced agriculture and increased
population.
Even small changes in climatic conditions may disturb agriculture that would lead to migration
of animals including humans.
Anthropogenic activities are upsetting the delicate balance that has been established between
various components of the environment.
Green house gases are increasing in atmosphere resulting in increase in the average global
temperature.
This may upset the hydrological cycle; result in floods and droughts in different regions of the
world, cause sea level rise, changes in agricultural productivity, famines and death of humans as
well as livestock
GLOBAL
WARMING Introduction:

Before the Industrial Revolution, human activities released very few gases into the atmosphere
and all climate changes happened naturally. After the Industrial Revolution, through fossil fuel
combustion, changing agricultural practices and deforestation, the natural composition of gases
in the atmosphere is getting affected and climate and environment began to alter significantly.
Over the last 100 years, it was found out that the earth is getting warmer and warmer, unlike
previous 8000 years when temperatures have been relatively constant. The present temperature is
o
0.3 - 0.6 C warmer than it was 100 years ago.
The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring process that aids in heating the Earth's surface
and atmosphere. It results from the fact that certain atmospheric gases, such as carbon dioxide,
water vapor, and methane, are able to change the energy balance of the planet by absorbing
long wave radiation emitted from the Earth's surface. Without the greenhouse effect life on this
planet would probably not exist as the average temperature of the Earth would be a chilly -18°
Celsius, rather than the present 15° Celsius.

Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from human
activities. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, and ozone (refer Figure 9.4). Certain human activities, however, add to the levels
of most of these naturally occurring gases.

Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and
coal), and wood and wood products are burned.

Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane
emissions also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste
landfills, and the raising of livestock. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial
activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.

Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydro fluorocarbons
(HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are generated in a
variety of industrial processes.

Often, estimates of greenhouse gas emissions are presented in units of millions of metric tons of
carbon equivalents (MMTCE), which weights each gas by its Global Warming Potential or GWP
value.

As energy from the Sun passes through the atmosphere a number of things take place. A portion
of the energy (26% globally) is reflected or scattered back to space by clouds and other
atmospheric particles. About 19% of the energy available is absorbed by clouds, gases (like
ozone), and particles in the atmosphere. Of the remaining 55% of the solar energy passing
through the Earth's atmosphere, 4% is reflected from the surface back to space. On average,
about 51% of the Sun's radiation reaches the surface. This energy is then used in a number of
processes, including the heating of the ground surface; the melting of ice and snow and the
evaporation of water; and plant photosynthesis.
 The heating of the ground by sunlight causes the Earth's surface to become a radiator of energy
in the long wave band (sometimes called infrared radiation). This emission of energy is
generally directed to space . However, only a small portion of this energy actually makes it back
to space. The majority of the outgoing infrared radiation is absorbed by the greenhouse gases

Absorption of long wave radiation by the atmosphere causes additional heat energy to be added
to the Earth's atmospheric system. The now warmer atmospheric greenhouse gas molecules
begin radiating long wave energy in all directions. Over 90% of this emission of long wave
energy is directed back to the Earth's surface where it once again is absorbed by the surface. The
heating of the ground by the long wave radiation causes the ground surface to once again radiate,
repeating the cycle described above, again and again, until no more long wave is available for
absorption.

A number of gases are involved in the human caused enhancement of the greenhouse effect
.These gases include: carbon dioxide (CO2); methane (CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O);
chlorofluorocarbons (CFxClx); and tropospheric ozone (O3). Of these gases, the single most
important gas is carbon dioxide which accounts for about 55% of the change in the intensity of
the Earth's greenhouse effect. The contributions of the other gases are 25% for
chlorofluorocarbons, 15% for methane, and 5% for nitrous oxide. Ozone's contribution to the
enhancement of green house effect is still yet to be quantified.Average concentrations of
atmospheric carbon dioxide in the year 2005 were about 380 parts per million .Prior to 1700,
levels of carbon dioxide were about 280 parts per million. This increase in carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is primarily due to the activities of humans. Beginning in 1700, societal changes
brought about by the Industrial Revolution increased the amount of carbon dioxide entering the
atmosphere. The major sources of this gas include fossil fuel combustion for industry,
transportation, space heating, electricity generation and cooking; and vegetation changes in
natural prairie, woodland, and forested ecosystems. Emissions from fossil fuel combustion
account for about 65% of the extra carbon dioxide now found in our atmosphere. The remaining
35% is derived from deforestation and the conversion of prairie, woodland, and forested
ecosystems primarily into agricultural systems.

Natural ecosystems can hold 20 to 100 times more carbon dioxide per unit area than agricultural
systems. Artificially created chlorofluorocarbons are the strongest greenhouse gas per
molecule. However, low concentrations in the atmosphere reduce their overall importance in the
enhancement of the greenhouse effect.

Current measurements in the atmosphere indicate that the concentration of these chemicals may
soon begin declining because of reduced emissions. Reports of the development of ozone holes
over the North and South Poles and a general decline in global stratospheric ozone levels over
the last two decades has caused many nations to cut back on their production and use of these
chemicals.

Since 1750, methane concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by more than 150%. The
primary sources for the additional methane added to the atmosphere (in order of importance) are
rice cultivation, domestic grazing animals, termites, landfills, coal mining, and oil and gas
extraction. Anaerobic conditions associated with rice paddy flooding results in the formation of
methane gas. However, an accurate estimate of how much methane is being produced from rice
paddies has been difficult to obtain. More than 60% of all rice paddies are found in India and
China where scientific data concerning emission rates are unavailable. Nevertheless, scientists
believe that the contribution of rice paddies is large because this form of crop production has
more than doubled since 1950. Grazing animals release methane to the environment as a result of
herbaceous digestion. Some researchers believe the addition of methane from this source has
more than quadrupled over the last century. Termites also release methane through similar
processes. Land-use change in the tropics, due to deforestation, ranching, and farming, may be
causing termite numbers to expand. If this assumption is correct, the contribution from these
insects may be important. Methane is also released from landfills, coal mines, and gas and oil
drilling. Landfills produce methane as organic wastes decompose over time. Coal, oil, and
natural gas deposits release methane to the atmosphere when these deposits are excavated or
drilled.

