200 Years Together – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn – Summary – 20240730

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Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's book, "200 Years Together," provides a comprehensive examination of the
complex historical relationship between Russians and Jews. This thought-provoking work offers valuable
insights into the challenges and opportunities that have shaped this relationship over the past two
centuries. In this piece, we will explore nine key points that the book actually makes, shedding light on
the nuanced dynamics between these two communities.

1. Historical Context: Solzhenitsyn begins by setting the historical context of Russian-Jewish

relations, highlighting the different experiences and perspectives of both communities. He
acknowledges the long history of anti-Semitism in Russia and the suffering endured by Jews
under the Tsarist regime.

2. Jewish Participation in the Revolutionary Movement: The book examines the significant role
that some Jews played in the Russian revolutionary movement, particularly in the Bolshevik
Revolution of 1917. Solzhenitsyn acknowledges the disproportionate representation of Jews
among the revolutionaries but also notes the diversity of Jewish political views and the presence
of Jews on both sides of the conflict.

3. The Soviet Regime and Religious Persecution: Solzhenitsyn discusses the impact of the Soviet
regime on both Russian and Jewish religious communities. He highlights the persecution faced
by the Russian Orthodox Church and the restrictions placed on Jewish religious practices,
emphasizing the shared suffering of both communities under the atheist Soviet system.

4. Cultural and Intellectual Contributions: The book recognizes the significant cultural and
intellectual contributions made by Jews in Russia, particularly in the fields of literature, music,
and science. Solzhenitsyn acknowledges the enriching influence of Jewish artists, writers, and
thinkers on Russian society.

5. Economic and Social Dynamics: Solzhenitsyn explores the complex economic and social
dynamics between Russians and Jews, including issues such as economic inequality, professional
competition, and social interactions. He acknowledges the challenges faced by both
communities and the need for mutual understanding and cooperation.

6. The Holocaust and World War II: The book examines the impact of the Holocaust on Russian
Jews and the complex relationship between Soviet Jews and the Soviet regime during World
War II. Solzhenitsyn highlights the heroism and sacrifices made by Jews in the fight against Nazi
Germany while also acknowledging the unique challenges and tragedies faced by Soviet Jews
during this period.

7. Post-War Soviet Union and Anti-Semitism: Solzhenitsyn discusses the resurgence of anti-
Semitism in the post-war Soviet Union, particularly under the leadership of Joseph Stalin. He
examines the impact of Soviet policies on Jewish cultural and religious life, as well as the
difficulties faced by Jews in obtaining education and employment opportunities.

8. Emigration and the Collapse of the Soviet Union: The book explores the phenomenon of Jewish
emigration from the Soviet Union, particularly in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Solzhenitsyn

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examines the reasons behind this mass exodus and the impact it had on both the Jewish
community and Russian society as a whole.

"200 Years Together" by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn provides a nuanced and insightful examination of the
complex historical relationship between Russians and Jews. By exploring these nine key points, readers
can gain a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities that have shaped this relationship
over the past two centuries and the importance of fostering mutual understanding and respect in the
future.

This digest presents the entire book summarized in ten-page

increments, allowing you to isolate and access the materials
you need quickly.
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use them to support your papers and presentations.

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Title

COLUMBUS FALCO’S Translation of 200 Years Together by Aleksandr Solzhenitsy

Authors

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Columbus Falco (translator)

Affiliation

Not explicitly mentioned in the provided text.

Keywords

Russian Jews, Russian Revolution, Soviet Union, Zionism, Jewish Emigration, Anti-Semitism, Bolshevism,
GULAG, World War I, World War II

Urls

Github: None

Summary

 The research background of this article is the historical relationship between Jews and Russians
over a span of 200 years, starting from their incorporation into the Russian Empire in 1772 up to
the mass emigration of Jews from the Soviet Union in the 1970s.

 Past methods involved traditional historical narratives that often overlooked or simplified the
complex interactions between Jews and Russians. These methods failed to capture the nuanced
socio-political dynamics and the significant contributions and challenges faced by the Jewish
community. The approach in this book is well-motivated as it aims to provide a comprehensive
and detailed account of these interactions.

 The research methodology proposed in this paper involves a chronological and thematic
exploration of Jewish history in Russia, divided into two volumes: one covering the period
before the revolution and the other focusing on the Soviet era. Each chapter addresses specific
time periods and themes, such as the birth of Zionism, the role of Jews in the revolutionary
movement, and their experiences during the Soviet regime.

 The task is to present an accurate and thorough historical account of Jewish life in Russia. The
performance is measured by the depth of analysis and the breadth of topics covered, which
supports the goal of providing a detailed understanding of the Jewish-Russian entwinement.

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Methods

 Chronological exploration of Jewish history in Russia;

 Thematic analysis of specific periods and events;

 Detailed examination of socio-political dynamics and individual contributions;

 Use of primary sources and historical documents to support narratives.

Conclusion:

 The significance of this piece of work lies in its comprehensive coverage of 200 years of Jewish
history in Russia, offering insights into the socio-political dynamics and contributions of the
Jewish community.

 Innovation point: The book provides a detailed and nuanced narrative that challenges simplified
historical accounts.

 Performance: The depth and breadth of the analysis are commendable, though the translation
process was challenging.

 Workload: The extensive research and translation efforts required to produce this work were
substantial.

Questions you may be interested in:

 What were the main reasons behind the mass emigration of Jews from the Soviet Union in the
1970s?

 How did the Jewish community contribute to the Russian revolutionary movement?

 What were the socio-political dynamics between Jews and Russians during the reign of
Alexander I?

Pages - 0 -- 10

Section 1: Introduction to Judaizing Heresy

 Migration of Jews from Poland to the East in the 15th century.

 Presence of Jewish tax-leasers in Kiev mentioned in 15th-century documents.

 Spread of Judaizing heresy in Novgorod involving rejection of Christianity and glorification of

Judaism.

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Section 2: Spread of Judaizing Heresy

 Zechariah's role in leading astray spirituals Dionis and Aleksei.

 Judaizing heresy characterized by a mixture of Judaism and Christian rationalism.

 Influence of Jewish cabbala in seducing Russians in the 15th century.

Section 3: Response to Judaizing Heresy

 Archbishop Gennadi uncovered the heresy in Novgorod in 1487.

 Council in 1490 sentenced Judaizers to imprisonment and anathematized the heresy.

 Ivan III hesitated to execute the heretics due to their widespread influence.

Section 4: Impact of Judaizing Heresy

 Movement led to a new impetus in spiritual education in Muscovy Rus.

 Archbishop Gennadi associated with collecting and publishing the first church-Slavic Bible.

 The heresy condemned but skepticism towards dogma and church order remained.

Section 5: Political Motivations and Reactions

 Ivan III's political motivations for not standing against the heresy.

 After the Council of 1490, Sossima continued to sponsor a secret society.

 Heretics faced different fates including burning, imprisonment, and fleeing to Lithuania.

Section 6: Treatment of Jews in Russia

 Restrictions on Jewish merchants under Ivan IV the Terrible.

 False Dimitri I baptized both Jews and other foreigners in Moscow.

 Varied treatment of Jews during different reigns in Russia.

Section 7: Jewish Presence in Russia

 Invitation for Jews to stay after the Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667.

 Conversion of some Jews to Christianity and integration into noble families.

 Jewish trade activities and permissions granted by Russian rulers.

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Section 8: Religious Intolerance and Expulsions

 Elisabeth's ukase in 1742 ordering expulsion of Jews from Russia.

 Resistance to the edict by Jews, land proprietors, and state apparatus.

 Catherine II's reign marked by varied treatment of Jews in Russia.

Section 9: Economic Impact and Resistance

 Resistance to the expulsion of Jews due to economic reasons.

 Attempts to move the ruler to relent on the expulsion of Jews.

 Contradictory sources on the number of Jews evicted from Russia.

Section 10: Conclusion on Religious Intolerance

 Religious intolerance in Russia not unique and practiced with cruelty.

 Old Believers persecuted alongside Jews.

 Catherine II's reign marked by varying treatment of Jews in Russia.

Pages - 11 -- 20

Section 1: Jewish Settlement in "New Russia"

 Catherine the Great allowed Jews to settle in "New Russia" between Crimea and Moldavia.

 Jews from Poland and Lithuania migrated to this area for colonization.

 The settlement was organized secretly from Riga, and the nationality of the Jews was kept
somewhat confidential.

Section 2: Jewish Presence in Poland

 Princes and kings in Poland encouraged Jews to settle there, granting them special rights.

 Jews faced alternating periods of rights and repression throughout history.

 Jews played a significant role in business activities, including leasing brandy-distilling operations.

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Section 3: Jewish Migration to Ukraine

 After Tatar devastation, Jews migrated to Ukraine from Podolia and Volhynia.

 The Union of Lublin in 1569 led to increased Jewish migration to regions like Kiev, Poltava, and
Chernigov.

 Jews collaborated with the Polish nobility in colonizing Ukraine, leading to tensions with
Orthodox peasants.

Section 4: Role of Kahal in Jewish Communities

 The Kahal served as an autonomous organization for Jewish congregations in Poland.

 It collected taxes, regulated commerce, and adjudicated disputes within the Jewish community.

 Over time, the Kahal evolved into an oligarchy focused on maintaining its power.

Section 5: Strife and Hardship in Eastern European Jewry

 By the end of the 17th century and into the 18th century, Eastern European Jewry faced
increasing poverty and demoralization.

 The rabbinate held significant power over the Jewish population, maintaining traditional
practices and isolationism.

 Two movements emerged among Eastern European Jewry: religious Hassidim and secular
culture advocates led by Moses Mendelsohn.

Section 6: Integration of Jews in White Russia

 In 1772, White Russia came under Russian rule, granting Jews legal equality with Christians.

 Catherine the Great extended wider rights to Jews, aiming to integrate them into the civil
organism.

 Jews were classified as merchants or townsmen, gaining administrative and judicial power
similar to Christians.

Section 7: Economic Significance of Jewish Merchants

 Jewish merchants played a crucial economic role in rural trade and leased various privileges
from landowners.

 The presence of Jews in villages led to concerns about moral and economic conditions among
the rural population.

 Restrictions were imposed on Jews engaging in the distillation of vodka in villages, leading to
their relocation to cities.

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Section 8: Transition to Urban Life for Jews

 Jews faced challenges transitioning from village-based occupations to urban life.

 The threat of removal from villages sparked indignation and inner-city competition among
Jewish townsmen.

 A commission of the Kehilot sought to cancel measures against Jewish resettlement but faced
resistance from the Czarina.

Section 9: Compromises and Challenges

 Landlords continued to lease schnapps distilling to Jews despite regulations against it.

 The Senate did not enforce relocation of Jews into cities due to the power of Polish proprietors.

 A compromise was reached where Jews would be gradually relocated into cities.

Section 10: Impact of Jewish Citizenship Rights

 Jews gained equal rights as citizens, transforming them into an economic power.

 Jewish merchants were freed from tax obligations to the Kahal and gained more autonomy in
their businesses.

 The integration of Jews into civil society marked a significant social change and enhanced their
practical protection of life interests.

Pages - 21 -- 30

Section 1: Jewish Rights in Villages and Towns

 Jews were permitted to live in villages and retain the right to temporary visits to cities.

 In 1786, Jews were allowed to lease the right to produce and sell alcoholic beverages in villages,
a privilege not granted to Christian merchants and townsmen.

Section 2: Delegation of Kehilot in St Petersburg

 The delegation did not achieve their goal of establishing a separate Jewish court but regained
supervisory rights over Jewish townsmen in 1786.

 This included the division of public benefits, levying poll tax, and adjudicating the right to
separate from the congregation.

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Section 3: Movement of Jewish Merchants

 In 1782, an exception was made for White Russia allowing Jewish merchants to move between
cities for commerce.

 Jewish merchants exploited this right by settling in Moscow and Smolensk, leading to complaints
from local merchants about unfair business practices.

Section 4: Establishment of Pale of Settlement

 The ukase of 1791 prohibited Jews from joining merchant guilds in inner provinces but allowed
limited access to Moscow for trade reasons.

 This ukase unintentionally laid the groundwork for the future Pale of Settlement, granting
privileges to Jewish merchants compared to Christians.

Section 5: Jewish Immigration into New Territories

 Catherine II encouraged Jewish migration to new territories like New Russia but faced challenges
in incentivizing colonization.

 In 1794, Catherine decided to relocate Jews out of villages and imposed double taxes on them,
which proved ineffective in the long run.

Section 6: Reign of Paul I

 Paul I's rule was considered tolerant and benevolent towards the Jewish population.

 He extended rights to Hasidim, allowed Jews to belong to merchant and townsmen classes, and
denied petitions to move Jews out of certain cities.

Section 7: Resistance of Polish Landholders

 Polish landholders resisted changes to their rights over Jews and court jurisdiction.

 Complaints against exploitation by nobles and Jewish leasers highlighted issues faced by Jewish
communities in Poland.

Section 8: Derzhavin's Role in Belarus Famine

 Gavrila Derzhavin investigated a famine in White Russia and took measures to distribute grain to
the poor.

 He identified exploitation by Jewish schnapps distillers and proposed reforms to protect

peasants and regulate liquor production.

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Section 9: Exploitation by Polish Landlords and Jewish Leasers

 Polish landlords and Jewish leasers exploited peasants through unfair trade practices and
alcohol consumption.

 Derzhavin recommended strict regulations on liquor distilling and sales to prevent further
impoverishment of villagers.

Section 10: Recommendations for Peasant Welfare

 Derzhavin proposed confiscation of properties if landlords failed to provide grain for peasants.

 Regulations were suggested to control liquor production, sales, and distribution to improve the
living conditions of villagers.

Pages - 31 -- 40

Section 1: Regulation of Liquor Stores

 Newly-built liquor stores in White Russia to cease use for selling liquor.

 Sale of liquor in these stores forbidden to prevent drunkenness among peasants.

 Jews not permitted to sell liquor or lease liquor stores.

Section 2: Economic Proposals

 Measures to prevent market abuse and scarcity of food in White Russian Province.

 Proposal for public schools teaching Russian, German, and Jewish languages.

Section 3: Critique of Jewish Practices

 Criticism of Jewish teachings promoting isolation and hatred towards other religions.

 Call for moral and political renewal of Jews by returning to the purity of their religion.

Section 4: Views on Assimilation and Work

 Prejudice against assimilation of secular knowledge and working the land not suitable for Jews.

 Suggestions for Jews to pursue education, productive careers, and possibly emigrate for sheep
and crop farming.

Section 5: Concerns about Jewish Community

 Observations on Jewish mysticism, Talmudic teachings, and societal impact.

 Critique of Kahal system leading to poverty among Jewish masses.

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Section 6: Impact of Jews on Economy

 Discussion on the burden of Jewish population on crop farmers in White Russia.

 Role of landlords in shifting responsibilities to Jews and profiting from their presence.

Section 7: Protection and Assistance for Jews

 Advocacy for protection and favor towards Jews by government authorities.

 Recommendations for economic reforms to benefit both White Russian peasants and Jews.

Section 8: Proposed Reforms for Jewish Population

 Measures to reduce number of Jews in villages and improve their living conditions.

 Focus on education, enlightenment, and economic activities for Jews.

Section 9: Opposition from Jewish Community

 Resistance from Kehilot against proposed reforms affecting their income.

 Complaint filed against Derzhavin leading to investigation and opposition.

Section 10: Establishment of Committee for Assimilation

 Formation of Committee for the Assimilation of the Jews to examine Derzhavin's Memorandum.

 Committee members with significant holdings in Poland considering potential loss of income.

Pages - 41 -- 50

Section 1: Committee Members and Jewish Delegates

 Interior Minister Count Kotshubey and Justice Minister Derzhavin were part of the committee.

 The committee invited Jewish delegates from various provinces, including merchants and well-
meaning individuals.

 Notable figures like Nota Notkin, Abram Perets, Yehuda Leib Nevachovich, and Mendel
Satanaver were involved.

Section 2: Committee's Resolution

 The committee aimed to integrate Jews into civil life and education.

 Efforts were made to facilitate Jewish employment in trades and commerce.

 Recommendations included easing restrictions on mobility and promoting wearing ordinary

apparel.

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Section 3: Reaction from Kehiloth

 The Kehiloth expressed opposition to proposed reforms.

 Deputies petitioned the Czar against potential changes.

 Unrest spread throughout the Pale of Settlement.

Section 4: Notkin's Influence

 Nota Notkin organized a Jewish congregation in Petersburg.

 Attempted bribery by Notkin to influence committee decisions was reported.

 Derzhavin disclosed the bribery attempt to the Czar.

Section 5: Regulations of 1804

 Established civil equality for Jews in Russia.

 Provided opportunities in industries like textiles, agriculture, and state aid.

 Allowed Jews to acquire land without serfs and travel outside the Pale temporarily.

Section 6: Impact of Regulations

 Emphasized mastering the local language and changing appearance.

 Confirmed rights to property, personal liberty, and religious freedom.

 Children could attend Russian schools without discrimination.

Section 7: Postponement of Eviction

 Practical difficulties led to postponement of eviction from villages.

 Alexander I created a new committee to address Jewish issues.

 Elections of Jewish deputies were held to assist in implementing regulations.

