School of Energy & Environment (SEE)

Air Pollution

THAPAR INSTITUTE School of Energy & UEN008: Energy and

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 Air Pollution: Definition

WHO definition “Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor

environment by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the
natural characteristics of the atmosphere. Household combustion devices, motor
vehicles, industrial facilities and forest fires are common sources of air pollution.”

EPA definition “Air pollution is one or more chemicals or substances in high

enough concentrations in the air to harm humans, other animals, vegetation, or
materials. Such chemicals or physical conditions (such as excess heat or noise)
are called air pollutants.”

Sources of air Meteorology

pollution &Topography

Air Quality

Effects on receptors

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 How do we Know if Air Quality is Poor?

Ø AQI is an overall scheme that transforms

individual air pollutant (e.g. SO2, CO, PM10)
levels into a single number, which is a
simple and lucid description of air quality for
the citizens.
Ø AQI relates to health impacts and citizens
can avoid the unnecessary exposure to air
pollutants;
Ø AQI indicates compliance with National Air
Quality Standards;
Ø AQI prompts local authorities to take quick
actions to improve air quality;
Ø AQI guides policy makers to take broad
decisions; and
Ø AQI encourages citizens to participate in air
quality management

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Pollutants Considered for AQI and Air Quality Standards

Pollutant SO2 NO2 PM2.5 PM10 O3 CO (mg/m3) Pb NH3

Averaging time (h) 24 24 24 24 1 8 1 8 24 24

Indian Standard (µg/m3) 80 80 60 100 180 100 4 2 1 400

Particulate matter is generally classified by particle size:

Ø PM10 – i.e. Particulate Matter of less than 10 millionths of a metre (10
micrometres or 10mm) in diameter. In general particles in this size range are not
visible to the naked eye.
Ø PM2.5 –this is a subset of PM10 and relates to Particulate Matter of less the 2.5
millionths of a metre (2.5mm) in diameter.
(in ambient air PM2.5 fraction approx. 70% of total PM10)

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 AQI Categories and Range

AQI categories and breakpoint concentrations with averaging times

(units: µg/m3 unless mentioned otherwise)
AQI Category PM10 PM2.5 NO2 O3 CO SO2 NH3 Pb
(Range) 24-hr 24-hr 24-hr 8-hr 8-hr 24-hr 24-hr 24-hr
(mg/m3)
Good (0-50) 0-50 0-30 0-40 0-50 0-1.0 0-40 0-200 0-0.5
Satisfactory 51-100 31-60 41-80 51-100 1.1-2.0 41-80 201-400 0.6 –1.0
(51-100)
Moderate 101-250 61-90 81-180 101-168 2.1- 10 81-380 401-800 1.1-2.0
(101-200)
Poor 251-350 91-120 181-280 169-208 10.1-17 381-800 801-1200 2.1-3.0
(201-300)
Very poor 351-430 121-250 281-400 209-748* 17.1-34 801-1600 1201-1800 3.1-3.5
(301-400)
Severe 430 + 250+ 400+ 748+* 34+ 1600+ 1800+ 3.5+
(401-500)

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 Classification of Air Pollutants
Ø Primary air pollutants - Materials that when released pose health risks in their
unmodified forms or those emitted directly from identifiable sources
Ø Secondary air pollutants - Primary pollutants interact with one another in
presence of sunlight, or natural gases to produce new, harmful compounds

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 Sources of Air Pollution

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 Primary Air Pollutant Components
Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
• PM is a complex mixture of air borne particles that differ in size, origin
and chemical composition
• One of the six EPA “Criteria Pollutant” (SO2, NOx, CO, Pb, VOC’s & PM)
• consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust, and vapour that
can remain suspended for extended periods
• is also the main source of haze which reduces visibility.
• The finer of these particles, when breathed in can lodge in our lungs and
cause lung damage and respiratory problems.
• SPM can also constitute pollen dust and microbial organisms

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Primary Air Pollutant Components (Cont.)
Particle Sizes
PM10 means particulate size less than 10 µm
PM2.5 means particulate size less than 2.5 µm
PM1.0 means particulate size less than 1.0 µm

PM10
PM2.5 PM1.0

Coarse Fine Ultrafine

(Inhalable) (Lungs) (Blood)

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Primary Air Pollutant Components (Cont.)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
• is a colourless, odourless gas produced by the incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels
including petrol, diesel, and wood.
• It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood.
• It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and sleepy.