The average concentration of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere is now increasing at a rate of 0.2
to 0.3% per year. Sources for this increase include land-use conversion; fossil fuel combustion;
biomass burning; and soil fertilization. Most of the nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere each
year comes from deforestation and the conversion of forest, savanna and grassland ecosystems
into agricultural fields and rangeland. Both of these processes reduce the amount of nitrogen
stored in living vegetation and soil through the decomposition of organic matter. Nitrous oxide is
also released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels and biomass are burned. However, the
combined contribution of these sources to the increase of this gas in the atmosphere is thought to
be minor. The use of nitrate and ammonium fertilizers to enhance plant growth is another source
of nitrous oxide. Accurate measurements of how much nitrous oxide is being released from
fertilization have been difficult to obtain. Estimates suggest that the contribution from this source
may represent from 50% to 0.2% of nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere annually.

Ozone's role in the enhancement of the greenhouse effect has been difficult to determine
scientifically. Accurate measurements of past long-term (more than 25 years in the past) levels of
this gas in the atmosphere are currently unavailable. Concentrations of ozone gas are found in
two different regions of the Earth's atmosphere. The majority of the ozone (about 97%) found in
the atmosphere is localized in the stratosphere at an altitude of 15 to 55 kilometers above the
Earth's surface. In recent years, the concentration of the stratospheric ozone has been decreasing
because of the buildup of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. Since the late 1970s,
scientists have discovered that total column ozone amounts over Antarctica in the springtime
have decreased by as much as 70%. Satellite measurements have indicated that the zone from
65° North to 65° South latitude has had a 3% decrease in stratospheric ozone since 1978. Ozone
is also highly concentrated at the Earth's surface. Most of this ozone is created as an artificial by
product of photochemical smog.

Global Warming (Climate Change)

Implications Rise in global temperature
Observations show that global temperatures have risen by about 0.6 °C over the 20th century.
There is strong evidence now that most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is caused
by human activities. Climate models predict that the global temperature will rise by about 6 °C
by the year 2100.
 Rise in sea level

In general, the faster the climate change, the greater will be the risk of damage. The mean sea
level is expected to rise 9 - 88 cm by the year 2100, causing flooding of low lying areas and other
damages.

Food shortages and hunger

Water resources will be affected as precipitation and evaporation patterns change around the
world. This will affect agricultural output. Food security is likely to be threatened and some
regions are likely to experience food shortages and hunger.

ACID RAIN

Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen originating from industrial operations and fossil fuel combustion
are the major sources of acid forming gases. Acid forming gases are oxidized over several days
by which time they travel several thousand kilometers. In the atmosphere these gases are
ultimately converted into sulfuric and nitric acids. Hydrogen chloride emission forms
hydrochloric acid. These acids cause acidic rain. Acid rain is only one component of acidic
deposition. Acidic decomposition is the total wet acidic deposition (acid rain) and dry deposition.
Rain water is turned acidic when its pH falls below 5.6. In fact clean or natural rain water has a
pH of 5.6 at 20˚ c because of formation of carbonic acid due to dissolution of CO2 in water. In
absence of rain, dry deposition of acid may occur. Acid forming gases like oxides of sulphur and
nitrogen and acid aerosols get deposited on the surface of water bodies, vegetation, soil and other
materials. On moist surfaces or in liquids these acid forming gases can dissolve an form acids
similar to that formed in acid rain.

Effects of acid rain:

Acid rain causes a number of harmful effects below pH 5.1. The effects are visible in the aquatic
even at pH less than 5.5.
1. It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble e.g. monuments like Taj Mahal.
Crystals of calcium and magnesium sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion caused by acid
rain.
2. It damages stone statues. Priceless stone statues in Greece and Italy have been partially
dissolved by acid rain.
3. It damages metals and car finishes.
4. Aquatic life especially fish are badly affected by lake acidification
5. Aquatic animals suffer from toxicity of metals such as aluminium, mercury, manganese, zinc
and lead which leak from the surrounding rocks due to acid rain.
6. It results in reproductive failure, and killing of fish.
7. Many lakes of Sweden, Norway, and Canada have become fishless due to acid rain.
8. It damages foliage and weakens trees
9. It makes trees more susceptible to stresses like cold temperature, drought, etc . Many insects
and fungi are more tolerant to acidic conditions and hence they can attack the susceptible trees
and cause diseases.
 Control measures:

1. Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants should be
reduced by using pollution control equipments.
2. Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effects of
acid rain.
3. A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water pipes
for drinking water

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

As early as 1896, the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius had predicted that human activities
would interfere with the way the sun interacts with the earth, resulting in global warming and
climate change. His prediction has become true and climate change is now disrupting global
environmental stability. The last few decades have seen many treaties, conventions, and
protocols for the cause of global environmental protection.
Few examples of environmental issues of global significance are:
• Ozone layer depletion
• Global warming

One of the most important characteristics of this environmental degradation is that it affects all
mankind on a global scale without regard to any particular country, region, or race. The whole
world is a stakeholder and this raises issues on who should do what to combat environmental
degradation.

Earth’s atmosphere is divided into three regions, namely troposphere, stratosphere and
mesosphere. The stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 kms from the Earth’s surface. This region is
concentrated with slightly pungent smelling, light bluish ozone gas. The ozone gas is made up of
molecules each containing three atoms of oxygen; its chemical formula is O .
3
The ozone layer, in the stratosphere acts as an efficient filter for harmful solar Ultraviolet B (UV-
B) rays Ozone is produced and destroyed naturally in the atmosphere and until recently, this
resulted in a well-balanced equilibrium .

