Journal of Advanced Research in Applied Sciences and Engineering Technology 60, Issue 1 (2026) 278-289

Journal of Advanced Research in Applied

Sciences and Engineering Technology
Journal homepage:
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ISSN: 2462-1943

A Study on Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Converters for Solar

Energy Harvesting
Muhammad Aniq Shahmi Bimazlim1,*, Chanuri Charin1, Baharuddin Ismail1, Yessi Jusman2

1
Faculty of Electrical Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta 55183,
Indonesia

ABSTRACT

This research paper presents a brief comparative analysis review paper on Maximum
Power Point Tracking (MPPT) converters utilized in the process of solar energy
harvesting. The primary focus of this paper is on conventional MPPT converters such
as buck, boost, and buck-boost converters. Applications of MPPT controllers have also
been analysed in this review paper. The controllers or algorithms nowadays are
rapidly evolving as more new algorithms are developed and applied to MPPT
converters. Thus, the benefits and drawbacks of the MPPT converters and controllers
have been properly discussed and analysed based on tracking efficiency, convergence
speeds, and steady-state oscillation. Appropriate research reviews are used to
Keywords: properly study and analyse the findings. Artificial Bee Algorithm (ABC) has been
deemed as a good MPPT controller as ABC outperforms the other MPPT controllers.
MPPT converters; MPPT controllers; Soft This research review is considered to be a guidance resource for new researchers
computing working in the MPPT research.

1. Introduction

Global warming has become a worldwide environmental crisis that dominates the international
agenda and is one of humanity's most difficult challenges. Many individuals will be impacted by the
difficulties posed by this extremely complex issue both now and in the future, especially those who
are most vulnerable yet have a limited ability to adapt to and respond to climate hazards. Malaysia
aimed to cut greenhouse gas emissions intensity, one of the causes of global warming by launching
a low-carbon economy as one of its primary strategies to combat global warming and climate
change. The solar energy is one of the natural energies applicable to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions intensity. Due to its clean and sustainable nature, solar energy has gained popularity as a
source of renewable energy as well as can be considered the best among the available renewable
energy technologies [1].

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.37934/araset.60.1.278289

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A Photovoltaic (PV) system is used to harvest the aforementioned energy. Despite of many
advantages of PV systems, obtaining the highest or optimum power output still remain a challenge
to PV systems. This is especially true for partial shading conditions (PSC), in which the solar panels
are partially obstructed by objects that disturb the non-linear parameters such as temperature and
irradiance. These disturbances on the non-linear parameters caused changes in the characteristics
of the I-V and P-V curves of solar PV and reduced the power output of the systems [2]. Once the PV
system is under shading conditions, multiple peaks are presented in the I-V and P-V characteristics.
The highest peak is known as the global maximum power point (GMPP) or maximum power point
(MPP), while the rest is known as local peak [3]. However, if compared with uniform conditions,
only one optimum peak is shown in the I-V and P-V characteristics. Nonetheless, MPP is the only
power point needed to obtain maximum PV power.
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) techniques are applied to solar-powered systems to
harvest the optimum point [4]. There are various MPPT controllers were introduced into MPPT
research to utilize the solar-powered systems output, such as Perturb & Observe (P&O), Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) and Particle Swarm Algorithm (PSO). The MPPT controller will tracking the
GMPP throughout the cycle to harvest the optimum power. Once the MPPT has tracked the GMPP,
the systems will maintain the optimum output by controlling the PWM signal from the controller.
Thus, the MPPT controller can track and maintain the optimum output from the PV systems.
The DC-DC converters also important to produce the best quality of output power from PV
system. However, MPPT DC-DC converter cannot be the same as any normal DC-DC converter.
Normal converter only step-up or step-down the input DC into new value of DC output. Meanwhile,
MPPT converter used for boosting or reducing the DC output while maintaining the MPP output
with the help of the controller. The MPPT controller search for the MPP of the PV power, produces
PWM duty cycle to control the input of PV systems as well as maintaining the MPP of the output. So,
the MPPT converter is a complex system compared to conventional DC-DC converter. Thus, a
reliable MPPT converter is required for obtaining and maintaining the MPP of PV systems output
during PSC as well as during UIC.
This paper is divided into five sections, the Introduction, MPPT controller, MPPT controller,
Results and discussion, and the Conclusion. This information is vitally important to researcher and
industrial to start exploring on the solar MPPT system.

2. MPPT Converter

The PV systems mainly consist of solar panel, the MPPT converter and the DC output load as
shown in Figure 1. The main focus of this paper is the available MPPT DC-DC converters. Variable
DC-DC converter exist for MPPT. The common DC-DC converters that are widely used in MPPT
research are buck [5], boost [6], buck-boost [7], Cuk [8], Single-ended primary inductor (SEPIC) [9]
and flyback converter [10]. Each converters have different configuration and purposed including
different efficiency and power outputs.