Section 8: Response to Napoleon's Invasion

 Jews assisted Russian military during Napoleon's invasion.

 Some Jews refused to join French army but provided supplies.

 Russian government acquired more Jews after cession of central Poland.

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Section 9: Expulsion from Villages

 Council of State of the Kingdom of Poland decided to expel Jews from villages.

 Warsaw kahal appealed to the Russian Emperor for rights to engage in commerce.

 Senate Rules of 1818 criticized Jewish leasers and liquor sellers.

Section 10: Decembrist Pestel's Observations

 Pestel's observations highlighted Jewish isolation and trade dominance.

 Criticized Jewish rabbis for maintaining isolation and accumulating wealth.

 Addressed the special status and rights of Jews compared to Christians in Russia.

Pages - 51 -- 60

Section 1: Prohibitions Against Jewish Activities

 General economic and other prohibitions against Jewish activities during the last years of
Alexander I's reign.

 Christians were reported to be adopting Jewish customs and rituals, leading to concerns among
authorities.

 Decision taken to prohibit Jews from hiring Christian servants, with limited success due to mass
poverty among Jews.

Section 2: Suppression of Jewish Abuses

 Steps taken to suppress Jewish abuses in response to the rapid development of the sect of
Subbotniks in various provinces.

 Expulsion of Jews charged with "grievous bondage" of peasants and Cossacks from rural areas of
Chernigov and Poltava provinces.

 Government efforts to combat smuggling and corruption by Jews along the western border of
Russia.

Section 3: The "New Russia" Experiment

 Efforts to relocate unproductive Jewish population to New Russia for agricultural work.

 Allocation of land grants and generous benefits for Jewish immigrants to encourage settlement
in New Russia.

 Challenges faced in implementing the resettlement plan due to Jewish resistance and
organizational limitations.

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Section 4: Settlers' Reluctance Towards Agriculture

 Reluctance of Jewish settlers to engage in agricultural work despite government incentives.

 Problems with land titles, lack of basic agricultural knowledge among Jewish settlers.

 Settlers' evasion of tillage and preference for returning to their former trades.

Section 5: Failures and Mismanagement in Jewish Colonies

 Mismanagement of resources and funds in Jewish colonies leading to failures in agriculture.

 Lack of care for livestock and property, complaints about lack of clothing and food.

 Inadequate administration, discrepancies in record-keeping, and abuse of government support.

Section 6: Suspension of Jewish Settlement Program

 Temporary suspension of the Jewish settlement program in New Russia in 1810 due to failures
and mismanagement.

 Restoration of rights for Jews to sell wine in state-owned villages, leading to many settlers
leaving New Russia.

 Government's realization of the failure of the resettlement project and challenges in recovering
funds spent.

Section 7: Challenges Faced by Jewish Settlers

 Complaints from Jewish settlers about solid prairie land, crop failures, lack of water and fuel,
and poor climate.

 Comparison with German colonists and Mennonites who prospered in similar conditions.

 Movement for extension of tax exemptions and benefits for Jewish settlers.

Section 8: Restrictions on Jewish-Christian Relations

 Government forbidding Jews from taking Christians into their service in 1820.

 Cases of runaway serfs joining Jewish colonies and working for Jewish farmers.

 End of tax exemption for Jewish settlers in 1817, leading to requests for extension of benefits.

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Section 9: Golitsyn's Decision on Tax Exemption

 Golitsyn's decision to extend Jews' tax exemption for 5 years after the end of the initial 10-year
exemption period.

 Golitsyn's role as Minister of Education and Religious Affairs dealing with matters related to
Jews.

 Collective petitions from settlers and officials requesting an extension of benefits for Jewish
settlers.

Section 10: Overall Impact and Consequences

 Overall impact of the government's resettlement efforts on Jewish settlers and the challenges
faced.

 Consequences of mismanagement, resistance from Jewish settlers, and the failure of the
resettlement project.

 Long-term implications of the government's policies and decisions on Jewish communities in

Russia.

Pages - 61 -- 70

Section 1: Jewish Life in the Early 19th Century

 Ilier Menashe highlighted poverty and large families among Jewish colonists.

 Menashe emphasized the need for Jews to engage in productive work for livelihood.

 Concerns were raised about Jews turning to deceptive practices due to economic challenges.

Section 2: Economic Activities of Jewish Communities

 Jewish populations engaged in commercial and industrial activities.

 Some Jewish communities were prosperous and involved in extensive trade.

 Satisfaction was a common feature of Jewish life, despite varying economic conditions.

Section 3: Psychological Characteristics of Russian Jewry

 Russian Jewry exhibited constant vigilance towards their fate and identity.

 Adaptation to new conditions was seen as a collective rather than individual effort.

 Unity and coalescence defined Russian Jewry in the first half of the 19th century.

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Section 4: Cultural Changes in Eastern European Judaism

 Eastern European Judaism experienced cultural impoverishment in the 18th century.

 The Haskalah movement in Prussia aimed at combining Jewish culture with European
knowledge.

 The Haskalah movement spread to Slavic provinces with an assimilation bias.

Section 5: Government Policies Towards Jewish Education

 Russian government aimed to overcome Jewish isolation outside of religion.

 Efforts to introduce secular education faced resistance from Jewish ruling class and Hasidism.

 Authors like Isaac Ber Levinsohn advocated for cultural reform in Judaism with state support.

Section 6: Challenges in Implementing Secular Education

 Resistance to secular education in Jewish environments persisted in Russia.

 Efforts to secularize Jewish education faced opposition from traditional educators.

 Success in secularizing Jewish education was achieved in some regions like Vilna and Odessa.

Section 7: Impact of Russian Jewry Development

 The development of Russian Jewry had historic consequences for Russia and humanity.

 Concentration of will led to a vibrant and varied life for Russian Jewry by the mid-19th century.

Section 8: Nicholas I's Policies Towards Russian Jewry

 Nicholas I initiated many official acts against Jews during his reign.

 Nicholas I believed in existing prejudices regarding Jewish faith being a danger to Christians.

 Measures were taken against quasi-Jewish sects and Judaizers during Nicholas I's rule.

Section 9: Conscription of Jews

 Nicholas I introduced conscription for young Jewish men to reduce non-productive labor.

 Resistance and evasion were widespread among Jews facing conscription.

 Loopholes in the conscription law allowed exemptions for certain occupations and education
levels.

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Section 10: Challenges in Implementing Jewish Conscription

 Opposition from various sectors delayed the implementation of conscription for Jews.

 Kahals exerted influence to protect Jewish population from conscription.

 Nicholas I eventually introduced conscription for Jews in 1827.

Pages - 71 -- 80

Section 1: Jewish Conscription and Taxation

 In 1829, Nicholas I attempted to conscript excess Jewish recruits to cover unpaid back taxes
from the Jewish community.

 Abuse of this measure led to its halt due to evasion by both local authorities and Jews.

 Russian legislation imposed greater obligations on Jews due to their perceived alien nature.

Section 2: Creation of Cantonments

 Nicholas I aimed to convert Jews into ordinary Russian citizens through projects like creating
cantonments for Jewish boys.

 The cantonments were meant to provide military training and secular education to young Jews.

 Local Kahals sometimes exploited the provision to send 12-year-old boys instead of more
desirable recruits.

Section 3: Conditions in the Imperial Army

 Soldiers were allowed to marry and live with families during service.

 Jewish soldiers found it challenging to maintain religious practices in the army.

 Efforts were made to secularize Jewish youngsters in cantonment schools.

Section 4: Failed Attempts at Jewish Transformation

 Various committees and measures were established to transform Jews into productive citizens.

 Nicholas I introduced Jewish conscription and expulsion from certain areas but faced challenges
in enforcement.

 Efforts to compel Jews into physical labor and farming largely failed.

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Section 5: Development of Jewish Economic Activities

 Jewish tax farmers played a significant role in Imperial Russia's economy.

 Jewish capitalists invested in industries like sugar mills and textile milling.

 Some prominent Jewish figures transitioned from tavern owners to successful financiers.

Section 6: Nicholas I's Autocratic Policies

 Nicholas I sought to mold Russian society according to his vision, including addressing the
"Jewish problem."

 Measures included compulsory job training for Jews and restrictions on traditional Jewish
practices.

 Efforts to assimilate Jews into Russian society faced resistance and limited success.

Section 7: Classification and Labor Measures

 Minister Count Kiselyov proposed classifying Jews based on wealth and productivity.

 Non-productive Jews were to undergo compulsory job training or special military service.

 Laws were enacted to dismantle the Kahal, establish provincial rabbis, and promote secular
education.

Section 8: Challenges in Jewish Agriculture

 Efforts to encourage Jewish farming faced resistance and failures.

 Many Jews avoided agriculture and manual labor, preferring non-manual trades.

 Despite incentives, most Jews did not engage in agricultural activities.

Section 9: European Reaction and Policy Changes

 The Russian government announced policies to restrict Jewish activities in Poland and
encourage migration to the interior.

 Jews received increased civil and economic rights in Russia, aiming to integrate them into
Russian commercial life.

 Decrees aimed to address complaints about Jewish existence at the expense of others.

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Section 10: Legacy of Expulsions and Double Taxation

 Historical accounts recall mass expulsions, double taxation, and establishment of the Pale of
Settlement.

 Jews enjoyed legal status and economic benefits superior to Gentiles in Czarist Russia.

 Decrees aimed to address Jewish separation from civil society and complaints about their mode
of existence.

Pages - 81 -- 90

Section 1: Background on Jewish Education and Practical Knowledge

 The Jewish population in Russia needed education and practical knowledge.

 The government proposed establishing a special Jewish secondary school to facilitate the
transition to farming.

 Successive Czarist governments were hesitant to fully let go of the idea of transitioning Jews to
farming.

Section 2: Moses Montefiore's Mission in Russia

 Sir Moses Montefiore arrived in Russia in 1846 with a letter from Queen Victoria to Nicholas I.

 His mission was to improve the plight of the Jewish people in Russia.

 Montefiore proposed releasing Jews from restrictive legislation and granting them equality with
other subjects.

Section 3: Resistance to Conscription Among Jews

 Enhanced resistance to conscription among Jews led to widespread evasion.

 A new order in 1850 mandated seizing three individuals for every recruit who failed to report for
duty.

 The Jewish community hired "snatchers" to capture draft dodgers, leading to internal conflicts.

Section 4: Additional Statutes on Conscription

 In 1852, two new statutes were introduced to address the shortage of recruits.

 One statute offered rewards for extra men surrendered to recruiters.

 Another law penalized those who fled from conscription and allowed the army to take leaders
responsible for manpower supply.

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Section 5: Changes During Alexander II's Reign

 Alexander II addressed the Peasant Question and the Jewish Question upon ascending the
throne.

 He made Jews equal in military duty and abolished underage recruitment.

 The Coronation Manifesto of 1856 confirmed the equality of Jewish recruits.

Section 6: Integration Policies Under Alexander II

 Alexander II aimed to integrate the Jewish population with native inhabitants.

 Committees were established to revise statutes on Jews and harmonize them with integration
strategies.

 Restrictions on Jews were gradually removed under Alexander II's reign.

Section 7: Abolition of Prohibitions on Jews

 In 1859, prohibitions on Jews acquiring exclusive rights to revenue sources were abolished.

 Tax farming and "wine farming" systems were also abolished, impacting Jewish enterprises.

 Jews were granted rights to lease and purchase land within the Pale of Settlement.

Section 8: Impact on Jewish Businesses

 Development of railroads and liberal customs tariffs affected Jewish businesses.

 Prohibitions on Jews acquiring revenue sources were lifted in 1861.

 Changes in the spirits trade industry had significant implications for Jewish entrepreneurs.

Section 9: Expansion of Jewish Distillation Enterprises

 By the 1880s, a significant percentage of distillation factories in the Pale of Settlement were
owned by Jews.

 Jews were permitted to run distillation in Siberia and reside everywhere from 1865.

 Jewish families began hiring Christian servants in the late 1860s.

Section 10: Challenges and Victories for Jews in Russia

 Scholars often overlooked hard-won victories for Jews in Russia.

 Committees recommended abolishing legal restrictions on Jews, but projects were not
implemented.

 Discussions on abolishing the Jewish Pale of Settlement began after initial reforms by Alexander
II.

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Pages - 91 -- 100

Section 1: Petition for Privileges

 Jewish merchants and citizens of St. Petersburg petitioned the Czar for privileges for certain
categories of Jews.

 The petition aimed to grant privileges to the young generation raised under government
supervision and to good craftsmen.

 They sought distinctions by the government based on merit, encouraging praiseworthy actions
among Jews.

Section 2: Gradual Relaxation of Restrictions

 In 1859, Jewish merchants of the 1st Guild were granted residency rights in all of Russia.

 From 1861, university graduates and persons of free professions were granted universal
residency rights.

 Restrictions on Jews entering medical academies and technical institutes were lifted gradually.

Section 3: Expansion of Rights

 By 1865, the whole territory of Russia, including St. Petersburg, was opened to Jewish artisans
during their professional activity.

 The definition of artisans was broadened to include various technicians like typesetters.

 Merchants relocated with their staff, expanding the Jewish presence outside the Pale of
Settlement.

Section 4: Calls for Abolition of the Pale

 In 1862, calls were made for the complete abolition of the Jewish Pale of Settlement.

 Various ministers and governors advocated for granting universal residency to the entire Jewish
population.

 Targeted permissions for residency were issued at a slower but constant rate.

Section 5: Impact of Reforms on Jewish Population

 The rapid growth of the Jewish population posed a significant state problem for Russia.

 The abolition of serfdom in 1861 had adverse effects on many Jews economically.

 Despite some relief measures, the situation of Jews in Russia remained dismal.

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Section 6: Land Ownership Restrictions

 Restrictions on Jews owning or renting real estate varied across regions.

 Efforts were made to limit Jewish land rental in certain areas to prevent economic imbalances.

 The Commission for Arranging the Jewish Way of Life reviewed proposals related to land
ownership restrictions.

Section 7: Conscription and Military Service

 Jewish families fled before official recruit enrollment due to the burdensome nature of military
service.

 Jewish service in the Guards was permitted from 1860 onwards.

 Military service for Jews was considered threatening, ruinous, and burdensome.

Section 8: Economic Advancement Restrictions

 Restrictions on Jews owning or renting real estate were imposed in areas inhabited by the Don
Cossacks.

 The prohibition aimed to protect the Cossack economy and prevent uneven distribution of
capital.

 The Cossacks' military service on their own horses contributed to their prosperity.

Section 9: Rapid Growth of Jewish Population

 The Jewish population of Russia grew rapidly, reaching 1,500,000 in 1864.

 By 1880, the Jewish population in Moscow was around 16,000, and in Kiev, it reached 81,000 by
1913.

 The growth of the Jewish population posed challenges for both Jews and the Russian
administration.

Section 10: Historical Significance

 The rapid growth of Russian Jewry had significant historical implications.

 The liberation of peasants and abolition of serfdom in 1861 had adverse effects on many Jews.

 The situation of Jews in Russia remained challenging despite some improvements in rights and
opportunities.

Pages - 101 -- 110

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Section 1: Jewish Conscription Avoidance Tactics

 Jews avoided conscription by purchasing old recruit discharges, hiring volunteers, and dividing
families into smaller units.

 Russian peasants preferred farming over military service, surprising some observers.

Section 2: Military Service Regulations for Jews

 In 1874, a unified regulation on universal military service provided relief to Jews but restricted
their residence in interior provinces post-service.

 Special regulations were introduced to determine the male Jewish population accurately and
prevent evasion of military duty.

Section 3: Shortfall of Jewish Recruits

 In 1880, the shortfall of Jewish recruits in the Russian Empire was significant, reaching 92%.

 From 1876 to 1894, varying percentages of Jewish recruits failed to report for duty compared to
Christians.

Section 4: Jewish Soldiers in Russo-Turkish War

 Despite issues with contractors, Jewish soldiers displayed courage and resourcefulness during
the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878.

 The army faced irritation due to dishonest contractor-quartermasters, many of whom were
Jewish.

Section 5: Decline of Jewish Agriculture

 Efforts to accustom Jews to agriculture failed after the repeal of disproportionate conscription
obligations.

 Jewish colonists showed little interest in farming, leading to neglect of land and reliance on
leasing to others.

Section 6: State of Jewish Colonies

 Reports indicated general Jewish dislike for farm work and preference for trade and business
opportunities.

 Authorities observed that Jewish colonies were incapable of independent existence in the new
free situation.

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Section 7: Reforms and Abandonment of Jewish Agriculture

 Alexander II ordered an end to laws aimed at turning Jews into farmers in 1866.

 Legal means were provided for Jews to abandon agriculture and engage in artisan and merchant
activities.

Section 8: Hostility Towards Jewish Farmers

 Peasants adjacent to Jewish colonies resented high land rental prices and destruction of Jewish
settlements occurred.

 Unused land from Jewish settlements was reclaimed by the government for redistribution to
peasants.

Section 9: Soviet Author's Perspective on Jewish Agriculture

 A Soviet author criticized Jews for poor diligence in farming and leaving for commercial and
artisan occupations.

 The author acknowledged external factors like changing colonization rules and lack of
agricultural preparation.

Section 10: Failure of Jewish Agricultural Colonization

 After 80 years of effort, Russian attempts to compel Jews toward arable farming failed.