Ozone is formed when oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths less than
240 nanometres and is destroyed when it absorbs ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths greater
than 290 nanometres. In recent years, scientists have measured a seasonal thinning of the ozone
layer primarily at the South Pole. This phenomenon is being called the ozone hole.
 Ozone Depletion Process

Ozone is highly reactive and easily broken down by man-made chlorine and bromine
compounds. These compounds are found to be most responsible for most of ozone layer
depletion.

The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs (used in refrigerator and air conditioners) and
other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are emitted into the atmosphere. Winds efficiently mix
and evenly distribute the ODS in the troposphere. These ODS compounds do not dissolve in rain,
are extremely stable, and have a long life span. After several years, they reach the stratosphere by
diffusion.

Strong UV light breaks apart the ODS molecules. CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl
chloroform release chlorine atoms, and halons and methyl bromide release bromine atoms. It is
the chlorine and bromine atom that actually destroys ozone, not the intact ODS molecule. It is
estimated that one chlorine atom can destroy from 10,000 to 100,000 ozone molecules before it
is finally removed from the stratosphere.

Chemistry of Ozone Depletion

When ultraviolet light waves (UV) strike CFC* (CFCl ) molecules in the upper atmosphere, a
3
carbon-chlorine bond breaks, producing a chlorine (Cl) atom. The chlorine atom then reacts with
an ozone (O ) molecule breaking it apart and so destroying the ozone. This forms an ordinary
3
oxygen molecule (O ) and a chlorine monoxide (ClO) molecule. Then a free oxygen** atom
2
breaks up the chlorine monoxide. The chlorine is free to repeat the process of destroying more
ozone molecules. A single CFC molecule can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules.
* CFC - chlorofluorocarbon: it contains chlorine, fluorine and carbon atoms. ** UV radiation
breaks oxygen molecules (O ) into single oxygen atoms.
2

Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

1) Effects on Human and Animal Health: Increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation is
likely to have high impact on human health with potential risks of eye diseases, skin cancer and
infectious diseases.

2) Effects on Terrestrial Plants: In forests and grasslands, increased radiation is likely to

change species composition thus altering the bio-diversity in different ecosystems. It could also
may affect the plant community.

3) Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems: High levels of radiation exposure in tropics and subtropics
may affect the distribution of Phytoplankton’s, which form the foundation of aquatic food webs.
It can also cause damage to early development stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and other
animals, the most severe effects being decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval
development.
4)Effects on Bio-geo-chemical Cycles: Increased solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial and
aquatic bio-geo-chemical cycles thus altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and
important trace gases, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO ), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulfide
2
(COS), etc. These changes would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks responsible for
the atmosphere build-up of these greenhouse gases.

5) Effects on Air Quality: Reduction of stratospheric ozone and increased penetration of UV-B
radiation result in higher photo dissociation rates of key trace gases that control the chemical
reactivity of the troposphere. This can increase both production and destruction of ozone and
related oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide, which are known to have adverse effects on human
health, terrestrial plants and outdoor materials.

The ozone layer, therefore, is highly beneficial to plant and animal life on earth filtering out the
dangerous part of sun’s radiation and allowing only the beneficial part to reach earth. Any
disturbance or depletion of this layer would result in an increase of harmful radiation reaching
the earth’s surface leading to dangerous consequences.

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS

Following is a list of major Environmental Acts and Rules applicable in India.

• The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1974 (as amended upto 1998).
• The Water (Prevention &control of Pollution) cess Act, 1977 (as amended by Amendment Act
1991).
• The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1981 as amended by Amendment Act 1986
• Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
• Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules 1989.
• The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991.
• Environment Protection Amendment Rule 1983.
• Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals (Amendment) Rules 1984.
• The Factories Act 1984.
• The Forest Conservation Act 1980.
• The Notification on Environment Impact Assessment 1994.
Besides this there are a large number of RULES and AMENDEMENTS and a plethora of STATE
LAWS. Only Major acts are briefly discussed here.

THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT (EPA)

An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters connected
there with:
Whereas the decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
held at Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the
protection and improvement of human environment
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 not only has important constitutionals implications but
also an international background.
This Act may be called the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It extends to the whole of India.
 Powers and Functions of the Boards
(i) Co-ordination of actions by the State Governments, officers and other authorities--
(a) Under this Act, or the rules made there under, or
(b) Under any other law for the time being in force which is relatable to the objects of
this Act;
(ii) Planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;
(iii) Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;
(iv)Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various
sources whatsoever:
Provided that different standards for emission or discharge may be laid down under this clause
from different sources having regard to the quality or composition of the emission or discharge
of environmental pollutants from such sources;
(v)Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain
safeguards;
(vi) Laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may
cause environmental pollution and remedial measures for such accidents;
(vii) Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(viii) Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are likely to
cause environmental pollution;
(ix) Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems
of environmental pollution;
(x) Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other
processes, materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions to such
authorities, officers or persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the
prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;
(xi) Establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes to carry out the
functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutes under this Act;
(xii) collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to environmental
pollution;
(xiii) Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;
(xiv) Such other matters as the Central Government deems necessary or expedient for the
purpose of securing the effective implementation of the provisions of this Act.

Appointment of officers and their Powers and Functions

Without prejudice to the provisions , the Central Government may appoint officers with such
designation as it thinks fit for the purposes of this Act and may entrust to them such of the
powers and functions under this Act as it may deem fit.

Power to give directions

Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law but subject to the provisions of this Act, the
Central Government may, in the exercise of its powers and performance of its functions under
this Act, issue directions in writing to any person, officer or any authority and such person,
officer or authority shall be bound to comply with such directions.3
Explanation--For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue directions
under this section includes the power to direct--
 (a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process; or
(b) stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other service.