Chloroflorocarbons (CFC)
• are gases that are released mainly from air-conditioning systems and refrigeration.
• CFCs rise to the stratosphere, where they come in contact with few other gases, which
leads to a reduction of the ozone layer that protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet
rays of the sun.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• is the principle greenhouse gas emitted as a result of human activities such as the
burning of coal, oil, and natural gases.

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Primary Air Pollutant Components (Cont.)
Nitrogen oxide (NOx)
• It is produced from burning fuels including petrol, diesel, and
coal.
• At high temperature, nitrogen present in the air can combine with
oxygen to produce NOx.
• Nitrogen oxides can make children susceptible to respiratory
diseases in winters.
• causes smog and acid rain.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
• is a gas produced from burning fuel due to presence of sulphur
in fuel
• Some industrial processes, such as production of paper and
smelting of metals, produce sulphur dioxide.
• It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain.
• Sulfur dioxide can lead to lung diseases.
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 Effects of Air Pollutants

Human

Effects of
Animals air Plants
pollution

Materials

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 Meteorology

Ø Meteorology is concerned with the description of the transport of pollutants from source to
receptor
Ø The meteorological elements have the most direct and significant effects on the
distribution/dispersion of the air pollutants in the atmosphere

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 Dispersion
• Pollutants released into the atmosphere are subjected to phenomenon of
transportation, dilution, modification and removal

• Transport and dilution causes the dispersion of pollutants into the

atmosphere, thereby reducing the background concentration of pollutants

• Modification and removal results in the atmosphere getting rid off the
pollutants after chemical alterations

• The Dispersion depends upon the climatic conditions like temperature,

pressure, prevailing winds, humidity, etc.

• The atmosphere can be highly turbulent with violent eddies or otherwise it

can be calm with molecular movement only.

• It is important to discuss the turbulence level of atmosphere.

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 Meteorological Paramaters (M.P.)

• Primary M.P. The meteorological elements that have the most direct
and significant effects on the turbulence level of atmosphere which
ultimately impact the distribution/dispersion of the air pollutants in
the atmosphere e.g. wind speed, wind direction, temperature,
atmospheric stability and mixing height

• Secondary M.P. Effects on primary parameters e.g. Humidity, solar

radiations, Precipitation, Atmpospheric Pressure, Topography, etc.

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 Turbulence
• The irregular air motion is known as turbulence, which may be either mechanical
or thermal in nature.
• At the surface, turbulence is commonly identified in terms of eddies, whirls, and
gusts.

• Wind blowing over the ground will cause air to become gusty and help spread
pollutants by allowing them to mix more easily with the surrounding unpolluted
air, called as Mechanical Turbulence
• Mixing also happens when the air is heated to greater than that of the air
above (temperature gradient) known as Thermal turbulence
• This causes bubbles of warm air (thermal turbulence) rise.
• These cause eddies which often take pollutants higher into the atmosphere.
• Type & magnitude of turbulence decides the size and velocity of eddies

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 Turbulence (Cont.)

Mechanical turbulence Thermal turbulence

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 Wind Roses
• A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind speed
and direction are typically distributed at a particular location.

• The directions of the rose with the longest spoke show the wind direction with the greatest
frequency. Presented in a circular format, the modern wind rose shows the frequency of winds .

• The length of each "spoke" around the circle is related to the frequency that the wind blows from
a particular direction per unit time.

• Each concentric circle represents a different frequency, emanating from zero at the centre to
increasing frequencies at the outer circles.

• A wind rose plot may contain additional information, in that each spoke is broken down into
color-coded bands that show wind speed ranges.

• Wind roses typically use 16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc., although they
may be subdivided into as many as 32 directions.

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 Wind Roses (Cont.)