 Experience in Palestine showed Jewish settlers excelled in farming, contrasting with the failure
of Jewish agricultural colonization in Russia.

Pages - 111 -- 120

Jewish Participation in Commercial Life

 Orshansky debunked the opinion that Jewish merchants always support each other in
commerce.

 He attributed the Jewish corporate spirit to social and religious matters, not commerce.

 Jews fiercely compete against each other in commerce.

 Halacha prescribing separation of spheres of activity gradually disappeared for Jews.

 Jewish trade does not exclusively consist of exploitation; they find new sales markets.

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Financial Role of Jews in Russia

 Jewish commercial and industrial entrepreneurship quickly recovered after significant blows in
1861.

 Jewish capitalists played a prominent role in organizing land banks.

 Jewish capital flowed into various industries like sugar, flour-milling, and factories.

 Jews were heavily involved in the grain business and timber trade.

 Jews made significant contributions to the economic development of Russia.

Prominent Jewish Capitalists

 Wealthy Jewish bourgeoisie was loyal to the monarchy during Alexander II's reign.

 Jewish capitalists like Gintsburgs, Polyakovs, and Brodskys amassed great wealth.

 Jewish involvement in railroad construction led to the creation of prominent capital.

 Jewish industrialists played a key role in various industries across Russia.

 Jewish entrepreneurs found success in different sectors, accumulating wealth rapidly.

Jewish Involvement in Public Life

 Jews were allowed to enter government service with no restrictions on job ladder movement.

 Jews could attain hereditary nobility status upon reaching Full State Advisor rank.

 Jews were visible in town councils and municipal executive councils.

 Judicial statutes of 1864 had no restrictions for Jews entering legal professions.

 Municipal reform aimed to limit Jewish representation in town institutions.

Education Reforms for Jews

 Government encouraged Jews to enroll in general education institutions.

 Measures were taken to ease Jewish admissions into schools.

 Jewish students' percentage in Russian schools reached 3.2% by 1863.

 After military reform in 1874, Jewish education saw a significant increase.

 Jewish representation in universities grew substantially by the late 19th century.

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Challenges in Propagating Education Among Jewish Masses

 Jewish masses remained faithful to traditional cheder education.

 Modern universal culture spread slowly among Jewish masses.

 Russian language mastery and reduction of specifically Jewish subjects were emphasized.

 Specialized Jewish schools were transformed into primary schools and teacher training colleges.

 Government sought to integrate Jewish education to reduce alienation.

Abolition of Kahal System

 Yakov Brafman exposed and explained the Kahal system to the government.

 The Book of Kahal revealed the powerlessness of community members under the Kahal system.

 Brafman's work instilled hatred towards Jews and spread misconceptions.

 A government commission verified Brafman's work at the demand of the Jewish community.

 Brafman claimed that governmental laws cannot destroy the malicious force of Jewish self-
administration.

Pages - 121 -- 130

Section 1: Brafman's Views on the Talmud

 Brafman viewed the Talmud as a civil and political code rather than a national and religious one.

 He believed that the Talmud hindered the political and moral development of Christian nations.

 Brafman accused Jewish organizations like the Society for the Advancement of Enlightenment
among the Jews of Russia and the Alliance Israélite Universelle of being part of a Jewish world
conspiracy.

Section 2: The State Council's Response

 The State Council aimed to mitigate the radical views presented in The Book of Kahal.

 They highlighted the need to weaken social connections within Jewish communities and
promote education among Jews.

 Efforts were made to eliminate the attitudes of seclusion and hostility towards Christians
prevalent in Jewish communities.

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Section 3: Evolution of Jewish Enlightenment

 The Haskalah Movement of the 1840s was based on German culture and lacked knowledge of
Russian culture.

 By the 1860s, Russian influences began shaping the Jewish Enlightenment movement.

 Secularization of Jewish consciousness faced challenges due to the strong religiosity ingrained
over centuries.

Section 4: Emergence of Jewish Periodical Press

 The Jewish periodical press in the Russian language emerged as a new social force.

 Publications like Rassvet aimed to disseminate knowledge, promote Russian language learning,
and address communal issues.

 The press faced opposition from conservative Jewish circles and sparked debates within the
community.

Section 5: Shift in Jewish Intellectual Life

 Jewish intellectuals in Russia started gravitating towards Russian culture in the 1860s.

 Prominent figures like S. Dubnov, M. Krol, and G. Sliozberg emerged during this period.

 The Jewish intelligentsia played a role in cultural and political life, aligning with Russian values
and aspirations.

Section 6: Development in Odessa

 Odessa became a hub for Jewish grain trade and commerce in the mid-19th century.

 Jews held dominant positions in grain commerce, export, and other business activities.

 Odessa's prosperity and diverse population contributed to the growth of Russian Jewry.

Section 7: Assimilation and Russification

 Educated Jews in Russia accelerated their adoption of Russian language and culture.

 Assimilation with the Russian intelligentsia was sought due to rejection by the ruling class.

 The goal was complete blending with Russian society while preserving religious identity.

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Section 8: Influence of Veniamin Portugalov

 Portugalov advocated for dissolving Jewish life into European peoples, particularly the Russian
people.

 He emphasized the necessity of freeing Jewish life from ritualism and promoting assimilation.

 Portugalov's ideas influenced the Judeo-Christian movement of the 1880s.

Section 9: Jewish Loyalty to Russia

 Affluent Jews outside the Pale of Settlement showed loyalty to Russia as their homeland.

 Jewish conversions to Christianity decreased under Alexander II's reign.

 Jewish patriotism and monarchism grew, with admiration for Alexander II.

Section 10: Russification Efforts and Limits

 Russian authorities encouraged socialization between Jewish and Russian youth for re-
education.

 Jewish patriotism had limits, with a focus on becoming free citizens in a civilized country.

 The Czarist government saw the Russification of Jews as desirable for eradicating hostility
towards Christians.

Pages - 131 -- 140

Section 1: Russian Patriotism and Jewish Question

 Levanda believed that one must be a Russian patriot only when the Jewish Question is resolved
satisfactorily.

 A Jewish author emphasized unconditional love for the Motherland without any conditions or
pre-conditions.

Section 2: Integration of Jewry into Russian Civil Society

 Small groups of Jewry integrated into Russian civil society, mainly in commercial and industrial
centers.

 The wider Jewish masses remained isolated from both Russian society and the Jewish
intelligentsia in the 1860s and 1870s.

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Section 3: Opposition to Assimilation by Jewish Intelligentsia

 Some members of the Jewish intelligentsia opposed assimilation with the Russian character in
the late 1860s.

 Perets Smolensky and poet I. Gordon advocated for preserving Jewish national identity amidst
assimilation trends.

Section 4: Influence of St. Petersburg Journals on Jewish Identity

 Journals like Rassvet and Russkiy Evrei promoted the study of Jewish history and contemporary
life among Jewish youth.

 Cosmopolitan and national directions in Russian Jewry became distinct in the late 1870s and
early 1880s.

Section 5: Role of Alliance Israélite Universelle

 The Alliance worked to defend the interests of Jewry worldwide, including addressing issues
faced by Russian Jews.

 Yakov Brafman criticized the Alliance, accusing it of shielding Jewry from Christian civilization's
influence.

Section 6: Impact of Military Service Obligation on Jews

 After the 1874 military charter, more Jews entered public schools and institutions of higher
learning.

 Calls to restrict Jewish enrollment in public education institutions arose due to constraints on
the Christian population.

Section 7: Attitudes of Russian Intelligentsia towards Jews

 The Russian press, particularly rightist publications, favored equal civil rights for Jews but raised
concerns about their integration.

 Bureaucratic circles leaned towards resolving the Jewish Question through emancipation in the
1870s.

Section 8: Reaction to Emancipation Efforts

 Sir Moses Montefiore, Benjamin Disraeli, and Bismarck pressured Russian authorities for Jewish
emancipation.

 Count Loris-Melikov's appointment as Minister of the Interior raised hopes for Jewish
emancipation in Russia.

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Section 9: Assassination of Alexander II and Jewish Pogroms

 The assassination of Alexander II led to Jewish pogroms in Novorossiya and Ukraine six weeks
later.

 Pogroms were spontaneous, fueled by incendiary posters and promises of easy money,
targeting Jewish shops and homes.

Section 10: Spread and Suppression of Pogroms

 Pogroms spread to various settlements, with incidents in Elizavetgrad, Anan’ev, Kiev, Konotop,
and other regions.

 Troops intervened to suppress the pogroms, with varying levels of violence and property
damage reported across different locations.

Pages - 141 -- 150

Section 1: Pogroms in Ekaterinoslav and Poltava Guberniyas

 Pogroms broke out in separate areas in Ekaterinoslav and Poltava guberniyas, including
Aleksandrovsk, Romni, Nezhin, Pereyaslavl, and Borisov.

 Insignificant disorders occurred in Melitopol Uezd.

 Peasants sometimes immediately compensated Jews for their losses.

Section 2: Pogrom Movement in Kishinev

 Pogrom movement in Kishinev in April 1881 was nipped in the bud.

 No pogroms in Byelorussia that year or in the following years.

 Panic among Jews in Minsk due to rumors about pogroms in the Southwestern Krai.

Section 3: Pogroms in Odessa

 History of sporadic Jewish pogroms in Odessa in the 19th century.

 1871 saw a three-day pogrom of Jewish taverns, shops, and homes without human fatalities.

 Hostility towards Jews from Greek merchants and Christian population in Odessa.

Section 4: Enforcement Against Pogroms

 Count N.P. Ignatiev suppressed pogroms as the new Minister of Interior Affairs.

 Use of firearms by soldiers to defend Jews against pogromists.

 Acknowledgment of insufficient preparedness by the government.

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Section 5: Accusations Against the Czarist Government

 Unsubstantiated accusations that the government arranged the pogroms.

 Researchers found no proof of government involvement in instigating pogroms.

 Malicious slander against Czar Alexander III's reputation.

Section 6: Exaggeration of Pogrom Violence

 Renewal of pogroms in 1882 but not on the same scale as in 1881.

 Reports of one Jew killed during the Balta pogrom.

 Discrepancies in casualty figures reported by different sources.

Section 7: Causes of Pogroms Examined

 Economic factors cited as causes of the first pogroms.

 Hatred and hostility towards Jews due to economic dominance.

 Views on the role of social injustice in inciting pogroms.

Section 8: Government Response to Pogroms

 Authorities believed anarchists exploited hatred towards Jews.

 Public perception of government involvement in pogroms varied.

 Role of Narodnaya Vol’ya and Black Repartition in inciting rebellion.

Section 9: Influence of Revolutionaries

 Socialists viewed pogroms as training for revolutionary action.

 Tkachev welcomed the broadening pogrom movement.

 Popular conception of Czar's murder influencing public sentiment.

Section 10: Manipulation of Pogrom Narratives

 Exaggeration of pogrom violence over time.

 Different interpretations of historical events by modern authors.

 Influence of political agendas on historical narratives.

Pages - 151 -- 160

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Section 1: Pogrom Instigation by Agitators

 Agitators were believed to instigate pogroms, spreading rumors like "they are hiding the order
of the Czar" to incite violence against Jews.

 People participating in the pogroms believed they were acting legally, convinced that a Czar's
decree permitted the destruction of Jewish property.

Section 2: Revolutionary Leaflets and Narodnaya Vol’ya

 Revolutionary leaflets from groups like Narodnaya Vol’ya fueled anti-Jewish sentiments.

 The leaflets portrayed Jews as exploiters and called for action against them.

Section 3: Views of Prominent Writers

 Writers like I. S. Aksakov opposed full civil liberty for Jews, citing concerns about their impact on
Russian society.

 M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin criticized the inhumane treatment of Jews and questioned blaming the
entire Jewish population for the actions of a few.

Section 4: Press Coverage and Public Opinion

 Contemporary press coverage highlighted differing views on the Jewish Question.

 Some defended Jews, while others saw them as pioneers of capitalism exploiting the
community.

Section 5: Government Response and Commissions

 Government commissions were established to examine the Jewish Question and propose
solutions.

 Measures were considered to restrict Jewish economic activities and integration with the native
population.

Section 6: Vilnius Commission Recommendations

 The Vilnius Commission suggested restrictions on Jewish residence and economic activities.

 Calls were made for Jews to renounce seclusion and integrate into society.

Section 7: Resistance to Proposed Measures

 Some administrators and ministers opposed extensive prohibitive measures against Jews.

 Debate arose over the necessity of adopting restrictive policies without proper legislative
process.

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Section 8: Implementation of Temporary Regulations

 Temporary Regulations of 1882 restricted Jewish residence outside towns and shtetls.

 These regulations aimed to prevent further pogroms and control Jewish economic activities.

Section 9: Impact of May Regulations

 The May Regulations limited Jewish ownership of real estate and trading activities.

 Ignatiev's proposed measures faced resistance and were only partially implemented.

Section 10: Conclusion and Ministerial Changes

 Count D. A. Tolstoy issued directives to prevent new pogroms after the implementation of the
May Regulations.

 Ignatiev retired, and the Committee on the Jews ceased to exist, marking a shift in government
response to the Jewish Question.

Pages - 161 -- 170

Section 1: Overview of Jewish Settlement Restrictions

 Restrictions on Jewish settlement outside towns and shtetls were imposed in the Russian
Empire.

 Exceptions were made for certain professions like doctors, attorneys, and engineers.

 Existing Jewish colonies engaged in agriculture were allowed to continue.

 Senate clarifications provided some leniency regarding temporary stays and notarization of
agreements.

Section 2: Impact of Regulations on Jewish Population

 Approximately one-third of the Jewish population in the Pale lived in villages in 1882.

 The May Regulations restricted further growth of Jewish settlements in rural areas.

 These regulations are considered a significant factor in the start of Jewish emigration from
Russia.

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Section 3: Historical Context of Jewish Emigration

 Jewish emigration from Russia began in the mid-19th century and increased after the pogroms
of 1881.

 Different waves of Jewish emigration to the United States occurred over time.

 Overcrowding and economic competition were key drivers of Jewish emigration.

Section 4: Factors Influencing Jewish Emigration

 Poland, Lithuania, and Byelorussia contributed the most emigrants from the Russian Empire.

 Economic factors and inter-Jewish competition played a role in emigration trends.

 Pogroms of 1881-1882 had varying impacts across different regions.

Section 5: Shift in Jewish Assimilation Views

 Progressive and educated Jewry began distancing from assimilation hopes after the 1881
pogroms.

 Notable changes in attitudes toward Russia and assimilation were observed among Russian
Jews.

 Pogroms were seen as spontaneous, leading to a shift in Jewish perspectives.

Section 6: Influence of Pogroms on Jewish Identity

 Pogroms of the 1880s led to a sobering effect on assimilation advocates.

 Some Jewish publicists believed Jews could not live among other peoples without being viewed
as alien.

 The Palestinian Movement gained momentum post-pogroms.

Section 7: Publication of "Auto-Emancipation"

 Dr. Lev Pinsker's brochure "Auto-Emancipation" highlighted the perpetual foreignness of Jews.

 The publication influenced Jewish communities in Russia and Europe.

 It marked a turning point in Jewish self-perception and relations with surrounding populations.

Section 8: Palenskaya Commission and Jewish Legislation

 The Palenskaya Commission aimed to revise laws concerning Jews in the Russian Empire.

 Majority of the Commission advocated for equalizing rights for Jews and gradual reforms.

 Efforts were made to mitigate the restrictive laws, particularly regarding land renting by Jews.

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Section 9: Military Service and Jewish Conscription

 Shortfall of Jewish conscripts for military service led to stricter measures during Alexander III's
reign.

 Difficulties in implementing conscription rules for Jews were noted.

 Stricter laws and fines were introduced to ensure Jewish conscription compliance.

Section 10: Education and Jewish Influx in Learning Institutions

 Increase in Jewish students in gymnasiums and universities raised concerns among regional
authorities.

 Proposals to limit the number of Jewish students in schools were discussed but not
implemented.

 Students became involved in revolutionary activities, contributing to government concerns

about the spread of unrest.

Pages - 171 -- 180

Section 1: Increase in Jewish participation in revolutionary movements

 Jews among students contributed to the rise of revolutionary activities.

 The Medical-Surgical Academy saw a surge in Jewish student enrollment.

 Quotas limiting Jewish admissions were imposed in various institutions from 1882 onwards.

Section 2: February Revolution and Jewish emancipation

 The 1917 February Revolution marked the end of unequal citizenship for Jews in Russia.

 Newspapers during the initial days of the revolution focused on denouncing the past.

 Calls for rebuilding Russian society were accompanied by demands for Jewish equality.

Section 3: Rapid advancements in Jewish equality post-revolution

 Various government officials swiftly enacted measures to repeal restrictions based on religion
and nationality.

 Actions included allowing Jews to become military officers and eliminating percentage quotas
on Jewish admissions.

 Legislative acts were passed to abolish anti-Jewish statutes, significantly improving the situation
for Jews.

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Section 4: Emotional responses to Jewish emancipation

 Public figures and intellectuals expressed joy and relief at the newfound Jewish equality.

 Declarations and speeches highlighted the significance of the legislative acts for Jewish
liberation.

 Plans were made to commemorate the event with symbolic gestures like building a "House of
Freedom."