RULES TO REGULATE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules in respect of
all or any of the matters referred
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may
provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:--
(a) the standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes;
(b) the maximum allowable limits of concentration of various environmental
pollutants (including noise) for different areas;
(c) the procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(d) the prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in
different areas;
(e) the prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and the carrying on
process and operations in different areas;
(f) the procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and for providing for remedial measures for such
accidents.

Prevention, Control and Abatement of Environmental Pollution

Persons carrying on industry operation, etc., not to allow emission or discharge of environmental
pollutants in excess of the standards
Persons handling hazardous substances to comply with procedural safeguards
Furnishing of information to authorities and agencies in certain cases.

Environmental Laboratories

(1) The Central Government15 may, by notification in the Official Gazette,--

(a) establish one or more environmental laboratories;
(b) recognize one or more laboratories or institutes as environmental laboratories to carry
out the functions entrusted to an environmental laboratory under this Act.
(2) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules specifying--
(a) the functions of the environmental laboratory;
(b) the procedure for the submission to the said laboratory of samples of air, water,
soil or other substance for analysis or tests, the form of the laboratory report
thereon and the fees payable for such report;
(c) such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that laboratory to
carry out its functions.

Penalty for Contravention of the Provisions of the Act and the Rules, orders and directions

(1) Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes any of the provisions of this Act, or the rules
made or orders or directions issued there under, shall, in respect of each such failure or
contravention, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to five years with
fine which may extend to one lakh rupees, or with both, and in case the failure or contravention
continues, with additional fine which may extend to five thousand rupees for every day during
which such failure or contravention continues after the conviction for the first such failure or
contravention.

(2) If the failure or contravention continues beyond a period of one year after the date of
conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to
seven years

THE AIR (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

It is also a comprehensive legislation with more than fifty sections. It makes provisions, inter
alia, for Central and State Boards, power to declare pollution control areas, restrictions on certain
industrial units, authority of the Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of entry,
inspection, taking samples and analysis, penalties, offences by companies and Government and
cognizance of offences etc.

The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution areas and to
prescribe the type of fuel to be used in these designated areas. According to this Act, no person
can operate certain types of industries including the asbestos, cement, fertilizer and petroleum
industries without consent of the State Board. The Board can predicate its consent upon the
fulfillment of certain conditions. The Air Act apparently adopts an industry wide “best available
technology” requirement. As in the Water Act, courts may hear complaints under the Act only at
the instigation of, or with the sanction of, the State Board.
The Government passed this Act in 1981 to clean up our air by controlling pollution. It states that
sources of air pollution such as industry, vehicles, power plants, etc., are not permitted to release
particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) or other toxic substances beyond a prescribed level. To ensure this, Pollution
Control Boards (PCBs) have been set up by Government to measure pollution levels in the
atmosphere and at certain sources by testing the air. This is measured in parts per million or in
milligrams or micrograms per cubic meter. The particulate matter and gases that are released by
industry and by cars, buses and two wheelers is measured by using air-sampling equipment.
However, the most important aspect is for people themselves to appreciate the dangers of air
pollution and reduce their own potential as polluters by seeing that their own vehicles or the
industry they work in reduces levels of emissions. This Act is created to take appropriate steps
for the preservation of the natural resources of the Earth which among other things includes the
preservation of high quality air and ensures controlling the level of air pollution.
The main objectives of the Act are as follows:
(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to implement the
Act.
(C) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to the
Boards functions relating to pollution
Air pollution is more acute in heavily industrialized and urbanized areas, which are also densely
populated. The presence of pollution beyond certain Limits due to various pollutants discharged
through industrial emission is monitored by the PCBs set up in every state.

Powers and Functions of the Boards

Central Pollution Board: The main function of the Central Board is to implement legislation
created to improve the quality of air and to prevent and control air pollution in the country. The
Board advises the Central Government on matters concerning the improvement of air quality and
also coordinates activities, provides technical assistance and guidance to State Boards and lays
down standards for the quality of air. It collects and disseminates information in respect of
matters relating to air pollution and performs functions as prescribed in the Act.

State Pollution Control Boards: The State Boards have the power to advise the State
Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of air pollution. They have the
right to inspect at all reasonable times any control equipment, industrial plant, or manufacturing
process and give orders to take the necessary steps to control pollution.

They are expected to inspect air pollution control areas at intervals or whenever necessary. They
are empowered to provide standards for emissions to be laid down for different industrial plants
with regard to quantity and composition of emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere. A
State Board may establish or recognize a laboratory to perform this function. The State
Governments have been given powers to declare air pollution control areas after consulting with
the State Board and also give instructions to ensure standards of emission from automobiles and
restriction on use of certain industrial plants.

Penalties: The persons managing industry are to be penalized if they produce emissions of air
pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board. The Board also makes
applications to the court for restraining persons causing air pollution. Whoever contravenes any
of the provision of the Act or any order or direction issued is punishable with imprisonment for a
term which may extend to three months or with a fine of Rs 10,000 or with both, and in case of
continuing offence with an additional fine which may extend to Rs 5,000 for every day during
which such contravention continues after conviction for the first contravention.

THE WATER (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

The government formulated this act in 1974 to prevent the pollution of water by industrial,
agricultural and household wastewater that can contaminate our water sources.

Wastewaters with high levels of pollutants that enter wetlands, rivers, lakes, wells as well as the
sea are serious health hazards. Controlling the point sources by monitoring the levels of different
pollutants is one way to prevent pollution, by punishing the polluter. Individuals can also do
several things to reduce water pollution such as using biodegradable chemicals for household
use, reducing the use of pesticides in gardens, and identifying polluting sources at work places
and in industrial units where oil are or other petroleum products and heavy metals are used.
Excessive organic matter, sediments and infecting organism from hospital wastes can also
pollute our water. Citizen needs to develop a watchdog force to inform authorities to appropriate
actions against different types of water pollution. However, preventing pollution is better than
trying to cure the problems it has created, or punishing offenders.