• Wind speed determines the travel time of a pollutant from its source to a receptor and
accounts for amount of pollutant dispersion
• Wind direction determines the direction of the pollutant movement and the which receptor
is affected at what time
• Both parameters defined by Windrose This is a graphical display of
wind in a given location during
a defined period.

It statistically defines the

frequency, direction, force and
speed.

Limitations include lack of

precision and vertical
representation, and is location
specific

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 Thermal Turbulence

• Thermal turbulence is associated with instability and convective activity.

• It is similar to mechanical turbulence in its effects on surface winds, but extends

higher in the atmosphere.

• Since it is the result of surface heating, thermal turbulence increases with the
intensity of surface heating and the degree of instability indicated by
the temperature lapse rate. It therefore shows diurnal changes, and is most
pronounced in the early afternoon when surface heating is at a maximum and the
air is unstable in the lower layers.

• It is at a minimum during the night and early morning when the air is more stable.
Mechanical and thermal turbulence frequently occur together, each magnifying the
effects of the other.

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Lapse Rate: Rate of Decrease of Temperature with Altitude

• This is an important concept when describing the vertical movement of air.

• Essentially it is the description of how quickly air cools as a response to an increase
in elevation, or vice versa.
• There are three lapse rates to consider.
• The environmental lapse rate (ELR) is the actual measured decrease in air
temperature with an increase in altitude. It is usually around 6.5O C / 1000 m.
• The dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) is the theoretical rate of cooling of air with no
moisture in it over an increase in altitude. This rate is 9.8O C / 1000 m.
• The wet adiabatic lapse rate (WALR) is a theoretical reduction in temperature with
elevation in saturated air. It is much less than the DALR, and usually around 5.6O C /
1000 m.
• Process L.R. (PLR) is the rate at which temperature of pollutant mass (puff) is
decreasing with altitude due to expansion of flue gases and its magnitude is
somewhat between DALR and WALR since puff of pollutants are neither completely
dry nor completely saturated.
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 Why WALR is less than DALR ?

Reason: As pollutants rise, temperature decreases due to

expansion and partial pressure becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure which causes condensation due to
saturation. Condensation leads to liberation of heat
equivalent to latent heat of condensation, hence the rate of
decrease of temperature will be less so WALR is less than
DALR.

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 Stability of Atmosphere

The stability of the atmosphere is dependant on the ELR compared to the PLR/ALR.

Three conditions can occur

• Stable (ELR < PLR)

• Unstable (ELR>PLR)

• neutral conditions (ELR = PLR)

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 Stability of Atmosphere (Cont.)

Unstable atmospheric conditions

occur when ELR>PLR. Absolute
instability occurs when the ELR is of
greater magnitude than the DALR.
For example: ELR is 12O C/1000 m,
DALR is 10O C/1000 m. A parcel of
air with an initial temperature of 20O
C will cool to 10O C at 1000 m, but
the surrounding air is at 8O C.
Therefore the parcel will continue to
rise.

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 Stability of Atmosphere (Cont.)
Stable conditions: When ELR < PLR, pollutants will tend to sink.
• Absolute stability occurs when ELR is of lesser magnitude than WALR.
• E.g. ELR is 6.5O C/Km, PLR is 8O C/Km. If initial temperature of puff and ambient air is 20oC, then at
1000 m altitude, the parcel would be 12 O C, but the surrounding air is 13.5O C. So pollutants will
be suppressed and it is undesirable state as far as dispersion is concerned.

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 Stability of Atmosphere (Cont.)
Neutral conditions
• Neutral stability occurs when the ELR is the same as PLR.
• Conditional instability is a existance of both stable and unstable atmospheres within
the stability zones
• Atmosphere neither helps nor suppress the dispersion of pollutants

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School of Energy & Environment (SEE)

Air Pollution Control Devices (APCDs)

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Control of Air Pollutants: Mechanisms Involved
Particulates
• Gravity Settling
• Centrifugal Forces
• Electrostatic Forces
• Filteration
• Scrubbing
Gaseous Pollutants
• Absorption
• Adsorption
• Combustion
• Masking
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Air Pollution Control System & Devices (Particulate Control)