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Fig. 1. Standalone PV systems

2.1 Buck Converter

The buck converter, also known as the step-down DC-DC converter, is frequently employed in
PV systems when it is necessary to reduce the voltage of the PV module to match the load or
battery voltage. The MPPT buck converter is utilized to connect a PV array and DC load, with the
objective of guaranteeing optimal performance of both MPPT and power control functions [11].
The buck converter also has drawn interest for industrial applications because of its simple design
and reasonable cost [5,6].
MPPT buck converter operates when optimum resistance, Rmpp is equal or lower than load
resistance, Rload, Rload ≥ Rmpp. Figure 2 depicts that the converter does not operates or tracing MPP of
I-V curve regions that is near to short circuit current, ISC. Thus, changing duty cycle, D, value to
control the input resistance, Ri, to match with Rmpp and operates the buck converter tracking MPP
restricted within operational regions.

Fig. 2. Operational and non-operational regions of I-V

curve in MPPT buck converter [12]

Based on paper by Ayob et al., [13], proper sizing of the MPPT buck converter is imperative to
guarantee the persistence of the continuous current mode (CCM) operation as well as a tolerable

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degree of output voltage ripple. The results by Ayob et al., [13] shows that MPPT buck converter
requires high duty cycle to maintain best efficiency. Proper size of resistive loads is important to
maintain the duty cycle within limits, 0 < D < 1, and avoid the MPPT controller from failing.
However, proper sizing of capacitor and inductor can be found in this study. Figure 3 shows the
MPPT buck converter.

Fig. 3. Buck converter

2.2 Boost Converter

The output voltage from PV modules is low and must be increased for high power usage [14]. So,
the boost converter or the step-up DC-DC converter, also a conventional converter is use to
increase the voltage output higher than input voltage from the PV module. Unfortunately, the
boost converter have issues including high switch voltage stress, limited gain, high duty cycle for
high gain, and poor efficiency during high duty ratio [15].
MPPT boost converter operates when optimum resistance, Rmpp is equal or greater than load
resistance, Rload, Rload ≤ Rmpp. Figure 4 shows that the converter does not operates or tracing MPP of
I-V curve regions that is near to open circuit voltage, VOC. Thus, changing duty cycle, D, value to
control the input resistance, Ri, to match with Rmpp and operates the boost converter tracking MPP
restricted within operational regions. Thus, during low irradiance, the boost converter is inoperable
as the Ri is within non-operational region.

Fig. 4. Operational and non-operational regions of I-V

curve in MPPT buck converter [12]

According in the paper by Ayop and Tan [2], proper sizing and developed MPPT boost converter
are able to operate as desired and allow the ripple factor and duty cycle of MPPT boost converter
to be control as required. The results by Ayop and Tan [2], shows that the proper sizing MPPT boost

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converter can reduce the cost and the total size of the converter. However, to achieve optimal
performance despite the presence of non-ideal components such as inductor and capacitor internal
resistance, it becomes necessary to meticulously adjust the sizing and undertake various steps to
obtain the appropriate derivation of requirements. Figure 5 depicts a MPPT boost converter.

Fig. 5. Boost converter

2.3 Buck-Boost Converter

A buck-boost converter amalgamates the architectural features of both a buck converter and a
boost converter, thereby facilitating voltage amplification and attenuation capabilities from the PV
input to the MPP output [8]. It is imperative to acknowledge that buck-boost converters will
encounter heightened requisites in terms of power density, physical footprint, mass, voltage
amplification range, efficiency, stability, cost implications, and other pertinent aspects. However,
the topology of buck–boost converters is different for different applications. By regulating the
active switch in the buck-boost converter, the circuit is capable of effectuating the operation of
escalating and reducing voltage by means of directing the D during the process of forward or
reverse power induction. During buck-boost converter operational, when D increases, the RLoad
decreases and the converter operates in left side region. Meanwhile, as D decreasing, the RLoad
increasing and the converter operates in left side of I-V region [12]. This can be referred in Figure 6,
as the buck-boost converter have no non-operational region in the I-V curve.

Fig. 6. Operational and non-operational regions of I-V

curve in MPPT buck-boost converter [12]

By referring to Mishra and Singh [16], the conventional MPPT buck-boost converter is isolated
from PV source during switch-off, which reduces the efficiency of the system. Also, to reduces the
high ripple in PV current, the converter required more DC link capacitors and deviation controlled

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MPPT controller which increasing the cost of the converter. Figure 7 depicts a common boost
converter.

Fig. 7. Buck-boost converter

Table 1 provide the output voltage, current, load, the boundary limit of Rmpp, relationship
between Ro and D, inductance and capacitance equations related to MPPT buck, boost, and buck-
boost converter respectively.