The main objectives of the Water Act are to provide for prevention, control and abatement of
water pollution and the maintenance or restoration n of the wholesomeness of water. It is
designed to assess pollution levels and punish polluters. The Central Government and State
Government have set up PCBs to monitor water pollution.
The Water Act 1974 with certain amendments in 1978 is an extensive legislation with more than
sixty sections for the prevention and control of water pollution. Among other things, the Act
provides for constitution of central and State Boards for preventing water pollution, power to
take water samples and their analysis, discharge of sewage or trade effluents, appeals, revision,
minimum and maximum penalties, publication of names of offenders, offences by companies
and Government departments, cognizance of offences, water laboratories, analysis etc.
Prevention and control of water pollution is achieved through a permit or ‘consent
administration’ procedure. Discharge of effluents is permitted by obtaining the consent of the
State Water Board, subject to any condition they specify. Any person who fails to comply with a
directive of the State cannot, however, entertain in suit under this Act unless the suit is brought
by, or with the sanction of the State Board.

WATER POLLUTION CESS ACT 1977

According to this Act, anyone consuming water has to pay certain amount of cess depending on
1. Whether the industry is using water for industrial cooling, spraying in mine pits or boilers
feed,
2. For domestic purposes,
3. in processing, whereby water gets polluted and pollutants are easily biodegradable, and
4. in processing whereby water gets polluted and the pollutants are not easily bio-degradable and
are toxic. Those industries that had installed a suitable treatment plant for the treatment of
industrial effluents can get a rebate of 70 per cent on the cess payable.

WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT

The Act is adopted by all states in India except J&K, which has its own Act
The act is aimed to protect and preserve wild life. Wild life refers to all animals and plants that
are not domesticated. India has rich wild life heritage; it has 350 species of mammals, 1200
species of birds and about 20,000 known species of insects. Some of them are listed as
‘endangered species’ in the Wild life (Protection) Act. The Act envisages national parks and wild
life sanctuaries as protected areas to conserve wild life. Wild life populations are regularly
monitored and management strategies formulated to protect them.
The Act covers the rights and non-rights of forest dwellers too,- it provides restricted grazing in
sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks. It also prohibits the collection of non-timber forest
produce which might not harm the system. The rights of forest dwellers recognized by the Forest
policy of 1988 are taken away by the Amended Wild life Act of 1991.
The act, a landmark in the history of wildlife legislation in our country by which wildlife was
transferred from State list to concurrent list in 1976, thus giving power to the Central
Government to enact the legislation. In India, nearly 134 animal species have been regarded as
threatened. A National Wildlife action plan has been prepared whose objective is to establish a
network of scientifically managed areas such as national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere
reserves, to cover representative and viable samples of all significant bio-geographic
subdivisions within the country.

The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up as follows:
1. It defines the wildlife related terminology.
2. It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory board, wildlife warden, their
powers, duties etc
3. Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife species was done for the
first time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned
4. Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad, Blue Vanda, Ladies Sliper
Orchid, Pitcher plant etc. is also provided under the Act.
5. The act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wild life Sanctuaries etc.
6. The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
7. There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for
sale, possession, transfer etc.
8. The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
9. It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment of offenders.
10. It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species. Several conservation
projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972), tiger (1973), crocodile (1974),
and brown antlered deer (1981) were started under this Act.

FOREST CONSERVATION ACT

The Indian Forest Act of 1927 consolidated all the previous laws regarding forests that were
passed before the 1920s. The Act gave the Government and Forest Department the power to
create Reserved Forests, and the right to use Reserved Forests for Government use alone.
It also created Protected Forests, in which the use of resources by local people was controlled.
Some forests were to be controlled by the village community, and these were called village
Forests. The Act remained in force till the 1980s when it was realized that protecting forests for
timber production alone was not acceptable. The other values of protecting the services that
forests provide and its valuable assets such as biodiversity began to overshadow the importance
of their revenue earnings from timber.
This led to the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 and its amendment 1988. India’s first Forest
Policy was enunciated in 1952. Between 1952 and 1988, the extent of deforestation was so great
that it became essential to formulate a new policy on forests and their utilization. The earlier
forest policies had focused only on revenue generation. In the 1980’s it became clear that forests
must be protected for their other functions such as the maintenance of soil and water regimes
centered around ecological concerns. It also provided for the use of goods and services of the
forest for its local inhabitants.
The new policy framework made conversion of forests into other uses much less possible.
Conservation of the forests as a natural heritage finds a place in the new policy, which includes
the preservation of its biological diversity and genetic resources. It also values meeting the needs
of local people for food, fuel wood, fodder and Non Timber Forest Produce or NTFPs. It gives
priority to maintaining environmental stability and ecological balances. It expressly states that
the network of Protected Areas should be strengthened and extended.

The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was enacted to control deforestation, It ensured that
forestlands could not be de-reserved without prior approval of the Central Government, This was
created as some states had begun to dereserve the Reserved Forests for non-forest use. These
states had regularized encroachments and resettled ‘project Affected people’ from development
projects such as dams in these de-reserved areas. The need for a new legislation became urgent.
The Act made it possible to retain a greater control over the frightening level of deforestation in
the country and specified penalties for offenders.
 Penalties for offences in Reserved Forests:
• No person is allowed to make clearing or ser fire to a reserved forest. Cattle are not permitted
to trespass into the reserved forest, cutting, collecting of timber, bark or leaves, quarrying or
collecting any forest products is punishable with imprisonment for a term of six months or with a
fine which may extended to Rs 500 or both.
Penalties for offences in protected Forests:
• A person who commits any of the following offences like cutting of trees, stripping the bark or
leaves of trees, set fire to such forests or permits cattle to damage any tree, shall be punishable
with imprisonment for a term which may extended to six months or with a fine which any
extended to Rs 500 or both.
• Any forest officer even without an order from the magistrate or a warrant can arrest any person
against whom a reasonable suspicion exists.