Considering factors
• Particulate concentration
• Particulate Size
• Volume of flue gases
• Composition of flue gases
• Moisture content in flue gases
• Temperature of flue gases
Designing considerations
•Efficiency
•Pressure Drop
•Cost

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 Gravitational Settling Chambers
• Operating temperature – 1000 deg.C
• Applications – precleaners for removing dry dust produced by
grinding in cement and lime kilns, grain elevators, rock crushers,
thermal coal dryers, furnaces
• Dust particle size > 50 mm
• One of the first devices to control particulate emission
• Types – Simple expansion Chamber; Multi-tray settling chamber
• Force – Gravitational
• Once the horizontal gas velocity is reduced, large particles can be
overcome by gravity and fall into the hopper
• Typical horizontal velocity range of 0.3 to 3.0 m/s

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Gravitational Settling Chambers (Cont.)
Expansion chamber

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Gravitational Settling Chambers (Cont.)
Howard Settling Chamber (Multiple Tray)

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Gravitational Settling Chambers (Cont.)
Baffle Chamber

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 Cyclones

• The suspended gas-particle mixture is fed tangentially to

the inlet at a high velocity and pressure.

• This creates a spiral flow wherein the suspended particles

are forced towards the wall due to centrifugal force.

• These particles which collide at the wall, spiral downwards

in the gas boundary layer and are collected at an outlet at
the bottom.

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 Cyclones (Cont.)
Single-cyclone separators create a
dual vortex to separate coarse from
fine dust. The main vortex spirals
downward and carries most of the
coarser dust particles. The inner
vortex, created near the bottom of the
cyclone, spirals upward and carries
finer dust particles.

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 Cyclones (Cont.)
• Types of design
• Reverse flow or straight through
• Flue Gas Entry points – tangential, Scroll and Swirl vane
• Gas Flow rates – 50 –50,000 m3/hr
• Pressure drop – 0.5 to 0.8 inches in water
• Operating temperatures - ~1000 deg.C
• Applications – Cement and lime kilns, furnaces, milling operations,
power drying processes
• Dust particle sizes - > 25µm
• Dust concentration - > 2000g/m3
• Cyclones are efficient in removing large particles but are not as
efficient with smaller particles. For this reason, they are used with
other particulate control devices.

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 Cyclones (Cont.)

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 Cyclones (Cont.)
Industrial Applications
• Used in many applications for precleaning before
sending to precipitators of filters
• Recovery and recycling of solid particles such as food
products or catalysts
• Used in metallurgical industries as a first stage for
control of particulate matter emissions from roasters,
kilns and furnaces
• Used after spray drying operations in food industry
• Recovery of process materials after crushing and
grinding operations.

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 Cyclones (Cont.)
Advantages
• No moving parts, low maintenance costs
• Can operate over wide range of temperature (upto 540 C) and pressure
(upto 500 atm)
• No pretreatment necessary
• Small space requirements
• Comparatively low capital and operating costs
Disadvantages
• Low collection efficiencies when particle size is small (<10 micrometers)
• Cannot handle sticky particles which have high inter-particulate
attraction
• High efficiency units experience high pressure drops and are costlier to
operate

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Fabric Collectors/Bag Filters/Bag House
• Commonly known as baghouses,
fabric collectors use filtration to
separate dust particulates from dusty
gases.
• They are one of the most efficient
and cost effective types of dust
collectors available and can achieve
a collection efficiency of more than
99% for very fine particulates.
• Dust-laden gases enter the baghouse
and pass through fabric bags that act
as filters.
• The bags can be of woven or felted
cotton, synthetic, or glass-fiber
material in either a tube or envelope
shape
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Fabric Collectors/Bag Filters/Bag House(Cont.)
• The high efficiency of these collectors is due to the dust cake
formed on the surfaces of the bags. The fabric primarily
provides a surface on which dust particulates collect through the
following four mechanisms:
• Inertial Collection - Dust particles strike the fibers placed
perpendicular to the gas-flow direction instead of changing
direction with the gas stream.
• Interception - Particles that do not cross the fluid streamlines
come in contact with fibers because of the fiber size.
• Brownian Movement - Submicron particles are diffused,
increasing the probability of contact between the particles and
collecting surfaces.
• Electrostatic Forces - The presence of an electrostatic charge
on the particles and the filter can increase dust capture.
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Fabric Collectors/Bag Filters/Bag House(Cont.)
• As classified by cleaning method, three common types of
baghouses are:
• Mechanical shaker
• Reverse air
• Reverse jet