Table 1
Equations related to MPPT buck, boost and buck-boost converter
Buck Converter Boost Converter Buck-Boost
[13] [2] converter
[12]
Output Voltage, V0 Vo  D * Vmpp Vmpp D
Vo  Vo  *V
1 D 1  D  mpp
Output Current, I0 I mpp I o  I mpp 1  D  1  D 
Io  Io  * I mpp
D D

Resistive load, Ro Ro  Rmpp * D 2 Rmpp Rmpp * D 2

Ro  Ro 
1  D 
2
1  D 
2

Boundary Rmpp _ max Not stated

condition to Vmpp _ Gmin Ro _ min 
1  Dmin 
2
determine limit of Rmpp _ max 
Rmpp, at minimum I mpp _ Gmin
irradiance, Gmin Rmpp _ max
Ro _ max 
1  Dmax 
2

Boundary Vmpp _ Gmax Rmpp _ min Not stated

condition to Rmpp _ min  Ro _ min 
1  Dmin 
2
determine limit of I mpp _ Gmax
Rmpp, at maximum
irradiance, Gmax Rmpp _ min
Ro _ max 
1  Dmax 
2

Relationship 2
Rmpp _ max Rmpp _ min Not stated
between duty
D   R0( opt ) 
Rmpp _ max  Rmpp _ min  max 
1  Dmin  1  Dmax 
2 2
ratio, D and  Dmin 
resistive load, Ro

Inductance
LCCM 
1  D  Ro Rmpp  Rmpp  Vmpp * D
L 1   Li 
2 fs  iL f s  Ro   i fs
 L

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D * I ph
Lo 
8C  I ph f s 2
Capacitance 1 D D I mpp (1  D)
Co  Ci  C
8 Lccm Vo f s 2
8 L Vmpp f s 2
 V fs
C

D
Co 
Ro Vo f s

3. MPPT Controller

Every MPPT converter required a controller to maximize the MPP of the PV system. The MPPT
controller control the output of the MPPT converter by controlling the duty cycle, D through the
PWM signal generated into the converter. Various controllers were introduced for the MPPT.
Basically, it divides into three categories which are, conventional, soft computing and bio-inspired
algorithm. Figure 8 shows some algorithms related to MPPT controller. Each algorithms have its
own special methods for searching the MPP of the PV systems.

Fig. 8. MPPT controller

Table 2 shows the brief pros and cons for MPPT controllers.

Table 2

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Advantages and disadvantages of MPPT controller

Algorithm Type Advantages Disadvantages
Perturb and Observe Conventional Simple implementation Oscillations around the maximum power
(P&O) point and slow tracking speed during an
[11] abrupt weather change.
Incremental Conventional Faster tracking, avoids Requires more computational resources
Conductance (INC) oscillations and low tracking speed during an abrupt
[11] weather change.
Fractional Open Conventional Simple implementation, works Less accurate under varying environmental
Circuit Voltage well in stable conditions conditions
(FOCV)
[17]
Artificial Neural AI-Based Adaptability to changing Requires training data and computational
Network (ANN) conditions, handles nonlinear resources
[17] relationships
Fuzzy Logic Control AI-Based Handles uncertainties, linguistic Requires tuning and may have limited
(FLC) rules accuracy
[17]
Extreme Learning AI-Based Fast training, good Limited interpretability, may require
Machine (ELM) generalization ability tuning of parameters
[18]
Genetic Algorithm Optimization- Global optimization, handles Longer computation time, may require
(GA) Based complex problems tuning parameters
[19]
Particle Swarm Optimization- Fast convergence, explores Prone to getting stuck in local optima,
Optimization (PSO) Based search space effectively requires tuning
[20]
Artificial Bee Colony Optimization- Efficient global optimization, Parameter tuning, sensitivity to initial
(ABC) Based handles dynamic conditions conditions
[19]

4. Result and Discussion

This section discusses the results obtain from previous researcher for the MPPT converter
regarding of any controller used in the research. The result is briefly explained in the Table 3. The
performances of the MPPT algorithms are studied in term of tracking efficiency, steady-state
oscillation, and convergence speed also shown in Figure 9.
From the results in Table 3 and Figure 9, all the MPPT controllers shown promising results as all
of the converters were able to achieved tracking more than 90% of the tracking efficiency. These
results shows that the controllers, P&O, INC, ANN, FLC, PSO and ABC were able to properly tracking
the MPP of the PV systems. The MPPT controller, ABC shows the best result in tracking efficiency as
it able to achieve 99.79 % of tracking efficiency which helps in producing and maintaining the MPP
output power. ABC exhibits superior performance when compared to other algorithms. This can be
attributed to its ability to efficiently track high power levels with a high degree of accuracy. The
ABC's success is further enhanced by its capacity to identify the most optimal solution for the MPP.
Compared to ABC, ANN and FLC falls much worst in tracking efficiency as the recorded results are
96.48% and 96.10% respectively. For ANN, the power loss occurs at steady-state phase due to
oscillation at MPP cause the efficiency of power tracking drop significantly. The FLC buck-boost
converter reason for low power tracking efficiency is due to its low accuracy to track MPP as the
GMPP tracked by the FLC buck-boost converter is lower than the ideal GMPP thus reduce its power
tracking efficiency. However, FLC results for boost converter is much better than FLC results for
buck-boost converter in term of power tracking efficiency. These FLC results can be a good example