Montreal and Kyoto protocols:

The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is an

international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous
substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into
force on 1 January 1989. Since then, it has undergone nine revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi),
1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016
(Kigali). As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly
recovering. Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2040
(across much of the world) and 2066 (over Antarctica). Due to its widespread adoption and
implementation, it has been hailed as an example of successful international co-operation. Former UN
Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to
date has been the Montreal Protocol". In comparison, effective burden-sharing and solution proposals
mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion
challenge, where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so. In this case of the
ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific
consensus was established. Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.

The ozone treaty has been ratified by 198 parties (197 states and the European Union) making it the first
universally ratified treaty in United Nations history.

This truly universal treaty has also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy-making process at the
global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery (1973) and the
international agreement signed (1985 and 1987).

Kyoto protocol:

The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, based on the scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and that human-
made CO2 emissions are driving it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December
1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. There were 192 parties (Canada withdrew from the
protocol, effective December 2012)[5] to the Protocol in 2020.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global warming by
reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applied to the seven
greenhouse gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide
(N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), nitrogen
trifluoride (NF3).[8] Nitrogen trifluoride was added for the second compliance period during the Doha
Round.[9]

The Protocol was based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it acknowledged
that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate change, owing to economic
development, and therefore placed the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on
the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36 countries that fully
participated in the first commitment period complied with the Protocol. However, nine countries had to
resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding emission reductions in other countries because their
national emissions were slightly greater than their targets. The financial crisis of 2007–08 reduced
emissions. The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because
the dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s.[10] Even though the 36
developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010.
[11]

A second commitment period was agreed to in 2012 to extend the agreement to 2020, known as the Doha
Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries had binding targets: Australia, the European
Union (and its then 28 member states, now
27), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus,
Kazakhstan, and Ukraine stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol or not put into legal
force the Amendment with second round targets.[12] Japan, New Zealand, and Russia had participated in
Kyoto's first-round but did not take on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed
countries without second-round targets were Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012)
and the United States (which did not ratify). If they were to remain as a part of the protocol, Canada would
be hit with a $14 billion fine, which would be devastating to their economy, hence the reluctant decision
to exit.[13] As of October 2020, 147[6][14] states had accepted the Doha Amendment. It entered into
force on 31 December 2020, following its acceptance by the mandated minimum of at least 144 states,
although the second commitment period ended on the same day. Of the 37 parties with binding
commitments, 34 had ratified.

Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on
measures to be taken after the second commitment period ended in 2020. This resulted in the 2015
adoption of the Paris Agreement, which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an
amendment of the Kyoto Protocol.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster means a terrible event that causes a great damage / loss to the human beings. It is a
situation arising from natural forces where large scale disruption of infrastructure, services etc.
occurs. It causes a serious impact on human life, economy and environment. Natural disasters are
always severe and sudden.
Some disasters are:
(A) Geological: in nature like the earthquakes;
(B) Landslides (rocks slides down from the side of a hill ); Volcanic eruptions etc..
(C) Climatic disasters / Natural calamities: These are of different types affect nations all over the
world. Because of the large geographical size of the country, India often faces natural
calamities like floods, cyclones and drought occurring frequently in different parts of the
country.
Natural calamities are of two types:
1. Major calamities: eg: earthquakes; droughts; floods, tsunamis; cyclones etc
2. Minor calamities: eg: hailstorms; avalanches; fire accidents
(D) Man induced disasters include wars, battles, riots, rail/road accidents, nuclear explosions.

The disaster Management: The natural disaster management involves the following steps:
Relief measures: it include rescue tools; communication equipments; heavy machines to remove
debris; water pumps; technicians; drugs, doctors, ambulances..

Disaster predictions: The predictions of natural hazards may be made on the basis of past
history of the area with regular monitoring of the environmental changes caused by human
activities to assess the genesis of natural disasters.

Education: Disaster education plays a significant role in disaster education. It create awareness
and improve the standards to prevent from the disasters.
Geographic Information Systems: (GIS): GIS is a system that captures, stores, analyzes ,
manages and presents data with reference to geographic location of the area. In simple terms,
GIS is the merging of cartography, statistical analysis and database technology. GIS may be used
in Archaeology, Geography, Remote Sensing, Land surveying; Natural Resource Management;
Urban Planning etc. GIS programs help by means of maps available data of the problem areas, to
predict the severity of the disaster.

Floods
Floods are high stream flow that overflows the natural banks of the rivers and most of the times
become calamitous. India is the most flood affected nation after Bangladesh. Out of total deaths
by Floods in the world, (1/5) are from India. The main causes of floods are excessive rains in
river catchments, poor natural drainage, Change of river course, Landslide restricting river flow,
cyclone and very intense rainfall. Over that past few years the rise in population is forcing large
settlements along the river banks, making the country highly vulnerable to Floods. The most
vulnerable states of India are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and PunjabandJammu&Kashmir. In 1994, a major flood
killed 147 people in Kerala, 138 in Gujarat and marooned 10000 in Madhya Pradesh. In 1995,
the states of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Arunachal Pradesh were severely hit by flood causing
huge casualties. In the year 1996, a fierce flood literally paralyzed India, Thousands of people
died, got homeless, were marooned in the states of Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Jammu &
Kashmir also affecting many other parts of the country. In short, nearly every year one or the
other part of the country is severely hit by Floods and creating a shameful history for India. It is
high time that the policies and measures for various preventions and disaster management
activities are properly implemented. Development of flood risk maps, flash flood run off
modeling, water logging problems, systems for monitoring and management of flood using
remote sensing and GIS.