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 Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)

• Electrostatic Precipitators use electrostatic forces to separate dust

particles from exhaust gases.
• A number of high-voltage, direct-current discharge electrodes are placed
between grounded collecting electrodes.
• The contaminated gases flow through the passage formed by the
discharge and collecting electrodes.
• The airborne particles receive a negative charge as they pass through the
ionized field between the electrodes.
• These charged particles are then attracted to a grounded or positively
charged electrode and adhere to it.

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 Electrostatic Precipitators (Cont.)
Working Principle:
Corona Generation
When high voltage is applied in the charging electrodes, a blue luminous glow
called Corona is generated around the electrodes and it causes ionization of gas
molecules, due to which +ve ions, -ve ions and free electrons are generated.

Particle Charging
When –ve ions travel towards +ve electrodes (Collection electrode), the –ve
charges get attached to the dust particles and thus, dust particles are electrically
charged

Particle Collection
Attracted towards oppositely charged electrodes and form a layer on surface of
electrode

Removal of particles
Rapping mechanism or wet removal method
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 Electrostatic Precipitators (Cont.)
Working Principle: ESP

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 Electrostatic Precipitators (Cont.)
Particle Charging - Corona formation in ESP
• This state is transient, once the excitation has ceased, the molecule
reverts to its ground state releasing energy
• Part of this energy gets converted light (bluish glow) – Corona
• The space between the wire and the plate can be divided into active zone
and the passive zone • In the active zone, defined by
corona glow discharge, electrons
leave the wire electrode
• In the passive zone, the electrons
impact gas molecules thereby
ionizing the molecules which
continues as chain of ionization
called Avalanche effect

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 Electrostatic Precipitators (Cont.)

Classification of Electrostatic Precipitators

• Tubular and parallel Plate

• Dry and wet bottom ESP

• Negative and positive corona ESP

• Single and double stage ESP

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 Electrostatic Precipitators (Cont.)

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 Electrostatic Precipitators (Cont.)
Particle Removal
• Dust that has accumulated to a certain thickness on the collection electrode
is removed by one of two processes, depending on the type of collection
electrode.
• Tubes are usually cleaned by water sprays, while plates can be cleaned
either by water sprays or a process called rapping.
• Rapping is a process whereby deposited, dry particles are dislodged from
the collection plates by sending mechanical impulses, or vibrations, to the
plates.
• Precipitator plates are rapped periodically while maintaining the continuous
flue-gas cleaning process.
• Plates are rapped when the accumulated dust layer is relatively thick (0.08
to 1.27 cm or 0.03 to 0.5 in.). This allows the dust layer to fall off the plates
as large aggregate sheets and helps eliminate dust re-entrainment.
• Dislodged dust falls from the plates into the hopper.

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 Electrostatic Precipitators (Cont.)
Advantages of ESPs:
• Very high efficiencies, even for very small particles
• Can handle very large gas volumes with low pressure drop
• Dry collection of valuable material, or wet collection of fumes and mists
• Can be designed for a wide range of gas temperatures
• Low operating costs, except at very high efficiencies
Disadvantages of ESPs:
• High capital costs
• Will not control gaseous emissions
• Not very flexible, once installed, to changes in operating conditions
• Take up a lot of space
• Might not work on particulates with very high electrical resistivity

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 Electrostatic Precipitators (Cont.)
Collection Efficiency of ESP:
The collection efficiency of an ESP as a function of gas flow rate and
precipitator size is given by the Deutsch-Andersen Equation

Assumptions:
•Repulsion effect is neglected
•Uniform gas velocity throughout the cross section
•Particles are fully charged by field charging.
•No hindered settling effect

Collection efficiency mathematically expressed as follows

Ƞ = 1- exp {(-Vpm × Ac)/Q}

where
ƞ=Fractional Collection Efficiency; Ac=Area of the collection
electrode; Vpm=Particle migration velocity;
Q=Av=Volumetric flow rate of gas; v=gas velocity.