Section 5: Judicial changes and investigations post-emancipation

 Shifts in the judiciary system led to investigations and arrests of individuals involved in anti-
Semitic activities.

 Notable figures like General Batyushin faced legal repercussions for their actions.

 Investigations revealed corruption and extortion practices within certain commissions.

Section 6: Pursuit of Judeophobes and anti-Semitic individuals

 Known or suspected anti-Semites were actively pursued and arrested.

 Individuals involved in cases against Jews faced consequences for their actions.

 Efforts were made to prevent potential pogroms and ethnic antagonism.

Section 7: Prevention of anti-Jewish riots

 Special commissions were formed to monitor and prevent potential pogroms.

 Military units were put on high alert to deter anti-Jewish violence.

 Rumors of impending pogroms circulated but did not materialize.

Section 8: Absence of anti-Jewish pogroms post-emancipation

 Despite rumors and reports of planned pogroms, no significant anti-Jewish violence occurred.

 Measures were taken to counteract incitement and prevent outbreaks of ethnic violence.

 The atmosphere of the time made realistic the prevention of anti-Jewish pogroms.

Section 9: Continued vigilance against anti-Semitic threats

 Ongoing efforts were made to address and counter potential anti-Semitic sentiments.

 Authorities remained alert to prevent any resurgence of anti-Jewish violence.

 Vigilance was maintained to safeguard Jewish communities from discrimination and harm.

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Section 10: Reflections on the impact of Jewish emancipation

 Despite challenges and uncertainties, the formal legislative act significantly improved the
situation for Jews.

 The broader context of societal upheaval and political changes influenced the outcomes of
Jewish emancipation.

 The significance of the legislative acts in improving Jewish rights should not be underestimated.

Pages - 181 -- 190

Section 1: Political Provocation

 Newspapers, liberal leaders, and socialist intellectuals were accused of political provocation.

 Incidents like a girl stealing from a Jewish shop in Kiev and anger over high prices in Rogachevsky
district led to tensions.

 Jewish emancipation faced hostility in Finland and Romania.

Section 2: Jewish Emancipation in Finland

 Jews faced restrictions in Finland, including limitations on residency, citizenship, marriage, and
court testimony.

 Despite attempts to improve civil rights for Jews in Finland, the situation did not change.

 Finland did not legislate Jewish equality even after Russia granted equal rights to Jews.

Section 3: Persecution of Jews in Romania

 Reports of persecution of Jews in Romania raised alarms post-February Revolution.

 Romanian Prime Minister promised equality for Jews but failed to act on it.

 Jews were blamed for military defeats in Romania, leading to unbearable conditions for them.

Section 4: International Response to February Revolution

 Allies of the February Revolution expressed deep satisfaction and support.

 Large meetings in Great Britain and the USA supported the Revolution and Jewish rights.

 British government trusted the new Russian government regarding guarantees for Russian Jews.

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Section 5: Support from International Figures

 Jacob Schiff, a leader hostile to Russian absolutism, congratulated Russia on the Revolution.

 Schiff provided credit to the Kerensky government and was accused of financing the Revolution.

 International Jewish Union protested civil inequality of Jews in Romania and Finland.

Section 6: Jewish Role in the February Revolution

 Russian Jews had mixed reactions to the February Revolution, with some ecstatic and others
cautious.

 Jewish activity intensified politically after the Revolution, contributing to social uplift in Russia.

 Many Jewish names and themes were prominent in accounts of the Revolution.

Section 7: Jewish Participation in Revolutionary Activities

 Jews played active roles in various revolutionary activities and organizations.

 Jewish individuals were involved in forming committees, militias, and commissions during the
Revolution.

 The Jewish Encyclopedia noted that Jews held posts in central and regional administrations for
the first time in Russian history.

Section 8: Ideological Influence and Hostility

 Intransigent hostility towards the historical Russian state dominated the ideology of the
Revolution.

 The trial of Beilis and mass expulsions of Jews in 1915 fueled this hostility among Jews.

 The Executive Committee of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies wielded power and influenced the
course of events during the Revolution.

Section 9: Composition of the Executive Committee

 The Executive Committee comprised mostly Jewish socialists, along with Russians, Caucasians,
Latvians, and Poles.

 More than half of the members who wielded power in the Executive Committee were Jewish
socialists.

 Concerns were raised about the large foreign element in the Committee's composition.

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Section 10: Impact of the Executive Committee

 The Executive Committee deprived the Provisional Government of real power and destroyed the
old army.

 Members of the Committee concealed themselves behind pseudonyms, causing uncertainty

about who was ruling Russia.

 The Committee's actions significantly altered the course of history during the Revolution.

Pages - 191 -- 200

Section 1: Financial Crisis and Domestic Freedom Loan Bonds

 In April 1917, the Provisional Government faced a financial crisis in Russia.

 To address the situation, the government announced the issuance of domestic Freedom Loan
bonds to raise funds.

 Jewish bankers played a significant role in subscribing to these bonds, with large sums collected
from both local and international Jewish communities.

 The government was disappointed with the overall subscription results, leading to public
shaming of wealthy individuals who did not participate.

Section 2: Political Activism of Jews in 1917

 Following the February Revolution, various Jewish political parties emerged and became active
in Russian politics.

 Parties such as the Bund, Poale Zion, Zionists, and Socialist Jewish Workers’ Party (SJWP) were
prominent.

 Attempts at unity among different Jewish factions faced challenges due to ideological
differences.

 The Zionist movement gained influence, advocating for support of the Provisional Government
and emphasizing the importance of Palestine for Jewish national revival.

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Section 3: Bund's Role and Evolution

 The Bund, a Jewish socialist party, had a history of balancing national and revolutionary
platforms.

 By 1917, the Bund held key positions in the Executive Committee of the Soviet of Workers' and
Soldiers' Deputies.

 The Bund's membership grew significantly, reaching around 40,000 members by the end of
1917.

 The party faced internal divisions and shifts in alliances during this period.

Section 4: Poale Zion Conference and Split

 Poale Zion, a Jewish socialist party, held its All-Russian Conference in Moscow in early April
1917.

 The conference discussed issues related to emigration to Palestine and class warfare.

 A split occurred within Poale Zion, leading to the formation of radical socialist and social
democratic factions.

 The party's focus shifted towards aligning with the Third International.

Section 5: United Jewish Socialist Workers' Party

 The SJWP merged with the Socialist Zionists to form the United Jewish Socialist Workers' Party
(Fareynikte).

 Fareynikte advocated for equality of languages, funding for Jewish schools, and collaboration
with Socialist Revolutionaries.

 The party abandoned the idea of an extraterritorial Jewish nation with its own parliament.

Section 6: Rise of Zionism

 Zionism emerged as the most influential political force among Jews in Russia.

 Calls for support of the Provisional Government and national consolidation were central to
Zionist objectives.

 Prominent figures like Jacob Schiff and movements like the Jewish People's Union contributed to
the growth of Zionism.

 Plans for cultural revival, economic transformation, and emigration to Palestine were key Zionist
initiatives.

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Section 7: Jewish Cultural and Healthcare Developments

 Between February and November 1917, there was a flourishing of Jewish culture and healthcare
in Russia.

 Initiatives included the establishment of Hebrew-language schools, conferences on Jewish

culture and education, and the opening of the Habima Theatre.

 Jewish youth were granted permission to enlist as officers in the Russian Army, leading to mass-
scale promotions.

 Despite general confusion in Russia, Jewish activities stood out for their diversity, vigor, and
organization.

Section 8: Challenges Faced by Jewish Officers

 Jewish officers faced challenges and discrimination in military academies and regiments.

 Some Junkers expressed opposition to having Jews in command ranks of the Russian Army.

 Efforts to form separate Jewish regiments were met with resistance and accusations of
provocation.

 Jewish officers sought national organization within the military to report on their situation and
experiences.

Section 9: Unification Efforts and Public Discussions

 Various Jewish organizations and committees aimed to unify Jewish forces and prepare for
elections to the Constituent Assembly.

 Public discussions and debates took place regarding the convocation of the All-Russian Jewish
Congress.

 Differences between factions like the Bund and Zionists hindered efforts for unity.

 The idea of a united Jewish nation and concern for Jews in other countries gained traction
among Russian Jews.

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Section 10: Upheaval and Energy in Jewish National Activities

 Amid the upheavals of 1917, Jewish social and political activities demonstrated energy and
organization.

 Jewish cultural publications, educational institutions, and healthcare initiatives flourished during
this period.

 Jewish officers' promotion in the Russian Army and the establishment of unions and warrior
groups reflected Jewish national energy.

 Jewish national activities showcased resilience and determination amidst the turbulent events
of 1917.

Pages - 201 -- 210

Section 1: Introduction of Unusual Practices

 Conscripts were required to present IDs, triggering protests against national restrictions.

 Ministry of Internal Affairs prohibited asking for IDs.

 Provisional Government ordered the release of Jews exiled as espionage suspects.

 Flow of Jews into Petrograd and Moscow increased due to these events.

Section 2: Reinforcement from Abroad

 Two trains brought nearly 200 prominent individuals to Russia, mostly Jews.

 Individuals represented various Jewish parties and played significant roles in future events.

 Russian Jews received energetic reinforcement from abroad, including those returning from the
United States.

Section 3: Returnees' Impact on Revolution

 Many returnees from the United States became revolutionary fighters and victims of Czarism.

 Trotsky's group faced peculiar situations during their travels.

 Abraham Kagan addressed Russian ambassador on behalf of Russian Jews in the USA.

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Section 4: Notable Returnees and Their Roles

 Famous individuals like V. Volodarsky, M. Uritsky, and Yu. Larin returned to participate in the
revolution.

 Yakov Sverdlov's brother, Veniamin, also returned but held lower positions.

 Moisei Kharitonov assisted anarchists in a robbery and held various positions in gubkoms.

Section 5: Prominent Figures Among Returnees

 Semyon Dimanshtein became head of the Jewish Commissariat and supervised Jewish life.

 Members of Trotsky's group held key positions in Soviet trade unions and other sectors.

 Names of other returnees after the February Revolution are highlighted for their important
roles.

Section 6: Varied Political Affiliations Among Returnees

 Some returnees did not share Bolshevik views initially but were welcomed into Lenin and
Trotsky's party.

 Examples include Yakov Fishman and Yefim Yarchuk, who held posts within the Red Army and
Soviets.

Section 7: Rise of Jews in Prominent Positions

 Jews occupied key posts in the Provisional Government and various ministries.

 Representation of Jews in leadership roles was notable in socialist parties and local
governments.

Section 8: Ethnic Representation in Government

 At the August Government Conference, ethnic groups of Russia were represented, including
eight Jewish delegates.

 Socialist parties worked towards expanding the revolution with significant Jewish
representation.

Section 9: Jewish Participation in Local Governance

 Jews actively participated in local and municipal work outside the former Pale of Settlement.

 Examples include O. Minor, A. Vainshtein, I. Polonsky, D. Chertkov, G. Shreider, and A. Ginzburg-

Naumov.

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Section 10: Dominance of Executive Committee

 The Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet and later the All-Russian Central Executive
Committee ruled over Russia.

 Despite appearing solid, internal contradictions and ideological confusion plagued these
governing bodies.

Pages - 211 -- 220

Section 1: Composition of the First All-Russian CEC Presidium

 The Presidium consisted of nine men, including Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, and
members of Bund.

 Lev Kamenev, a prominent Bolshevik, was among the members of the Presidium.

 The ethnic composition of the Presidium was diverse, including individuals from Georgia,
Armenia, Poland, and possibly Russia.

Section 2: All-Russian Executive Committee of the Soviet of Peasants’ Deputies

 The Executive Committee had 30 members, with only three actual peasants.

 Seven Jews were identified in the Executive Committee, causing concern about Jewish interests.

 The Executive Committee put forward candidates for the future Constituent Assembly, including
several Jews.

Section 3: Actions of Executive Committees

 Many committee members distanced themselves from their native communities.

 Members believed they could manage matters better due to their talents and revolutionary
spirit.

 The sudden transformation in leadership caused overwhelming reactions among Russians.

Section 4: Influence of Ethnic Composition on Public Opinion

 V. Stankevich noted the influence of the abundance of Jews in the Committee on public opinion.

 The treatment of Russian matters by the new regime reflected disdain for Russian historical
heritage.

 Anti-national, anti-Russian, and anti-conservative attitudes were prevalent among committee

members.

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Section 5: Pressure from Allies on Russia

 The United States warned Russia against making a separate peace with Germany.

 Prince Georgi Lvov emphasized sending the army to battle without concern for consequences.

 The Provisional Government's loyalty to the Allies guided its actions during the war.

Section 6: Ridiculous Incidents in Provisional Government

 The government rejected funding for the Great Russian Orchestra despite lavish spending
elsewhere.

 Key figures like Milyukov and Kerensky lacked specifically Russian sentiments.

 Anxious bias against conservative circles was evident in the government's actions.

Section 7: Public Reaction to Concealed Identities

 The public questioned the concealed identities of committee members.

 Ordinary citizens found it incomprehensible why names were hidden.

 The use of pseudonyms by leaders led to confusion and suspicion among the public.

Section 8: Resentment Against Jews

 Resentment against Jews flared up among the masses after the February Revolution.

 Instances of anti-Semitic propaganda and violence were documented in newspapers.

 Jewish activists faced increasing hostility as they ascended to power.

Section 9: Struggle Against Anti-Semitism

 The Executive Committee actively fought against anti-Semitism.

 A delegation was sent to address rising anti-Semitic agitation in certain regions.

 Bolsheviks exploited anger toward Jews to advance their agenda.

Section 10: Bolshevik Uprising and Investigation

 Bolsheviks fanned flames of anti-Semitism and blamed capitalists and Jews for leniency.

 The Bolshevik uprising targeted the Executive Committee, exploiting soldiers' anger toward
Jews.

 A commission of inquiry, including Jewish members, failed to address the Bolshevik uprising
effectively.

Pages - 221 -- 230

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Section 1: Warning Signs of Anti-Semitic Sentiments

 Representatives during garrison meetings and CEC reports highlighted instances of anti-Semitic
sentiments before the Bolshevik uprising.

 Incidents included taunting, threats, and accusations against Jews, reflecting a growing hostility
towards the Jewish community.

Section 2: Pogroms in 1917

 Despite widespread anti-Semitic rhetoric, there were no Jewish pogroms throughout the year of
1917.

 Incidents in Kalusha, Ternopol, and Stanislavov were attributed to drunken revolutionary

soldiers rather than targeted attacks on Jews.

Section 3: Threats Faced by the Jewish Community

 By mid-1917, Jews felt threatened by the embittered population and ongoing collapse of the
state.

 The Jewish community and press narrowly focused on isolated manifestations of pogroms,
missing the broader dangers facing them.

Section 4: Response to German Breach and Counterrevolution

 During the German breach at Ternopol, the joint meeting of the CEC acknowledged the threat to
the revolution and named a Government for Salvation.

 Rep. Maslennikov's actions led to concerns of counterrevolution, highlighting tensions within

the political landscape.

Section 5: Warning Against Dark Forces

 Ya. Kantorovich warned about the emergence of dark forces and evil geniuses in Russia,
anticipating turmoil and potential dangers.

 Concerns were raised about bestial patriotism and pogrom-loving national identity as potential
threats.

Section 6: Jewish Participation in Russian Turmoil

 G. Landau reflected on Jewish participation in the Russian turmoil, noting suicidal overtones and
broad sympathy for the revolution.

 The Jewish community's involvement in Bolshevism and the revolution was seen as complex and
multifaceted.

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Section 7: Jewish Unity and Support for Russian Unity

 Jewish support for Russian unity during the revolution was notable, with efforts to defend the
integrity of Great Russia.

 Jewish socialists opposed territorial partition and federalization of Russia, advocating for unity
and democracy.

Section 8: Economic Concerns and Social Responsibility

 Calls for limiting industrial profits and addressing economic disparities were made by figures like
Shulim Bespalov.

 Progressive individuals like Konovalov faced criticism for prioritizing war profits over societal
welfare.

Section 9: Jewish Political Engagement and Electoral Success

 Jewish participation in elections, support for Zionist parties, and success in the Constituent
Assembly elections were significant.

 The declaration of a Jewish national home in Palestine by Balfour was met with enthusiasm
among Russian Jewry.

Section 10: Jewish Involvement in Bolshevik Movement

 Jewish involvement in various revolutionary movements, including the Bolsheviks, was notable
leading up to the October Revolution.

 Key figures like Trotsky, Zinoviev, Sverdlov, and others played prominent roles in the Bolshevik
movement, contributing to its success.

Pages - 231 -- 240

Section 1: Composition of the Politburo

 The Politburo consisted of seven members, including Trotsky, Zinoviev, Sokolnik, and another
individual with a Jewish name.

 The presence of Jewish otshchepentsy in the Bolshevik leadership was disproportionate to their
population numbers.

 Some members of the Politburo, like Trotsky, played significant roles in the October Revolution.

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Section 2: Lenin's Views on Nationalism and Anti-Semitism

 Lenin believed in internationalism and opposed nationalism, viewing it as a divisive factor

between revolutionary and reactionary socialism.

 He considered anti-Semitism as a tactic of capitalism rather than an organic expression of

popular will.

 Lenin recognized the mobilizing force of the Jewish question in ideological struggles and utilized
Jewish bitterness towards the Czar in the Revolution.