Earth-quakes Earthquakes occur due to the sudden movements in the earth crust. The earth’s
crust has several tectonic plates of solid rocks which slowly move along their boundaries. When
friction prevents these plates from slipping, stress builds up and results in the sudden fractures
which occur along their boundaries of the plates or fault lines (planes of weakness) within the
plates. This causes earthquakes, the violent, short term vibrations in the earth. The point on a
fault at which the first movement occurs during an earth quake is called the epicenter. The
severity of an earthquake i generall measured by its magnitude on
s y RichterScale.
Richter scale Severity of earthquake

Less than 4 Insignificant

4-4.9 Minor
5-5.9 Damaging
6-6.9 Destructive
7-7.9 Major
8-8.9 Great

Damage to property and life can be prevented by monitoring of buildings and structures under
Strong Earth Motion, experimental and analytical investigations on structures to predict their
behavior under earthquake conditions, strengthening through retrofits, development of
 earthquake resistant design methodologies, better materials, risk assessment,
preparation of seismic codes, seismic zonation and development of risk specific designs

Landslides
Landslides are mass movement of rocks and debris that usually follow a cyclone,
volcano or earthquake. In the hilly areas of India, the sliding of huge masses of land has
been a common natural disaster causing havoc to life and property. One of the worst
and most disastrous landslides has been recorded in the year 1998 in the state of
Uttarakhand, when nearly 380 people were killed. As a measure of concern many
committees and other measures have been taken to protect from this natural havoc in
India. In India, the regions of Himalayas and the Western ghats are the most vulnerable
to these land-slides. The main causes of landslides are weak, weathered materials,
physical property variation, Ground Uplift, erosion, Earthquake, Volcanic eruptions etc.
The general and simple mitigation that are adopted or should be adopted are drainage
correction, proper land-utilization, reforestation and spreading of awareness.

Cyclones
Cyclone refers to a whirl in the atmosphere with very strong winds circulating around it
in anti- clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere. Cyclones are intense low pressure areas with pressure increasing
outwards. Cyclones can be hazardous as Cyclones are normally associated with strong
winds. A storm surge is an abnormal rise of sea level near the coast caused by a severe
tropical cyclone; as a result, sea water inundates low lying areas of coastal regions
drowning human beings and lives- stock, eroding beaches and embankments,
destroying vegetation and reducing soil fertility. Apart from strong winds, cyclones can
result in heavy rains causing floods. However, the most destructive factor associated
with the cyclones is the storm surge. The worst and the oldest cyclone in India were in
1737, in Calcutta that took 300000 lives respectively. For cyclone forecast and advance
warning, the Government has strengthened the Meteorological Department, by
providing Cyclone Surveillance Radars at Calcutta, Paradeep, Visakhapatnam,
Machilipatnam, Madras and Karaikal in the east coast and at Cochin, Goa, Bombay and
Bhuj in the west coast. As India has a vast coastline it is extremely vulnerable to
cyclone.
Environmental movements:

Environmental movements: Chipko, Silent valley, Bishnois of Rajasthan

An environmental movement can be defined as a social or political movement, for the

conservation of environment or for the improvement of the state of the environment. They can
also be called as green movement or conservation movement. The environmental movements are
outcome of people trying to gain control over their natural resources, unjust developmental
 policies of government, socio-economic inequity and environmental degradation. So, these
movements mainly center on ecology, health and human rights.

Chipko movement Year: 1973

♣ Place: Chamoli district and later at Tehri-Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.

♣ Leaders: Sundarlal Bahuguna, Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Chandi Prasad Bhatt,
Govind

♣ Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Shamsher Singh Bisht and Ghanasyam Raturi. Aim: The
main objective was to protect the trees on the Himalayan slopes from the axes of contractors of♣
the forest. The Chipko is one of the world known environmental movements in India. It brought
world attention on the environmental problems of the Alaknanda catchment area in the mid-
Western Himalayas. The trigger for the modern Chipko movement was outcome of the growth in
development that took place with the perspective of border security, after 1963 China border
conflict. It proved to be disastrous for forest and total environment of the area. Widespread
floods inundated the area in 1970. The other reason was that the villagers were not allowed to cut
the trees for fuel wood or for fodder and for certain other purposes. However, a sports
manufacturing company was given the permission to fell trees and use them to make equipment,
this was final provocation and a people’s movement was born. Environmentalist and Gandhian
social activist Chandi Prasad Bhatt, founder of the cooperative organisation Dasholi Gram
Swarajya Sangh, led the first Chipko movement near the village of Mandal in 1973. When their
appeals were denied, Bhatt led a group of villagers into the forest and embraced the trees to
prevent logging. The name of the movement i.e. ‘Chipko’, means ‘embrace’, in english. After
many days of agitation, the government canceled the company’s logging permit. The Chipko
movement can essentially be called as women’s movement. Women, being solely in charge of
cultivation, livestock and children, suffered the most due to floods and landslides, caused due to
rise in deforestation in the face of urbanisation. The message of the Chipko workers made a
direct appeal to them. They were able to perceive the link between their victimization and the
denuding of mountain slopes by commercial interests. Thus, sheer survival made women support
the movement. On its doodle blog commemorating the 45th anniversary of the movement,
Google wrote, “The Chipko Andolan also stands out as an eco-feminist movement. Women
formed the nucleus of the movement, as the group most directly affected by the lack of firewood
and drinking water caused by deforestation. The power of protest is an invaluable and powerful
agent of social change.” The Chipko Movement gained traction under Sunderlal Bahuguna, an
eco activist, who spent his life persuading and educating the villagers to protest against the
destruction of the forests and Himalayan mountains. It was his endeavor that made then Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi banned the cutting of tress. Mr. Bahuguna is best remembered for the
slogan “ecology is the permanent economy”. The original Chipko andolan dates back to the 18th
century and was started by Rajasthan’s Bishnoi community.