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 Wet Scrubbers

Scrubbers
(Used both for removal of particulates and gaseous pollutants)

• PM Control: PM having Size 2.5-10 µm & hazardous air

pollutants (HAP) in particulate form
• Gaseous Control: Inorganic fumes, vapors, and gases
(e.g. chromic acid, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia,
chlorides, fluorides and SO2)
• Control of volatile organic compounds (VOC)

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 Wet Scrubbers (Cont.)
There is a large variety of wet scrubbers; however, all have of three basic

operations:

• Gas-Humidification - The gas-humidification process conditions fine

particles to increase their size so they can be collected more easily.

• Gas-Liquid Contact - This is one of the most important factors

affecting collection efficiency.

• Gas-Liquid Separation - Regardless of the contact mechanism used,

as much liquid and dust as possible must be removed. Once contact

is made, dust particulates and water droplets combine to form

agglomerates. As the agglomerates grow larger, they settle into a

collector.
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 Wet Scrubbers (Cont.)
Absorption
Selection of the solvent
• Solubility is the most important consideration in the selection of a
solvent for absorption
• Higher the solubility, lower the amount of solvent required
• The solvent should also be non-volatile to prevent an excessive carry
over in the gas effluent
• Other properties of a good solvent are
• Low flammability and viscosity
• High chemical stability
• Acceptable corrosivity
• Low toxicity and pollution potential

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 Wet Scrubbers (Cont.)
Plate type scrubber
• It consists of a hollow vertical tower
with one or more plates .
• Gas comes in from the bottom and
must pass through perforations,
valves, slots, or other openings in
each plate and exit from top.
• Liquid from the top plate, flows
successively across each plate and
exit at the bottom.
• Gas passing through the openings in
each plate mixes with the liquid
flowing over the plate.
• The gas and liquid contact allows the
mass transfer or particle removal.
• These have the ability to remove
gaseous pollutants to any desired
concentration provided a sufficient
number of plates are used.

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 Wet Scrubbers (Cont.)

Spray Tower
• It utilizes spray nozzles for liquid droplet atomization.
• The sprays are directed into a chamber to conduct the
gas through the atomized liquid droplets.
• These are designed for low pressure drop and high
liquid consumption.
• Applicable to the removal of gases which have high
liquid solubility.
• Many nozzles are placed at different heights.
• Theoretically, the smaller the droplets formed, the
higher the collection efficiency achieved

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 Wet Scrubbers (Cont.)

Gaseous Emission Control

Mechanisms:

-Absorption

-Condensation

-Adsorption

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 Wet Scrubbers (Cont.)

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 Wet Scrubbers (Cont.)
Condensation
• In cases where pollutants have low vapour pressures, condensation is
effective for removing a significant part of the vapour
• The condenser works by cooling the feed gas to a temperature below
the dew point of the feed gas
• Two types of condensers are normally used
• Surface condensers contact condensers

• Removal efficiencies of condensers typically range from 50

percent to more than 95 percent, depending on design and
applications.
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 Wet Scrubbers (Cont.)
Adsorption
• Adsorption is the binding of molecules or particles to a surface.
• In this phenomenon molecules from a gas will be attached physically
to a surface.
• The binding to the surface is usually weak and reversible.
• The most common industrial adsorbents are activated carbon, silica
gel, and alumina, because they have enormous surface areas per unit
weight.
• In selecting the adsorbent, the adsorption isotherm of the adsorbent
should be favourable
• An adsorption isotherm for a single gaseous adsorptive on a solid is
the function which relates at constant temperature the amount of
substance adsorbed at equilibrium to the pressure (or concentration)
of the adsorptive in the gas phase.
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Thank You
Thank you