Section 3: Jewish Settlements and Social Organizations

 The liquidation of permanent residency in 1917 led to a dispersion of Jews from urban centers in
Russia.

 Jewish social security agencies and philanthropic organizations played a role in forming large
Jewish settlements in central Russia and the Urals.

 Soviet information from 1920 indicated significant Jewish settlement in various regions like
Samara and Irkutsk.

Section 4: Jewish Participation in Bolshevik Bureaucracy

 Bolsheviks called upon Jews to assume bureaucratic roles in the Soviet apparatus, and many
Jews responded enthusiastically.

 Jewish participation in the Bolshevik regime was not ideological but driven by mass calculation.

 Young Jews, previously non-revolutionary, joined the Bolsheviks voluntarily to support the
revolution.

Section 5: Establishment of Jewish Commissariat

 A special People’s Commissariat was created in January 1918 from Jewish commissariat
members.

 Lenin acknowledged the role of the large Jewish intelligentsia in Russian cities in enabling
Bolshevik success.

 The Jewish Communist Union of Soviet Russia was integrated into the RKPB with a special Jewish
section in the Russian Telegraphic Agency.

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Section 6: Evolution of Jewish Involvement in Bolshevism

 Initially, Jewish involvement in Bolshevism was met with caution or hostility by the Jewish
population.

 Over time, Jews embraced Bolshevik authority due to the freedom granted by the revolution
and opportunities for Jewish activity.

 Bolshevik authority attracted Jews with a surplus of cruelty to participate in the regime.

Section 7: Discussion on Jewish Role in Bolshevism

 After the decline of Communism, discussions on the Jewish role in the 1917 revolution faced
criticism as extreme anti-Semitism.

 Jewish voices have started to publicly discuss Jewish involvement in Bolshevism after several
decades.

 Some Jewish authors acknowledge and even take pride in the disproportionate Jewish
participation in Bolshevism.

Section 8: Hidden Figures in Bolshevik Structure

 Apart from visible official posts, Lenin's structure relied on invisible figures like Ganetsky and
Parvus.

 Individuals like Eugene Sumenson and Saul Picker briefly surfaced in Bolshevik activities during
specific periods.

 Covert activities of figures like Rosalia Zalkind and Samuel Sachs were associated with the
Bolshevik upper echelon.

Section 9: Jewish Leadership in Revolutionary Institutions

 Revolutionary institutions in Odessa had significant Jewish representation due to the high
Jewish population in the region.

 Prominent Jewish figures like V. Yudovsky, J. Gamarnik, and Lazar Kaganovich held key positions
in Bolshevik structures.

 Jewish individuals like Gamarnik and Kaganovich faced repercussions under Stalin's regime.

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Section 10: Implementation of Severe Measures

 Lazar Kaganovich, at a young age, became Chairman of the Provincial Committee of the
Communist Party in Nizhny Novgorod.

 Decisions to conduct severe terror in the province were attributed to Kaganovich.

 Kaganovich's rise to power and involvement in implementing harsh measures exemplified the
influence of Jewish leaders in Bolshevik structures.

Pages - 241 -- 250

Section 1: Prominent Figures in the October Revolution

 Arkady Rozengolts was a leader in the October Revolution in Moscow and held various high-
ranking positions in the Revolutionary Military Councils.

 Simon Nakhimson was a commander of the Latvian riflemen and a military commissar in the
Yaroslavl Military District.

 Zorach Greenberg served as the Commissioner of Education and Art of the Northern Commune
and was a close aide to Lunacharsky.

Section 2: Key Figures in Bolshevik Leadership

 Moses Frumkin served as a member of the board of the People’s Commissariat of the RSFSR and
later became chairman of Glavproduct.

 I. Rafailov (Jacob Brandenburg-Goldzinsky) played a significant role in the Petrograd production

committee during the Civil War.

 Isaac Zelensky was a member of the board of the People’s Commissariat of the RSFSR and later
worked in the secretariat of the Central Committee.

Section 3: Jewish Representation in Food Bodies of RSFSR

 Jews held prominent roles in the food bodies of the RSFSR during the war communism era.

 Key figures like Moses Kalmanovich and Myron Vladimirov-Sheynfinkel were instrumental in
managing food supplies in various regions.

Section 4: West Siberian Peasant Uprising

 The West Siberian peasant uprising, known as the "Ishim rebellion," was sparked by abuses of
power by officials like Lauris Matthew.

 Severe grain procurement measures led to conflicts with peasants, resulting in violent
confrontations.

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Section 5: Involvement of Jewish Bolsheviks in Revolutionary Activities

 Jewish Bolsheviks played significant roles in the early Soviet government, leading to
overrepresentation in key positions.

 Their involvement in various aspects of governance caused tensions and anti-Semitic sentiments
among the population.

Section 6: Murder of the Czar and His Family

 The murder of the royal family was orchestrated by Lenin, with key roles played by individuals
like Shai-Philippe Goloshchekin and Yakov Yurovsky.

 The decision to kill the royal family was made at the top levels of the Bolshevik leadership, with
Lenin anticipating minimal political repercussions.

Section 7: Goloshchekin's Role in the Execution

 Goloshchekin played a major role in planning and executing the murder of the royal family,
advocating for their public execution.

 He returned to Yekaterinburg to await final orders from Moscow, demonstrating his active
involvement in the operation.

Section 8: Yurovsky's Involvement in the Murder

 Yakov Yurovsky, appointed as the commandant of the Ipatiev house, organized the murder
operation with a team of assassins.

 Yurovsky claimed credit for killing Nicholas II, while other participants like Ermakov also took
part in the executions.

Section 9: Nationality of Participants in the Assassination

 The assassination of the royal family involved individuals from diverse nationalities, including
Latvians, Russians, and Hungarians.

 The decision-making process and execution of the murders reflected a mix of nationalities
within the Bolshevik ranks.

Section 10: Impact of Revolution on Russian Population

 The revolution resulted in widespread violence and loss of life, predominantly affecting Russian
noblemen, priests, and peasants.

 The aftermath of the revolution left a lasting impact on the Russian population, leading to
significant casualties and societal upheaval.

Pages - 251 -- 260

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Section 1: Anti-Semitic Pogrom Agitation

 Accounts of alleged anti-Jewish pogroms in unnamed towns of the Moscow region.

 Special meetings of the Council devoted to the Jewish question and anti-Semitism.

 Main culprit identified as Orthodox priests, targeted for counter-revolutionary activities.

Section 2: Lenin's Speech on Anti-Semitism

 Lenin's speech condemning anti-Semitism as a tool of czarist oppression.

 Majority of Jews seen as comrades in the struggle for socialism.

 Gramophone-recorded speech distributed widely to educate soldiers, workers, and peasants.

Section 3: Law Against Anti-Semitism

 CPC issued a law declaring anti-Semitic movement a danger to the revolution.

 Decisive measures prescribed against rioters and leaders of pogrom agitation.

 Signed by V. I. Ulyanov (Lenin) to curb anti-Semitic activities during the Red Terror.

Section 4: Communist Activist's Perspective

 Larin advocates putting active anti-Semites outside the law, implying execution.

 Lenin supports Gorky's pro-Jewish leaflets, highlighting Jewish contributions to the revolution.

 Leaflets feared to be used by anti-Semites against the Bolsheviks.

Section 5: Assault on Orthodox Churches

 Bolshevik assault on Orthodox churches in Central Russia, particularly in the Moscow region.

 Construction workers protest targeting of Orthodox priests.

 Complaints about desecration of churches and pillaging in Arkhangelsk.

Section 6: Persecution of Orthodoxy

 Jewish Bolshevik activists show persistent rage against Orthodox clergy.

 Patriarch Tikhon demands removal of People’s Commissariat investigator for desecrating

religious sites.

 Complaint dismissed despite clear bias and insults towards religion.

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Section 7: Renaming of Cities

 Soviet practice of renaming cities and places, including those with national significance.

 Examples include Gatchina becoming Trotsky and Pavlovsk becoming Slutsk.

 Concerns raised about potential for national revenge by Jewish Bolsheviks.

Section 8: Historical Fate of Jews

 Jews played a significant role in the October Revolution.

 Participation in Bolshevism driven by hope to end historical persecution.

 Material conditions post-revolution led many Jews to work for the Soviet government.

Section 9: Impact of Bolshevism on Jews

 Bolshevism brought hunger and disrupted traditional Jewish trades.

 Many Jews saw Communism as the only way out amidst economic challenges.

 Assimilated Jews broke with their folk and spiritual traditions to embrace Bolshevism.

Section 10: Connection Between Judaism and Bolshevism

 Debate on the connection between Judaism and Bolshevism in the Jewish community.

 Some Jews saw Bolshevism as aligned with Jewish ideals of social justice.

 Rabbi Dr. Judah Magnes supported Bolsheviks, viewing Bolshevism as compatible with Judaism's
highest ideals.

Pages - 261 -- 270

Section 1: Jewish Consciousness and Bolshevism

 Judaism's focus on the one great God is highlighted as incompatible with godless Bolshevism.

 The receptiveness of Jewish consciousness to Bolshevik ideology is attributed to historical

circumstances and inherited predispositions.

 The presence of Jews in Russian Bolshevism is seen as causing a spiritual crisis within the Jewish
community.

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Section 2: Spread of Bolshevism in Europe

 Communist coups in Bavaria and Hungary, alongside Lenin's rise in Russia, saw significant Jewish
involvement.

 Despite no persecution in Hungary, Jews held key positions in cultural and economic spheres,
leading to accusations of Jewish domination.

 Support for Bolshevik movements was observed among European and American Jewish
communities.

Section 3: Financial Support for Bolsheviks

 Lenin and his cohorts received hidden financial aid from German sources through intermediaries
like Dmitry Rubinstein and Abram Zhivotovsky.

 Thousands of Jews from America sailed back to Russia to participate in the Bolshevik cause.

 Key figures like Olof Aschberg facilitated financial transactions supporting the Bolsheviks.

Section 4: Jewish Involvement in Bolshevik Leadership

 Prominent Jewish individuals like M. M. Gruzenberg and Solomon Slepak played significant roles
in the Comintern and Bolshevik administration.

 The Central Bureau of Jewish Communities was dissolved by Agursky and Stalin, reflecting a shift
towards Jewish communist leadership.

 Jewish bankers and revolutionaries from abroad actively supported the Bolshevik regime.

Section 5: Transition of Jewish Socialists to Bolsheviks

 Many Jewish socialists transitioned to support the Bolsheviks to survive and protect Jewish
interests.

 Other socialist parties failed to effectively oppose Bolshevism, leading to defections and
collaboration with the Bolsheviks.

 The Bund and other political parties experienced splits and defections to the Bolshevik camp.

Section 6: Jewish Defectors to Bolsheviks

 Notable Jewish defectors from Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries to the Bolsheviks are
highlighted.

 Individuals like Boris Magidov, Yakov Livshits, and Lazar Kogan rose to prominent positions
within the Bolshevik administration.

 The transition of Jewish leaders to support the Bolsheviks was influenced by survival instincts
and perceived protection of Jewish interests.

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Section 7: Impact on Zionist Movement

 The Zionist movement initially maintained neutrality but faced increasing repression from the
Bolsheviks.

 Zionist activities were banned in Soviet Russia, leading to underground operations and
emigration.

 Lev Mehklis stands out as a prominent defector from Zionism to Bolshevism, achieving high-
ranking positions within the Bolshevik regime.

Section 8: Resistance to Bolshevism

 A significant layer of Russian Jewry, including rabbis and intellectuals, resisted joining the
Bolsheviks.

 Despair among Russian Jews who sought common life with the Russian intelligentsia but refused
to cooperate with the Bolsheviks is noted.

 Acts of terrorism committed by Jewish individuals against the Bolshevik regime are highlighted.

Section 9: Jewish Predominance in Soviet Authorities

 Jewish predominance among Soviet authorities caused despair among Russian Jews seeking
common ground with the Russian intelligentsia.

 Those who did not accept Bolshevism were marginalized and silenced by the ruling regime.

 The winners controlled events, overshadowing the voices of those who opposed Bolshevism.

Section 10: Terrorist Acts by Jewish Hands

 Two famous terrorist acts committed by Jewish individuals against the Bolshevik regime are
mentioned.

 These acts stand out as notable instances of resistance against the Bolshevik rule.

 The perpetrators of these acts are highlighted as part of the opposition to the Bolshevik regime.

Pages - 271 -- 280

Section 1: Assassination Attempts on Bolshevik Leaders

 Fanya Kaplan attempted to assassinate Lenin in 1918.

 Leonid Kannegisser murdered Cheka commissar Moisei Uritsky.

 Kaplan's attempt was initially attributed to Socialist Revolutionaries, while Kannegisser's motive
was to clear the name of Jewish people accused of Bolshevism.

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Section 2: Questions Raised by Recent Research

 Recent research has raised questions about the nature and genesis of the assassination
attempts.

 Theories suggest Lenin may have ordered Kaplan's capture instead of her immediate execution.

 There are arguments that authorities deliberately created conditions for Kannegisser to be shot
down.

Section 3: Doubts on Conspiratorial Versions

 Doubts exist regarding the conspiratorial versions of events surrounding the assassination
attempts.

 It is questioned whether Bolsheviks would sacrifice key figures like Uritsky purely for
propaganda.

 Bolsheviks did not typically settle internal intrigues with blood during those early days.

Section 4: Leniency Towards Kannegisser Family

 The Kannegisser family was surprisingly released without further molestation after Leonid's
assassination attempt.

 Relatives and friends planned an armed raid to release Leonid before learning of his death.

 The leniency shown towards the family is speculated to be due to influential Jewish circles in
Petrograd.

Section 5: Alexander A. Vilenkin - Anti-Bolshevik Fighter

 Vilenkin volunteered for war in 1914, served as an officer, and resisted Bolsheviks underground.

 He inspired others to resist Bolshevik rule until he was shot.

 Vilenkin is remembered as a hero of the anti-Bolshevik movement.

Section 6: Bolshevik High Life

 Jews in Bolshevik positions enjoyed advantages and privileges, especially in urban areas.

 Many Jews migrated from the Pale of Settlement to cities and held government positions.

 The text describes the luxurious lifestyle of the Bolshevik elite, including special amenities and
opportunities.

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Section 7: Response of the Man in the Street

 Ordinary Russians responded to Jewish dominance in Bolshevik administration with rhymes and
anecdotes.

 There was a growing sentiment against Jewish influence in Soviet ruling class.

 The issue of Jewish responsibility for Bolshevik actions was a topic of concern among the
Russian population.

Section 8: Reflections on Jewish Participation in Bolshevism

 The text discusses the psychological impact of Jewish dominance in Bolshevik regime on the
Russian people.

 The responsibility of Jews for Bolshevik atrocities is debated.

 The importance of acknowledging Jewish involvement in Bolshevik regime is emphasized.

Section 9: Moral Responsibility and Historical Reflection

 The text explores moral responsibility for past actions, including Jewish involvement in
Bolshevism.

 The need for Jews to acknowledge their historical actions and learn from them is highlighted.

 The discussion extends to how nations should take responsibility for their past, including
shameful events.

Section 10: Holding Accountable for Revolutionary Actions

 The text emphasizes the need to hold individuals accountable for their revolutionary actions.

 Jews are urged to take responsibility for the actions of their revolutionary members.

 The importance of acknowledging historical truths and potential future implications is stressed.

Pages - 281 -- 290

Section 1: Names of Commissar-Butchers

 The text mentions the names of some individuals who were among the commissar-butchers
responsible for commanding brutal actions during the Russian Civil War.

 Examples include Red Guard Basov, Trotsky, and various other Bolshevik leaders who
orchestrated violent acts.

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Section 2: Responsibility for National Actions

 The text emphasizes the importance of taking responsibility for the actions of a nation as part of
a larger family.

 It suggests that without accountability, the concept of national identity is at risk of being lost.

Section 3: Impact of the February Revolution

 The February Revolution in Russia did not aim to destroy pre-existing life entirely, unlike the
subsequent events post-October 1917.

 The Revolution evolved into an international and devastating plague, leading to widespread
destruction and chaos.

Section 4: Multinational Aspects of the Civil War

 The Russian Civil War involved a diverse range of participants, including Red Latvians, former
German and Austrian prisoners of war, Chinese, and Russian Jews.

 The multinational nature of the conflict added complexity and intensified the horrors of the
Russian Revolution.

Section 5: Jewish Involvement in the Red Army

 Jews played significant roles in the Red Army during the Civil War and beyond, holding positions
in command corps, military districts, and political administrations.

 Detailed information is provided about specific Jewish commanders, commissars, and their
contributions to the Red Army.

Section 6: Notable Jewish Commanders in the Red Army

 The text highlights specific Jewish commanders in the Red Army, detailing their roles and
achievements during the Civil War.

 Names like Drabkin-Gusev, Gaskovich-Lashkevich, Razgon, Goldberg, and others are mentioned
for their leadership in various military capacities.

Section 7: Jewish Women in Bolshevik Ranks

 The text acknowledges the presence of extraordinary Jewish women in high-ranking positions
within the Bolshevik regime.

 Examples include Nadezda Ostrovskaya and Revekka Plastinina, who held significant roles in the
Red Army and party committees.