The Bishnois may be considered as India’s first environmentalists. Amrita Devi Bishnoi, her
daughters and a group of villagers, laid down their lives while protecting trees from being felled
on the orders of then King of Jodhpur. After this incident, the king, in a royal decree, banned
cutting of trees in all Bishnoi villages. Silent valley Year: 1978∙ Place: Silent Valley, an
evergreen tropical forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala, India.∙ Leaders: The Kerala Sastra
Sahitya Parishad (KSSP), many NGOs and the poet-activist Sughatha∙ kumari.

Aim: To protect the moist evergreen forest in Palakkad district from being destroyed by a
hydroelectric∙ project. Silent valley was named by English man during colonial rule, who found
that there was no noise of cicadas after dark. It is one of rich bio diverse areas of India. It has a
triangular shape. On two sides are the Kozhikode and Palghat cities in Kerala and on the other
side is located the Coimbatore city in neighboring Tamil Nadu. Kunthipuza is a major river that
flows 15 km southwest from silent valley. The idea of a dam was first proposed in 1920s by
British technical expert. The first survey on this project was carried out in 1958. In 1970, the
Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) proposed a hydroelectric dam across the Kunthipuzha
river that would have submerged 8.3 sq km of untouched moist evergreen forest. Steven Green in
1972, expressed his concerns about the possible threats to the rare lion-tailed macaque from the
project. Around the same time, herpetologist Romulus Whitaker wrote to the Bombay Natural
History Society about the need to conserve the Valley. Reports like these alert other naturalists.
But, the Planning Commission approved this project in 1973. The project planned to generate
120 megawatt of electricity initially and 240 megawatt subsequently. However, due to lack of
sufficient funds, implementation was delayed. There was not much protest initially. In 1976, the
project attracted the attention of some environmentalists. A task-force was formed under the
chairmanship of the Zafar Futehally. This task Force recommended that scrapping of project,
with a loophole that, if abandoning the project was not possible, a series of safeguards should be
implemented. The Kerala government decided to proceed with safeguards. In the same year,
M.K Prasad wrote an article about the disastrous effect of project on silent valley in Kerala
Sasthra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP). His article got huge response. The General Assembly of the
IUCN, many eminent people like Salim Ali, Madhav Gadgil, CV Radhakrishnan, MS
Swaminathan, Subramaniam Swamy, etc. also wrote to central government not to sanction the
project. However, then Prime Minister Morarji Desai rejected all the appeals and recommended
the proposal. A public interest litigation was filed in the High Court in 1979. The Silent Valley
Samrakshana Samiti and Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad started awareness campaigns, held
protest meetings, rallies and debates all over the state, turning the campaign into a mass people’s
movement. Famous writers from Kerala also joined the movement. The then PM Charan Singh
instituted a Central Committee to re-investigate the issue, headed by M.S. Swaminathan. In
1980, the High Court rejected plea. Then, a small group of campaigners met the Kerala Governor
and requested her to issue a stay order untill Committees’ report was issued. Work was halted
once again. But the awareness campaigns continue. PM Charan Singh was replaced by Indira
Gandhi.She took active interest in silent valley project. She constituted M.G.K. Menon
Committee in 1983 to re-examine the project, which recommended abandoning of the project.
Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi formally inaugurated Silent Valley National Park in 1985. The
silent valley movement saw many twists and turns in politics but it gave birth to the idea of
environment impact assessment of every project before its initiation.

Bishnois of Rajasthan Year: 1700s♣ Place: Khejarli, Marwar region, Rajasthan state.♣
Leaders: Amrita Devi along with Bishnoi villagers in Khejarli and surrounding villages.♣ Aim:
Save sacred trees from being cut down by the king’s soldiers for a new palace.♣ The Bishnois
living in western Rajasthan on the fringe of the Thar desert, for centuries, have been conserving
the flora and fauna. For them nature-loving people, protection of the environment, wildlife, and
plants is a part and parcel of their sacred traditions. In the fifteenth century, Jambhoji, a resident
of a village near Jodhpur, had a vision that the cause of the drought that had hit the area and
hardship that followed was caused by people’s interference with nature. Thereafter, he became a
‘sanyasi’ and came to be known as Swami Jambeshwar Maharaj. This was the beginning of the
Bishnoi sect. He laid down 29 tenets for his followers which included Jeev Daya Palani – Be
compassionate to all living beings and Runkh Lila Nahi Ghave – Do not cut green trees. Nature
protection was given foremost importance in these tenets. The sacrifice made by Amrita Devi
and over 350 others is a heart-rending example of their devotion. The Maharaja Abhay Singh of
Jodhpur wanted to build a new palace and required wood for it. To procure this his men went to
the area around the village of Jalnadi to fell the trees. When Amrita Devi saw this she rushed out
to prevent the men and hugged the first tree, but the axe fell on her and she died on the spot.
Before dying she uttered a couplet, ‘A chopped head is cheaper than a felled tree’. People from
83 surrounding villages rushed to prevent the men from felling the trees and by the end of the
day more than 363 had lost their lives. When the king heard about this, he felt remorseful and
personally came to village to apologize to the people. He promised them that they would never
be asked to provide timber to the ruler, no khejri tree would be cut and hunting would be banned
near the Bishnoi villages. The village of Jalnadi thus came to be called Khejarli. The Bishnois
will go to any extent to protect the wildlife and the forests around them. Recently this sect was in
the news due to the hunting of Black buck by some Mumbai film group. The heartland of the
Bishnois in the forests near Jodhpur is abundant in trees and wildlife. The landscape here is
greener than elsewhere and the animals mainly antelopes, particularly the blackbuck and the
chinkara, in these forests are not afraid of humans and are often seen near the villages eating out
of the villagers’ hands. The Bishnois have indeed proved that human lives are a small price to
pay to protect the wildlife and the forests around them. Though they are staunch Hindus but they
do not cremate their dead but bury them, as they are not permitted to use wood for the cremation.
There is a saying that goes “Sir santhe rooke rahe to bhi sasto jaan” this means that if a tree is
saved from felling at the cost of one’s head, it should be considered as a good deed.