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of the compatibility between the MPPT controller and converter as some algorithm perform the
best with suitable converter.
The steady state oscillation results also show that FLC and ABC controller have low oscillation at
MPP. These results show that these algorithms, FLC and ABC are able to accurately track the MPP
and maintain the GMPP at the optimum point. This also boost up the efficiency of power tracking
and the power output. However, the result for ANN steady-state oscillation is high which cause the
power output efficiency drop and unstable. This is probably due to ANN were lack of accuracy to
properly track the GMPP, lost at local optima and cause the oscillation become higher and reduces
the efficiency.
Lastly, convergence speed of an algorithm is important for MPPT system as it is the time taken
for the controller to completely track the GMPP. This convergence speed become much more
important during PSC, since in real time, the irradiance is always changing and the MPPT converter
must be able to track MPP as quick as possible at all time. Thus, the convergence speed results
shows that FLC and ABC shows the fast convergence speed followed by INC and PSO while P&O and
ANN is the slowest. ABC and FLC were able to converge towards global optima or GMPP due to its
capability to quickly and accurately track the GMPP. PSO and INC also were able to track MPP
quickly, however they always trap at local optima which cause they a bit delay to converge towards
GMPP. Unfortunately for P&O and ANN, due to their characteristic to track the GMPP step by step
cause these two controllers to slowly converge towards the GMPP for better accuracy.
Overall, as shown in Table 3 and Figure 9, the converter with the controller has its pros and cons
in term of tracking efficiency, steady-state oscillation and convergence speed. The overall best
results shown is the ABC boost MPPT converter while the ANN boost MPPT converter is the worst
results obtained.

Table 3
Result for MPPT converter in previous research
Reference MPPT MPPT Tracking Steady-state Convergence Remarks
converter Controller Efficiency oscillation speed
(%)
[11] Buck P&O 98.37 Medium Slow Resulting power waste due to
oscillation at MPP
[21] Boost INC 98.51 Medium Medium Resulting power waste due to
oscillation at MPP
[22] Boost ANN 96.48 High Slow Low tracking speed and
accuracy
[9] Boost FLC 99.30 Low Fast High efficiency when used with
boost converter
[9] Buck- FLC 96.10 Low Medium Function effectively. However,
Boost prematurely converge cause
low tracking efficiency.
[20] Boost PSO 98.50 Medium Medium Unstable steady-state
oscillation
[19] Boost ABC 99.79 Low Fast High efficiency, easy
implementation, and highly
flexible.

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Fig. 9. Graph for Convergence speed, steady state oscillation, and tracking efficiency in
previous research

5. Conclusion

The recent research papers on MPPT were reviewed in this literature mainly focus on
conventional MPPT converters and the controllers used. The perks and flaws of each type of
converters were briefly discussed and formulated. A concise comparative study has been done and
presented as an analysis of findings with the help of appropriate research reviews. The analysis
summary compares the MPPT controllers based on its tracking efficiency, convergence speeds and
steady-state oscillation. All MPPT controllers shown good tracking efficiency as all the algorithm
were able to achieve efficiency more than 90% with the ABC leads at 99.79%. This result shows that
bio-inspired algorithms have good results in term of tracking efficiency followed by soft computing
algorithm and conventional algorithms respectively. However, in terms of convergence speed and
steady-state oscillation, only ABC proves superior compared to others. This problem may be caused
by the algorithms were unable to accurately track GMPP, trap in local optima, and the algorithm’s
characteristic itself slowly tracking the GMPP. The suitability between the converter and controller
also may affect the performance itself as shown in FLC’s results. FLC can perform better with MPPT
boost converter compared to MPPT buck-boost converter. At the end, a categorize comparison is
provided which can be helpful in deciding ideal MPPT for the user’s need. This review can be
regards as useful resource for new researchers working on MPPT systems.

Acknowledgements
This research was funded by a grant from Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia
FRGS/1/2022/TK08/UNIMAP/02/47.

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Author E-Mail
Muhammad Aniq Shahmi Bimazlim [email protected]
Chanuri Charin [email protected]
Baharuddin Ismail
Yessi Jusman

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