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Section 8: Red Cossack Corps Composition

 The text discusses the composition of the "Corps of Red Cossacks," which included individuals
from various nationalities, not just Cossacks.

 Details are provided about the leadership and organizational structure of this group.

Section 9: Role of Russian Generals in the Red Army

 Many Russian generals and officers from the former Imperial Army served in the Red Army
during the Civil War.

 Their contributions were crucial to the Bolsheviks' eventual victory, despite facing challenges
and risks under the new regime.

Section 10: Operations and Practices of the Cheka

 The Cheka, established in December 1917, enforced terror tactics and mass executions
throughout the Russian Civil War and beyond.

 The text describes the ruthless practices of the Cheka, including immediate death penalties,
mass executions, and interrogation methods.

Pages - 291 -- 300

Section 1: Origins of Red Terror

 M. Latsis rephrased Robespierre's words to justify mass terror.

 Directives from the center were disseminated by Cheka Weekly.

 The Red Terror aimed at physical extermination of enemies for proletarian dictatorship.

Section 2: Body Count Estimates

 Melgunov provided estimates of the body count during the Red Terror.

 Specific numbers were not available, but the scale of murders was significant.

Section 3: Terror in South Russia

 Denikin's rule led to a bloody reign of vengeful terror in South Russia.

 Waves of raids, searches, and executions targeted former adversaries.

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Section 4: Terror in Crimea

 After Wrangel left, Crimea became known as the 'All-Russian Cemetery.'

 Estimates suggest between 120,000 and 150,000 murdered in Crimea.

Section 5: Secret Extracts and Decisions

 A secret extract from a meeting of the Central Committee discussed Jewish representation in
Cheka.

 Initial stage of Red Terror saw national minorities constituting a significant portion of Cheka
apparatus.

Section 6: Notable Chekists

 Profiles of prominent Chekists like Gerson, Leplevsky, Katznelson, Mogilevsky, and Vizner.

 Jews held key positions in Cheka and its successor organizations.

Section 7: Jewish Victims and Perpetrators

 Jews were both victims and perpetrators during the communist onslaught.

 Perception of Chekists and Jews being synonymous was widespread among Reds and Whites.

Section 8: Cruelty and Violence

 Accounts of extreme cruelty by Chekists like Plastinina-Maizel and Baka.

 Jews involved in violent acts contrary to their perceived detachment from physical activity.

Section 9: Genocide and Suppression

 Examples of genocide on the Don River and suppression of uprisings in Tambov Guberniya.

 Actions of Chekists and officials leading to mass executions and violence.

Section 10: Execution Methods and Public Perception

 Detailed description of execution methods used by Cheka.

 Public perception linking Jews with the violence perpetrated by Chekists.

Pages - 301 -- 310

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Section 1: Kronstadt Uprising and Anti-Jewish Sentiments

 The Kronstadt Uprising had an anti-Jewish character, with destruction of portraits of Trotsky and
Zinoviev, both Jewish.

 Zinoviev avoided negotiating with rebels due to fear of being torn apart, so Russian Kalinin was
sent instead.

 Labor strikes in Moscow in February 1921 featured slogans against Communists and Jews.

Section 2: Jewish Support during the Civil War

 Majority of Russian socialists, including many Jews, supported Lenin during the Civil War.

 Some Jews, like Solomon Schwartz, fought for the Bolsheviks during the Civil War.

 It appeared that not only Bolshevik Jews but all of Jewry sided with the Reds during the Civil
War.

Section 3: Exodus from Kiev and Jewish Response

 During the surrender of Kiev to Bolsheviks, a significant Russian exodus occurred, with wealthy
Jews choosing to stay.

 In cities of southern Russia, arrival of Soviets was celebrated in Jewish quarters.

 American historian Bruce Lincoln noted the high percentage of Jews in the Ukrainian Cheka.

Section 4: Role of Jews in International Revolutions

 Bolshevik invasions in Poland in 1920 were met warmly by Polish Jews.

 Jews played prominent roles in German and Hungarian communist revolutions.

 Jewish participation in revolutionary movements influenced anti-Semitic prejudice in Europe.

Section 5: Hungarian Soviet Republic and Jewish Involvement

 Hungarian Soviet Republic saw prominent Jewish figures like Bela Kun leading the government.

 Hungarian Jews faced violence and anti-Semitism despite historical success and lack of pogroms.

 Leaders of suppressed Communist revolts being Jews fueled political anti-Semitism in Germany.

Section 6: Ukrainian Separatism and Jewish Relations

 Ukrainian separatism impacted Jewish destinies during the breakdown of the Russian Empire.

 Jewish representatives initially hesitated to support Ukrainian nationalism but later aligned with
Bolsheviks.

 Enmity between Jews and Ukrainian separatists led to conflicts and divisions.

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Section 7: Bolshevik Influence in Ukraine

 Bolsheviks established control in Ukraine with key Jewish figures in leadership positions.

 Talks about Bolshevik Jews and Jewish Bolsheviks fueled tensions among troops loyal to the
Rada.

 Jewish workers returning from England supported the Soviet regime in Kiev.

Section 8: Transition of Power in Ukraine

 Hetman government replaced Petliura's government in Ukraine.

 Under the Hetmanate, Zionists operated freely and established Jewish institutions.

 Jewish Kadet Sergei Gutnik served as Minister of Trade and Industry in the Hetman government.

Section 9: Blame on Jews for Bolshevik Victories

 Jews were blamed for Bolshevik successes in Ukraine by Ukrainian factions.

 Sich Riflemen and atamans targeted Jewish population during transitions of power in Kiev.

 Wealthy individuals fleeing to Kiev faced robberies by military groups.

Section 10: Conclusion of Events in Ukraine

 Jews were accused of joining the enemy side and blamed for supporting Bolshevik victories.

 Jewish organizations tried to assist socialist factions in Ukraine but faced backlash.

 Anti-Semitic sentiments and actions persisted during power transitions in Ukraine.

Pages - 311 -- 320

Section 1: Introduction to Pogroms in Ukraine

 Pogroms initiated by Petliura's troops in Sarny in 1918.

 Jewish deputy from the Lesser Rada warned against anti-Semitism in founding a state.

 Jewish parties radicalized towards the Left, sympathizing with Bolshevism.

 Arnold Margolin compared the situation in Ukraine to historical atrocities by Khmelnytsky and
Gonta.

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Section 2: Anti-Jewish Pogroms by Petliura's Troops

 Between December 1918 and August 1919, Petliura's troops carried out dozens of pogroms.

 Largest pogrom occurred in Proskurov in February 1919 after a failed Bolshevik coup attempt.

 Pogroms intensified during the period of the Directorate in Ukraine.

 Estimates suggest around 50,000 Jews were killed in these pogroms.

Section 3: Makhno's Stance on Anti-Semitism

 Nestor Makhno did not harbor anti-Jewish attitudes.

 Makhno's anarchist-communist followers expressed hostility towards anti-Semitism.

 Despite pro-Jewish stance, Makhno's troops carried out some Jewish pogroms.

 Makhno protected Jewish populations and punished pogromists within his ranks.

Section 4: Examination of Anti-Jewish Pogroms During Russian Civil War

 Pogroms by regular troops and independent bands targeted Jewish communities.

 Pogroms by Petliura's troops were particularly atrocious and systematic.

 Pogroms also carried out by Denikin's troops and Polish-supported forces in Byelorussia.

 Ukrainian Jewry faced mass exodus from shtetls due to the violent wave of pogroms.

Section 5: Jews and White Guards

 Initial support for the White movement by some Jews in Rostov.

 Separation of Jews from the White movement due to fateful events.

 White Army's shift towards anti-Jewish actions influenced by local anti-Semitism.

 Denikin's efforts to stop pogroms by his troops were ineffective.

Section 6: Pogroms by White Army

 White Army carried out Jewish pogroms during its retreat in November-December 1919.

 Pogroms fueled by false belief that all Jews supported Bolshevism.

 Kadets demanded Jews declare war against those supporting Bolshevist movement.

 Volunteer Army punished pogromists, but violence escalated during retreat from Ukraine.

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Section 7: Impact of Pogroms on Jewish Communities

 Jewish towns and shtetls turned into desolate landscapes.

 Flourishing Jewish communities destroyed and turned into ashes.

 Jews faced violence, rape, and pillaging during pogroms.

 Mass exodus of Jews from smaller towns to larger cities or borders for safety.

Section 8: Role of Allies and International Community

 Lack of aid from American Jews to White movement leaders seeking support.

 Collection of funds within exclusive Jewish circles for White authorities.

 Initial support from Jews in Rostov for anti-Bolshevik movements.

 Contrasting experiences of Jews within the White movement.

Section 9: Views on Pogroms and Anti-Semitism

 Different perspectives on the motivations behind pogroms.

 Denial of organized extermination and deliberate targeting of Jews by some sources.

 Disagreement on the extent of anti-Semitic actions within the White Army.

 Varied opinions on the reasons behind the escalation of anti-Jewish violence.

Section 10: Conclusion and Reflections

 Pogroms in Ukraine and Russia linked to political ideologies and local sentiments.

 Impact of fateful events and shifting alliances on Jewish communities.

 Divergent views on the role of Whites, Petliura's troops, and other factions in perpetuating anti-
Jewish violence.

 Ongoing debates on the responsibility and motivations behind the pogroms.

Pages - 321 -- 330

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Section 1: Call for Jewish Support for the Russian Cause

 D.O. Linsky, a former White Guard, urges Jewry to fully support the Russian land and Fatherland.

 He emphasizes the need for Jews to sacrifice their lives and wealth for the victory of anti-
Bolshevik forces.

 Linsky believes that Jewry's support for the Russian Army would counter anti-Semitism and
prevent pogromist movements.

Section 2: Challenges Faced by Jewish Volunteers in the White Army

 Despite some Jews volunteering for service in the White Army, they faced discrimination and
humiliation.

 The Volunteer Army refused to accept Jewish petty officers and cadets, even those who fought
bravely against Bolsheviks.

 Jewish volunteers were often relegated to non-combat roles like cooks, causing moral distress
among them.

Section 3: Limited Jewish Participation in the White Movement

 Only a small fraction of Jewry joined the White Guards, with many opting to support the Reds
instead.

 Anti-Semitism among the Whites was evident, leading to reluctance among Jews to actively
participate in the White Movement.

 Jewish individuals who did join the Volunteer Army faced danger from both enemy bullets and
internal hostility.

Section 4: Anti-Semitic Sentiments Among Young White Officers

 Despite education and upbringing, young White officers from intellectual families harbored anti-
Semitic feelings.

 This internal anti-Semitism further isolated and doomed the White Army to failure.

 Anti-Semitic attitudes within the White Army hindered its ability to garner broader support.

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Section 5: Treatment of Jews in Territories Controlled by the Volunteer Army

 Jews were not employable in government services or intelligence agencies under the Volunteer
Army's control.

 While OsvAg publications were claimed to be free of anti-Semitic propaganda, the army
struggled to address pogromist attitudes among its troops.

 Denikin's government maintained a hostile stance towards Russian Jewry, contributing to

internal conflicts within the Volunteer Army.

Section 6: International Response and Support for the White Movement

 Winston Churchill advocated for Allied intervention and military aid to the White armies but
expressed concerns over ongoing pogroms.

 Western powers' reluctance to support the Whites was influenced by the prevalence of anti-
Semitic violence within their ranks.

 Wall Street's calculations favored supporting the Bolsheviks due to perceived economic benefits
and social objectives.

Section 7: Greed and Indifference of Western Nations Towards the White Movement

 The former Entente nations displayed greed and indifference towards the White Movement
during the Civil War.

 Western powers demanded the Whites join peace negotiations with the Bolsheviks and
prioritized their own interests over supporting the White cause.

 Actions like occupying oil-rich regions and extorting payments from White generals showcased
the self-serving nature of Western involvement.

Section 8: Jewish Pogroms in Ukraine

 Pogroms in Ukraine during 1919-1920 surpassed previous historical instances in scale and
brutality.

 Estimates suggest 70,000 to 200,000 Jews were killed during this period, with widespread
atrocities committed by various factions including Petliura's troops and the Red Army.

 Socialist parties merged with the Reds, exploiting the pogroms to influence public opinion and
strengthen their positions.

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Section 9: Exploitation of Pogroms by Bolsheviks

 The Bolsheviks skillfully exploited the pogroms in Ukraine to sway public opinion in Russia and
abroad.

 Red Army units also perpetrated pogroms during the Civil War, yet historical awareness of these
events has been limited.

 The chaos of the time led to widespread violence and anarchy, with entire social classes
targeted for destruction.

Section 10: Impact on Russian Jewry and the Evolution of the State

 The Civil War exacerbated tensions between Reds and Whites, leading to a deepening divide
among Russian Jewry.

 The struggle against the Bolsheviks overshadowed the potential benefits of a White victory for
the evolution of the Russian state.

 Both the sympathy of Russian Jews towards the Bolsheviks and the White forces' treatment of
Jews obscured the larger implications of the conflict for the nation.

Pages - 331 -- 340

Section 1: Russian Emigration After the October Coup

 Hundreds of thousands of Russian citizens emigrated abroad after the October coup and Civil
War.

 Emigrants included surviving combat personnel of the White Army, Cossacks, old nobility,
former landowners, merchants, industrialists, financiers, and ordinary citizens.

 Many emigrants were Russian Jews, with over 200,000 Jewish emigrants from the Soviet
republics in 1918-1922.

Section 2: Destinations of Russian Emigrants

 Russian emigrants crossed Polish and Romanian borders and later settled in the USA, Canada,
South America, Western Europe, and Palestine.

 Around 100,000 Russian Jews gathered in Germany by the end of World War I.

 Paris was the political center of RussiainExile, while Berlin became a cultural capital for Russian
emigration in Europe.

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Section 3: Cultural Life of Russian Emigrants

 Intense cultural life in Russian quarters of Prague in the 1920s.

 Berlin attracted emigrants due to inflation, with many major industrialists, merchants, bankers,
and manufacturers settling there.

 Jewish emigrants had fewer integration problems and felt more confident in Western Europe.

Section 4: Influence of Russian Jews in Exile

 Russian Jews were active in cultural and social enterprises among emigrants.

 Jewish emigrants provided assistance to impoverished writers and artists.

 Russian Jews played a prominent role in the cultural atmosphere of Russia-in-Exile between the
two world wars.

Section 5: Russian Emigrant Press and Publications

 Rich individuals, often Jews, financed liberal and left-of-center Russian emigrant press.

 Many Jews were journalists, editors, and publishers in the emigrant press.

 Notable publications include Archive of the Russian Revolution, Rul newspaper, and Socialist
Herald.

Section 6: Russian Book Publishing in Berlin

 Berlin became the capital of Russian book publishing, releasing more Russian books than
Germany.

 Most publishers and booksellers in Berlin were Jewish.

 Prominent publishing houses included Ladyzhnikov, Grzhebin, Word, Zhar-Ptitsa, Edges,

Petropolis, Obelisk, Helicon, and Scythians.

Section 7: Emigration to Baltic Countries

 Riga and other Baltic cities became major destinations for Jewish emigration.

 Russian-Jewish journalists worked for newspapers like Sevodnya in Riga.

 Berlin started losing its position as the center of emigrant culture due to economic instability
and rise of Nazism.

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Section 8: Russian Emigrant Newspapers in Paris

 Poslednie Novosti was the main emigrant newspaper in Paris.

 The newspaper had a wide circulation and was financially supported by prominent figures.

 Political tensions existed around the paper's coverage of the Volunteer Army.

Section 9: Literary and Political Magazines in Paris

 Sovremennye Zapiski was a leading literary-political magazine in Paris.

 Established and run by Socialist Revolutionaries, the magazine featured fiction, articles, and
memoirs of many Jewish authors.

 Illyustrirovannaya Rossia published classic and contemporary emigrant literature.

Section 10: Life of Ilya Fondaminsky

 Ilya Fondaminsky, born into a prosperous merchant family, joined the Socialist Revolutionaries
and sacrificed wealth for the revolution.

 He played an active role in emigrant cultural life, supporting Russian writers and poets.

 Fondaminsky grew closer to Orthodoxy and was arrested by the Germans during World War II.

Pages - 341 -- 350

Section 1: Russian Newspapers in the Early 20th Century

 Tribune and Novoe Russkoe Slovo were prominent Russian newspapers with contributions from
notable journalists like M. M. Vinaver and S. B. Pozner.

 Novoe Russkoe Slovo, founded in 1910 in the United States, became known as the oldest
Russian newspaper in the world.

 Right-wing or nationalist Russian newspapers appeared in various locations but did not leave a
lasting impact.

Section 2: Early Soviet Anti-Semitism

 Grass-root anti-Semitism in Soviet Russia was reported by Russian democratic journalists like A.
V. Tyrkova-Williams and E. D. Kuskova.

 Initially met with suspicion, reports of anti-Semitism in Soviet Russia were gradually confirmed.

 Anti-Jewish sentiments spread among a large segment of Russian emigration, leading to

concerns and tensions within the community.

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Section 3: Spread of Anti-Semitic Sentiments

 Anti-Semitic attitudes grew among European populations post-Bolshevik victory, associating

Bolshevism with Judaism.

 Authors like Dr. Pasmanik and Bikerman highlighted the widespread belief that Jews played a
crucial role in the rise of Bolshevism.

 The fear of the Jewish influence on destructive ideas led to the rise of anti-Semitic sentiments
across nations.

Section 4: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion

 The Protocols of the Elders of Zion gained popularity post-World War I, spreading across Europe
and America.

 Initially believed to be authentic, the Protocols were later exposed as a forgery, leading to
denials of their connection to Bolsheviks and Jews.

 Despite being debunked, the Protocols continued to influence right-wing ideologies, especially
National Socialism in Germany.

Section 5: Emigrant Journalism Response

 Liberal emigrant journalism in the 1920s and 1930s focused on exposing the forgery of the
Protocols and denying the link between Bolsheviks and Jews.

 Prominent figures like Milyukov, Rodichev, Burtsev, and Kartashev contributed to the discussion
on anti-Semitism and the Jewish question.

 A.V. Kartashev emphasized the need for honest efforts to address the Jewish question and
combat anti-Semitism effectively.

Section 6: Challenges Faced by Jews in Baltic Countries and Poland

 Jews in the Baltic countries and Poland faced social pressure and discrimination despite civil
rights and autonomy.

 The breakup of the Russian Empire led to the diminished status of Russian Jewry in newly
independent states.

 The position of Jewry in international post-war politics, particularly in Paris, remained strong,
especially concerning Zionism.

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Section 7: League of Nations Recognition of World Zionist Organization

 In July 1922, the League of Nations recognized the World Zionist Organization as the 'Jewish
Agency,' representing the interests of Zionists and non-Zionists.

 The organization provided support to European Jews and played a significant role in advocating
for Zionist goals.

 Criticisms arose regarding the idealization of a fragmented Russia by some Zionist groups.

Section 8: Impact of Civil War on Independent Voices

 After the Civil War, Soviet Russia experienced heavy censorship, silencing independent voices
and promoting only the official line.

 Emigrant communities, including anarchists and monarchists, engaged in intense debates about
accountability for the events that transpired.

 Discussions within emigrant Jewry also addressed issues of blame and responsibility in the
aftermath of the Civil War.

Section 9: Reflections on Blame and Responsibility

 Emigrant Jewry reflected on perceptions of blame and responsibility, acknowledging historical

stereotypes and prejudices.

 Tensions within emigrant communities led to discussions about the roles played by different
groups in the events of the time.

 Various perspectives emerged on the extent of Jewish involvement and culpability in the context
of broader societal challenges.

Section 10: Conclusion and Legacy

 The text provides a comprehensive overview of the complex dynamics surrounding anti-
Semitism, journalistic responses, and political influences in the early 20th century.

 It highlights the enduring impact of historical events on emigrant communities and the ongoing
struggles with identity, blame, and responsibility.

 The legacy of these discussions continues to shape perceptions of anti-Semitism, nationalism,

and the Jewish question in modern contexts.

Pages - 351 -- 360

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Section 1: Jewish Perception of Bolshevik Russia

 Jews viewed Bolshevik Russia as a preferable alternative to the restoration of monarchy.

 Many Jewish emigrants from Russia settled in the United States and embraced pro-Bolshevik
attitudes.

 The rise of Hitlerism in Germany reinforced the preference for Bolshevism among European
Jewry.

Section 2: Attitudes Towards Bolsheviks and NEP

 The New Economic Policy (NEP) was seen as a positive development by some, as it loosened the
grip of the Reds on the economy.

 Some Jewish emigrants sympathized with the Bolshevik state and did not see it as their main
enemy.

 The NEP was perceived as a sign that Bolsheviks could change for the better.

Section 3: Jewish Emigrant Experiences

 An incident involving a Jewish emigrant writer, Goryansky, highlighted tensions within the
Jewish community.

 The First International Jewish Congress in Vienna in 1936 showcased varying attitudes towards
the Bolshevik regime among Jewish leaders.

Section 4: Views on Jewish Bolsheviks

 There was a debate within the Jewish community regarding the acceptance of Jewish
Bolsheviks.

 Some believed that Jews had the right to have their own Bolsheviks, while others saw Bolshevik
communism as a threat to personal and cultural identity.

Section 5: Critique of Jewish Bolsheviks

 Authors criticized Jewish Bolsheviks and called for a struggle against them.

 Concerns were raised about the impact of Jewish support for Bolshevism on the overall course
of events in Europe.

Section 6: Calls for Action Against Bolsheviks

 Calls were made for Russian (and emigrant) Jews to actively oppose the Bolshevik regime.

 Participation in the struggle to eliminate Bolshevism was seen as crucial for securing a safe
position for Jews in Russia.

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Section 7: Reflections on the White Army

 Criticism was directed towards Jewish attitudes towards the White Army and their lack of
support for anti-Bolshevik forces.

 The importance of fighting for the White cause as a means of Jewish salvation was emphasized.

Section 8: Impact of Bolshevik Rule

 The spiritual harm caused by Jewish support for Bolshevism was noted, despite the absence of
significant physical harm.

 The success of Bolshevism in expelling the Jewish religion from Russia was highlighted.

Section 9: Unheeded Warnings

 Authors warned of the dangers posed by Bolsheviks to Jews and other peoples of Russia.

 The failure to heed these warnings was seen as contributing to historical consequences.

Section 10: Lessons Learned

 The importance of self-reflection, admitting mistakes, and uniting for a common cause was
emphasized.

 The need to love one's people while acknowledging and addressing mistakes was highlighted as
a lesson for both Jews and Russians.

Pages - 361 -- 370

Section 1: Biography of Pasmanik

 Participated in civil rights struggle for Jews

 Opposed the Bund and worked on PoaleZion program

 Member of Central Committee of Russian Zionist organization

 Published medical works in specialized journals in German and French

Section 2: Biography of Isaak Osipovich Levin

 Historian and publicist

 Worked as foreign affairs commentator before the revolution

 Emigrated to Berlin and later moved to Paris

 Authored works on emigration during the French Revolution and a book about Mongolia

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Section 3: Biography of Grigory (Gavriel) Adolfovich Landau

 Son of well-known publicist and publisher A. E. Landau

 Graduated from law faculty of St. Petersburg University

 Founder of Jewish Democratic Group and Union for Equal Rights for Jews in Russia

 Active Kadet Party member and contributor to various publications

Section 4: Russia And The Jews - Call for Responsibility

 Authors call on Jewish emigrants to admit mistakes and not judge Russia harshly

 Emphasize the importance of acknowledging responsibility and countering anti-Semitic slander

 Stress the need for moral duty and reconciliation with the Russian people

Section 5: Criticism of Russia And The Jews

 Indignation from emigrant Jewry towards the authors' lectures

 Accusations of being enemies of the Jewish people and abetters of reaction

 Response from Jewish Tribune criticizing the authors' views as irresponsible

Section 6: Debate on Jewish Responsibility

 Public debate organized in Paris on rise of anti-Semitism in Russia

 Discussion on past oppression affecting current relations between Jews and Russians

 Different perspectives on the nature of anti-Semitism in Soviet Russia

Section 7: Sensational Murder Trials

 Samuel Shvartsbard's trial for killing Petliura in Paris

 Defence claiming justified revenge for pogroms

 Mention of similar cases involving revenge killings of former White generals

Section 8: Anti-Jewish Sentiments in Europe

 Decline of anti-Jewish sentiments among Russian émigrés in the second half of the 1920s

 Comparison of émigré experiences to Jewish oppression in the Pale of Settlement

 Public debate in Paris on rising anti-Semitism in the USSR

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Section 9: Reflections on Anti-Semitism

 Analysis of anti-Semitism in the USSR and its impact on Jewish émigrés

 Debate on distinguishing Soviet anti-Semitism from historical Russian anti-Semitism

 Calls for deeper consideration of the issue beyond blaming Jews

Section 10: Need for Honest Dialogue

 Regret over lack of honest exchange of opinions in the debate

 Importance of candid discussions between anti-Semites and Jews

 Emphasis on goodwill and openness in addressing anti-Semitism issues

Pages - 371 -- 380

Section 1: Shulgin's Response and Anti-Semitic Book

 Shulgin responded to Litovtsev's desire for mutual comprehension between Jews and Russians
by writing a book titled "What We Don’t Like About Them," which was considered anti-Semitic.

 The proposed "interexchange of views" between Jews and Russians never took place due to the
impending catastrophe from Germany.

Section 2: Union of Russian-Jewish Intelligentsia

 A Union of Russian-Jewish Intelligentsia was established in Paris to bridge the gap between the
two cultures.

 Exile life created a disconnect between generations, leading to a decline in Russian Jews'
influence on global Jewry.

Section 3: Jewish Population Exodus in the 1920s

 In the 1920s, a significant exodus of the Jewish population to major cities like Moscow and
Leningrad occurred.

 By 1933, the Jewish population in Moscow had increased to 226,500 from 28,000 in 1920.

Section 4: Social Changes and Demographics

 The social and demographic changes in the Soviet Union during the 1920s were colossal.

 Thousands of Jews migrated to urban centers, with a large percentage settling in RSFSR.

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Section 5: Jewish Representation in Government

 Jews constituted a significant portion of the Soviet government in various regions.

 The percentage of Jews in urban areas equaled their representation in the government.

Section 6: Education and Intelligentsia

 Jews had wide access to higher education, making up 15.4% of university students in the USSR.

 Jewish youth were accepted into institutions of higher learning despite their bourgeois origin.

Section 7: Economic Changes and NEP

 During War Communism, the Russian bourgeoisie was purged, while the Jewish bourgeoisie
remained intact.

 Jewish NEPmen replaced the Russian bourgeoisie when the economy opened up under the New
Economic Policy (NEP).

Section 8: Anti-Semitism and Social Tensions

 Anti-Semitic tendencies arose in urban society and reached various levels, including the
Communist Party and local government.

 Social tensions emerged due to perceived Jewish dominance in power structures and cultural
spheres.

Section 9: Migration and Urbanization

 The Twenties saw a migration of Jews to Russian capital cities and industrial centers.

 Moscow experienced an influx of Jews, leading to concerns about housing shortages and
national dissatisfaction.

Section 10: Jewish Representation in Communist Party

 Jews held significant positions within the Communist Party, exceeding their proportion in the
general population.

 Jewish revolutionaries played a prominent role in revolutionary activities and leadership

positions.

Pages - 381 -- 390

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Section 1: Political Dynamics in Petrograd CP Organization

 In 1921, due to the preponderance of Jews in the Petrograd CP organization, the Politburo
decided to send ethnic Russian communists for publicity.

 Zinoviev objected to this decision, leading to the formation of a purely Russian opposition group
in Petrograd.

Section 2: Jewish Representation in Communist Party Leadership

 At the 12th Communist Party Congress in 1923, three out of six Politburo members were Jewish.

 There was a plan for an anti-Jewish revolt at the 13th Party Congress in May 1924.

Section 3: Composition of Cheka-GPU

 The Cheka-GPU held significant power after the Party.

 The proportion of national minorities in the Cheka apparatus decreased towards the mid-
Twenties.

Section 4: Influx of Jewish Cadres into OGPU

 The Twenties saw a significant influx of Jewish cadres into the OGPU.

 Jews were able to meet the needs of the OGPU and adapt to new conditions effectively.

Section 5: Prominent Jewish Chekists

 Dzerzhinsky's assistants included prominent Jewish figures like G. Yagoda, V.L. Gerson, and M.M.
Lutsky.

 Jewish Chekists played key roles in various regions and departments of the Cheka.

Section 6: Influence of Hasidic Jewish Families in Soviet Organizations

 The Nakhamkins, a Hasidic Jewish family, had members who rose to high positions in the Cheka,
GPU, NKVD, and prosecutor's office.

 Some family members changed their last names to assimilate better into Russian society.

Section 7: Perception of Power and Nationalities

 Political power in early Soviet Russia was internationalist but predominantly Russian.

 Despite the multinational makeup of leadership, there was an anti-Russian sentiment against
the state and traditions.

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Section 8: Western Observations of Soviet Delegations

 European diplomats noted that Soviet delegations and staff at diplomatic conferences were
mostly Jewish.

 Boris Yefimovich Stern played crucial roles in Soviet diplomacy but is now largely forgotten.

Section 9: Criticism and Defense of Jewish Representation

 Gorky criticized the high number of Jews in Soviet government positions, advocating for more
Russians in charge.

 Der Emes objected strongly to the idea of Jews stepping back from government roles.

Section 10: Jewish Representation in State Institutions

 Jews held significant positions in Soviet institutions like Gosbank, trade unions, and consulates
worldwide.

 Jewish representation in the Supreme Court, Procurator's office, and RKI was notable in the
1920s.

Pages - 391 -- 400

Section 1: Key Figures in Soviet Institutions

 Moses Frumkin was Deputy Narkom of Foreign Trade and effectively in charge of the entire
Narkomat.

 Vladimirov-Sheinfinkel held various positions such as Narkom of Provand of Ukraine, Narkom of

Agriculture of Ukraine, and Deputy Narkom of Finances of USSR.

 Z. Zangvil's newspaper article described a celebratory meeting of the Gosbank board of directors
in 1927, highlighting the importance of chervonets and praising Sheinman and Katzenelenbaum.

Section 2: Jewish Population in Government Service

 B. D. Brutskus discussed the opportunities for the Jewish population in government service post-
revolution.

 Upper-class Jews serving the Soviet government faced challenges and potential backlash.

 Larin and G. Pomerantz emphasized the role of Jewish public servants in the revolution and
government institutions.

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Section 3: Jewish Support for Communism

 Many Jews supported the Bolshevik cause due to perceived opportunities and benefits.

 The revolution was seen as a positive change by the majority of Jews, especially in Byelorussia
and Ukraine.

 Jewish support for the communists was influenced by the promise of equality and advancement.

Section 4: Rise of Anti-Semitism

 Solomon Luria noted the resurgence of anti-Semitism in Soviet Russia despite the absence of
legal restrictions on Jews.

 Events post-revolution fueled a new wave of anti-Semitism, with Jews being blamed for various
societal issues.

 Maslov highlighted the widespread hatred towards Jews in modern Russia, linking it to the
perception of Jewish power within Soviet institutions.

Section 5: Causes of Anti-Semitism

 Maslov identified ethnic cohesion among Jews and their dominance in key positions as
contributing factors to anti-Semitism.

 Tactless behavior of Jewish Bolsheviks and their actions were seen as provoking anti-Semitism.

 Pasmanik criticized impudent Jews in communist ranks for causing harm to Russia and Jewry.

Section 6: Concerns of Soviet Authorities

 The Soviet authorities became concerned about the rise of anti-Semitism in the 1920s.

 A commission was established to study the protection of Jews from anti-Semitic forces.

 Larin conducted a study on Jews and anti-Semitism in the USSR, addressing questions and
concerns raised by the public.

Section 7: Public Perceptions and Questions

 Public perceptions questioned the origins of Jews in Moscow, their authority in government,
and preferential treatment.

 Queries raised concerns about Jews' access to housing, financial resources, and professions.

 Observations included Jews avoiding physical labor, sticking together in professions, and not
engaging in farming.

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Section 8: Spread of Anti-Semitism

 Anti-Semitism spread widely across Russia, affecting areas where Jews were previously not
present.

 Various incidents and policies fueled anti-Semitic sentiments among Russian peasants and
workers.

 The identification of Soviet power with Jewish power contributed to the rise of anti-Semitism.

Section 9: Impact on Society

 Anti-Semitic sentiments were observed among both non-party and party members in Russia.

 The mass of workers showed dislike towards Jews, reflecting a growing Judæphobic mood.

 Anti-Semitism was becoming a serious issue in Great Russia, particularly in Moscow.

Section 10: Responses to Anti-Semitism

 Gorky highlighted the role of tactless behavior of Jewish Bolsheviks in fueling anti-Semitism.

 D. Pasmanik criticized impudent Jews in communist ranks for causing harm to Russia and Jewry.

 Concerns about the open participation of Jews in destructive processes fed anti-Semitic
sentiments.

Pages - 401 -- 410

Section 1: Introduction to Anti-Semitism in the USSR

 Larin investigates the rise of anti-Semitism in the USSR and its unexpected spread among
different societal groups.

 Anti-Semitic attitudes are observed among various segments of society, including the
intelligentsia, urban bourgeoisie, countryside, and working class.

Section 2: Anti-Semitism Among the Intelligentsia

 Dissatisfaction among the intelligentsia arises from Jews competing for government jobs.

 Anti-Semitic tendencies are noted in intellectual professions like medicine and engineering.

Section 3: Anti-Semitism Among the Urban Bourgeoisie

 Urban bourgeois philistinism is identified as the root of anti-Semitism.

 The battle against anti-Semitism in the bourgeoisie is linked to the destruction of the
bourgeoisie itself.

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Section 4: Anti-Semitism in the Countryside

 Anti-Semitism weakens in peasant masses due to the removal of private traders.

 Anti-Semitism resurfaces in areas where Jews have been resettled from former landowners.

Section 5: Anti-Semitism Among the Working Class

 Anti-Semitism grows stronger among workers, particularly in backward parts like women and
seasonal workers.

 Economic competition is not a factor in the rise of anti-Semitism among the working class.

Section 6: Actions Against Anti-Semitism

 Measures are taken by the Communist Party to combat anti-Semitism through educational
programs, public reports, and strict disciplinary measures.

 Aggressive actions are recommended to eradicate anti-Semitism from Soviet society.

Section 7: Anti-Semitism as a Tool of Counter-Revolution

 Anti-Semitism is viewed as a means of mobilization against Soviet power.

 Secret White Guard organizations are believed to be behind anti-Semitic agitation.

Section 8: Legal Measures Against Anti-Semitism

 Lenin's decree calls for severe punishment for active anti-Semites, including death for inciting
pogroms.

 Laws are enacted to prosecute those promoting ethnic hatred or dissension.

Section 9: Jewish Life During NEP Period

 Jewish population relied on humanitarian aid during War Communism.

 Jewish charities provided financial assistance and support to Soviet Jews.

Section 10: Impact of NEP on Jewish Population

 NEP improved economic conditions for Jews within the Soviet framework.

 Jewish merchants faced discrimination during the anti-capitalist assault at the end of NEP.

Pages - 411 -- 420

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Section 1: Jewish Population in the Soviet Union

 In the early 1930s, the entire Jewish male population in towns and shtetls faced torture
chambers of GPU during a campaign for gold and jewelry extortion.

 Due to socioeconomic experiments by Soviet authorities, only one-fifth of Soviet Jews lived in
traditional Jewish settlements by the 1930s.

 Many Jewish families moved to large cities to avoid stigma and persecution.

Section 2: Impact of Soviet Policies on Jewish Merchants

 Soviet policies like nationalization and socialization devastated middle classes, small merchants,
and craftsmen.

 Shtetl merchants faced challenges like lack of merchandise, solvent customers, high taxes, and
low liquidity.

 Many shtetl merchants had to close down their shops, leading to economic instability in Jewish
communities.

Section 3: G. Simon's Investigation and Publication

 G. Simon, an American businessman, investigated tool shortages of Jewish craftsmen in the

USSR in the late 1920s.

 Simon published a book titled "Jews Rule Over Russia" in Paris, describing oppression of Jewish
manufacturing and trade by Soviets.

 The book highlighted the gloomy mood among the Jewish populace and fears of mass-murder of
Jews during the revolution.

Section 4: Brutskus' Analysis of Jewish Population Under Communist Power

 B. D. Brutskus analyzed the situation of the Jewish population under communist power in
Ukraine and Byelorussia.

 Private enterprise declined, disenfranchising many Jewish merchants and artisans.

 The fight against private enterprise was seen as a fight against the Jewish populace.

Section 5: Three Periods of NEP and Jewish Population

 Brutskus identified three periods during the New Economic Policy (NEP) affecting the Jewish
population.

 Development of private enterprise faced challenges during different phases of NEP.

 Jewish craftsmen and merchants experienced fluctuations in rights and economic stability.

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Section 6: Jewish Colonization of Agricultural Land

 Soviet authorities promoted Jewish colonization of agricultural land for political and financial
support.

 The idea of colonization aimed to improve productivity and gain sympathy from foreign
bourgeoisie.

 Organizations like KomZET and OZET were established to facilitate Jewish resettlement on their
own land.

Section 7: International Support for Jewish Colonization

 International Jewish community supported the project of Jewish agricultural colonization in the
Soviet Union.

 Financial aid and resources were provided for Jewish settlers through agreements with
organizations like Agro-Joint.

 Plans for resettling Jewish families in Crimea and Ukraine gained momentum with global
support.

Section 8: Opposition to Jewish Colonization

 American Zionists objected to the OZET plan for Jewish colonization, seeing it as a challenge to
Zionism.

 Questions arose about the ethics of Russian Jews colonizing expropriated land.

 Jewish colonization efforts faced criticism and skepticism from various groups.

Section 9: Challenges and Hostility Towards Jewish Colonization

 Settlement of Jews in Crimea provoked hostility from Tatars and dissatisfaction among local
peasants.

 Rumors circulated about removal of land from non-Jews and strong support for Jewish settlers.

 Political actions were taken against those opposing Jewish colonization efforts.

Section 10: Outcome of Jewish Colonization Efforts

 Jewish colonization efforts faced challenges but gained strength over time.

 Closed trials and political convictions were used to suppress opposition to Jewish colonization.

 Jewish settlement plans in Crimea and Ukraine continued despite obstacles and criticisms.

Pages - 421 -- 430

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Jewish Settlements in Ukraine

 630 Jewish households moved into Kherson Province between the end of 1925 and July of 1927.

 In 1927, there were 48 Jewish agricultural settlements in Ukraine with a total population of
35,000.

 In Crimea, 4463 Jews lived in Jewish agricultural settlements in 1926.

 Contradictory claims about the number of Jews living in Jewish agricultural colonies: 220,000 by
1928 according to some sources, while Larin mentioned 200,000 by the beginning of 1929.

 Despite government assistance, the program of Jewish land colonization was considered a
failure due to settlers frequently returning to their place of origin or moving to cities.

Collectivization and Jewish Settlements

 Collectivization arrived in 1930, affecting the Jewish colonies.

 Semyon Dimanstein opposed universal collectivization in national regions to protect the Jewish
colony.

 The program of Jewish settlement in Ukraine and Crimea was halted under collectivization.

 The principal Soviet project of Jewish colonization was at Birobidzhan, intended to create a
national homeland for Jews.

 Challenges faced in Birobidzhan included poor living conditions, lack of agricultural progress,
and mass departure of settlers.

YevSek and Jewish Culture

 YevSek members influenced Jewish education and culture in the VKPb.

 YevSek promoted communist education in Yiddish and opposed traditional Jewish structures,
Zionism, and Hebrew.

 Activities of YevSek were contradictory, supporting Yiddish culture while battling against
Judaism.

 YevSek aimed to develop communist influence on Russian Jewry and create a Jewish Soviet
nation.

 YevSek's activities ceased in 1930, leading to the dissolution of the Bund movement.

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State of Jewish Culture in the USSR

 Hebrew culture was repressed and forbidden, seen as carrying religious and Zionist
connotations.

 Yiddish culture fared better, becoming an official language in certain regions.

 Growth of Yiddish schools in the 1920s through forced "Yiddishization" of Jewish schools.

 Independent Jewish schools of higher education existed until the early 1930s.

 Jewish culture in the 1920s was shaped by Soviet authorities, limiting access to Jewish history.

Pages - 431 -- 440

Russian Jewry in the Early Soviet Years

 The cultural situation of Jews in the USSR in the early Soviet years was assessed by Russian
Jewry.

 Yiddish newspapers were published, with Der Amos being a prominent one from 1920 to 1938.

 Yiddish literature was encouraged to portray a new Soviet Jew and turn away from historical
Jewish past.

 Prominent Jewish writers returned to the USSR, attracted by the cultural developments.

Yiddish and Hebrew Culture in the USSR

 Yiddish culture flourished with the establishment of professional Yiddish theater groups and
publications.

 Hebrew culture faced suppression, leading to the departure of some Hebrew writers for
Palestine.

 The Jewish Chamber Theater in Moscow thrived artistically and became a representative of
Soviet power.

 The history of the Hebrew theater Gabima was complex, facing persecution and eventual
dissolution.

Zionism in the Soviet Union

 Zionist organizations in the USSR faced accusations of collaboration and imperialism.

 The Kremlin had a dual policy towards Zionism, with varying levels of repression over the years.

 Arrests and trials of Zionists occurred, leading to exile or imprisonment.

 Underground Zionist movements existed but were eventually dispersed by the late Twenties.

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Impact on Jewish Society and Culture

 Young urban Jews were attracted to communist and Soviet culture, while resistance persisted
among religious and older Jews.

 Jewish society underwent significant changes, moving away from its historical past.

 Misfortunes post-revolution were attributed to the renunciation of religion and national culture
by Jewish youth.

 A sense of Jewish self-awareness remained despite the cultural shifts.

Jewish Religion Under Soviet Rule

 Bolshevik power was hostile to all religions, including Judaism.

 Tolerance towards Jewish religious practice varied during the Twenties.

 Attempts were made to close synagogues and institute Living Synagogues, which faced
opposition.

 Jewish religious literature continued to be published through private presses.

Pages - 441 -- 450

Jewish Community in Moscow

 Jewish community was the only religious group allowed to build religious buildings in Moscow.

 Three synagogues were built and remained open throughout the Thirties.

 Young Jewish writers and poets depicted empty synagogues, lonely rabbis, and the impact of
Soviet policies on religious practices.

Soviet Jewish Intelligentsia in the 1920s

 Jewish intelligentsia had opportunities in science and culture within Soviet restrictions.

 Jewish youth were prominent in moviemaking, with figures like B. Shumyatsky and S. Dukelsky
leading the industry.

 Notable Jewish contributions in cinematography included works by Dziga Vertov, Esther Shub,
Sergei Eisenstein, and others.

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Meyerhold and Soviet Theater

 Meyerhold was a significant figure in Soviet theater, known for his authoritarian style.

 Meyerhold's approach faced criticism for its dogmatism and lack of creativity.

 Other notable figures in Soviet theater included Mikhail Bulgakov and A. Tairov-Kornblit.

Jewish Artists and Musicians in the 1920s

 Artists like Marc Chagall emigrated, while others like Isaac Brodsky gained favor with Soviet
authorities.

 Jewish musicians contributed to Soviet musical life, with figures like Matias Sokolsky-Greenberg
and Moses Greenberg playing key roles.

 Leonid Utesov and composers like A. P. German and Y. Hayt contributed to Soviet mass singing
culture.

Jewish Opposition Against Stalin

 Vicious power struggles within the Party involved Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Stalin.

 Trotsky feared Stalin would use anti-Semitism against him, but Stalin avoided such tactics.

 Stalin maintained Jewish presence in the party apparatus and encouraged their expansion in
various fields.

Collectivization and Jewish Participation

 Jews played active roles in collectivization efforts, with some becoming commanders in rural
communities.

 The imposition of collectivization led to tensions between Jewish commissars and peasants.

 Collectivization was seen as a strategic blow against the Russian people, carried out mostly by
Lenin's design.

Persecution of Engineers and Suppression of Studies

 Trials targeted engineers, eliminating an older class predominantly Russian with some Germans.

 Study of Russian history, archeology, and folklore was suppressed, altering the understanding of
Russian identity.

 Decrees abolishing history and philology departments at Russian universities were signed into
existence by Lenin, impacting the study of Russian history.

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Impact on Russian Culture

 The Twenties saw a suppression of Russian culture, with changes in historical understanding and
national identity.

 The period was considered a dawn of liberated culture but led to a loss of Russian heritage.

 Russians themselves walked along a path that altered the perception of Russian history and
identity.

Pages - 451 -- 460

Section 1: Introduction to Counterrevolutionary Sentiments

 The text opens with a description of counterrevolutionary sentiments in the Soviet Union,
including derogatory terms used for ethnic Russians.

 Pravda published a poem in 1925 by V. Aleksandrovsky criticizing Russian culture and traditions.

 Calls were made to remove historical monuments and statues from prominent locations in
Moscow.

Section 2: Cultural Destruction and Censorship

 David Zaslavsky demanded the destruction of studios restoring ancient Russian art.

 Russian language and patriotism were suppressed in favor of Soviet conformity.

 Instances of destruction of churches and harassment of Russian Orthodoxy by atheist groups

were highlighted.

Section 3: Western Intellectuals' Views on Soviet Reality

 Western leftist intellectuals admired Soviet socialism based on ideas rather than nationality.

 Mention of executions of food workers during the Great Famine and the involvement of Jews in
these events.

 Efforts to raise protests against Soviet power among Western intellectuals were discussed.

Section 4: Perception of Jews in Soviet Russia

 Discussion on the perception that Jews were second-class citizens under Soviet power.

 Notion that Jews played a significant role in the ruling elite of the Soviet Union in the 1930s.

 Denial of guilt by many Soviet Jews regarding their involvement in the history of 20th century
Russia.

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Section 5: Industrialization in the 1930s

 The 1930s marked a period of intense industrialization in the Soviet Union.

 The first and second five-year plans required technical provisions and collaboration with
specialists from the capitalist West.

 The Soviet communists paid for industrial development with Russia's resources and trade
agreements.

Section 6: Wall Street's Relationship with Bolsheviks

 Wall Street had long-standing financial ties with the Bolsheviks, aiming to strengthen
international finance through centralized authority.

 American financiers supported collective enterprises in the Soviet Union despite ideological
differences.

 Trade links between America and the Soviet Union were openly acknowledged.

Section 7: Jewish Representation in Soviet Government

 Overview of prominent Jewish figures in Soviet government positions in the 1930s.

 Lazar Kaganovich retained a powerful position in the Politburo.

 Purges within the party apparatus affected Jewish representation.

Section 8: Jewish Presence in Party Apparatus

 Analysis of Jewish representation in key party positions after purges in the early 1930s.

 Comparison of Jewish membership in the Central Committee before and after the 16th Party
Congress.

 Jews held significant roles in the Communist Party's upper echelons.

Section 9: Continued Jewish Influence in Soviet Leadership

 Jews maintained leadership roles in various Soviet institutions and commissions.

 Specific individuals like Lazar Kaganovich and Grigory Leplevsky held influential positions.

 Jewish presence in crucial party posts was not always publicly announced.

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Section 10: Jewish Contribution to Soviet Ideology

 Jewish individuals were involved in managing key ideological establishments like the
Department of Press and Publishing.

 Jews continued to play a role in shaping Soviet propaganda and governance.

 Molotov's propaganda speech at the 8th Congress of Soviets emphasized Jewish contributions
to

Pages - 461 -- 470

Section 1: Jewish Representation in Command Posts

 Mekhlis became deputy narkom of defense and head of Political Administration of the Red
Army.

 Jews held command posts in various provinces and party committees, such as Mendel
Khatayevich, Yakov Chubin, and others.

 Geographical mobility and knowledge were valued among these secretaries in the 1920s.

Section 2: Jewish Narkoms in Government

 In 1936, there were nine Jewish narkoms in the government, including Litvinov, Yagoda,
Kaganovich, Rozengolts, and others.

 Various sectors like foreign affairs, internal affairs, trade, healthcare, and more were headed by
Jewish narkoms.

 Jewish names were also prominent among deputy narkoms in different people's commissariats.

Section 3: Great Turning Point and Collectivization

 The Great Turning Point occurred from the end of 1929 to the beginning of 1931.

 Yakovlev-Epshtein played a significant role in collectivization efforts.

 Key figures like M. Kalmanovich and V.G. Feigin were involved in collectivization progress.

Section 4: People's Commissariats and Trusts

 Various individuals like M.G. Gerchikov, Lev Maryasin, Solomon Krutikov, and A.P. Rozengolts
were involved in different commissariats and trusts.

 Jewish representation was notable in the People's Commissariats of Trade and Supply.

 Tsentrosoyuz played a role in Soviet pseudo-cooperation.

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Section 5: State Bank and Foreign Trade

 Individuals like Lev Maryasin and Solomon Krutikov were chairmen of the Gosbank.

 A.P. Rozengolts led the People's Commissariat of Foreign Trade.

 Sh. Dvoylatsky served as a Soviet trade representative in France.

Section 6: Economic Leadership in Stalin's Era

 Jews held significant positions in the economy in 1936.

 Notable Jewish representation in the board of the people's commissariat of domestic trade.

 Moisei Frumkin faced consequences for political mistakes in management.

Section 7: Construction Projects and Industrial Development

 Jewish individuals played key roles in construction projects and industrial development.

 Directors made strong-willed decisions contributing to completing projects.

 Soviet Jews obtained substantial power in state, industrial, and economic sectors.

Section 8: B. Roizenman and State Apparatus

 B. Roizenman received the Order of Lenin for adjusting the state apparatus for socialism.

 His role in special missions for the state apparatus abroad was highlighted.

Section 9: Jews in Diplomacy and Politics

 Jewish representation in diplomacy included prominent figures like Litvinov, Umansky, Surits,
and Shtein.

 Soviet plenipotentiaries in various countries were often of Jewish origin.

 Jews continued to work successfully in Soviet trade delegations.

Section 10: Jewish Role in Military Affairs

 Jewish officers served in the Red Army, including in high-ranking positions.

 Jews played significant roles in the Political Administration of the Red Army.

 Jewish presence was noticeable in various military structures and services.

Pages - 471 -- 480

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Section 1: Introduction of Jewish Chekists

 Mention of prominent Jewish Chekists in the NKVD.

 Not all mentioned individuals were Jews, but a significant number were.

 Jewish Chekists held important positions within the NKVD.

Section 2: Aces of Espionage

 Description of key figures like Naum Etingon and Lev Feldbin in espionage activities.

 Highlighting their roles in significant events such as orchestrating murders and overseeing
espionage rings.

 Emphasis on their impact on intelligence operations.

Section 3: Leadership Roles in NKVD

 Details about individuals like A.A. Slutsky, M. Berman, and others holding leadership positions in
the NKVD.

 Mention of their specific roles and responsibilities within the organization.

 Challenges in assessing their actions due to secrecy.

Section 4: Regional Plenipotentiaries of GPU-NKVD

 Listing Jewish plenipotentiaries in various regions during the 1930s.

 Describing their roles and influence in different provinces.

 Providing insights into the distribution of power within the NKVD.

Section 5: Movement of High-Ranking Officials

 Information on the movement of high-ranking officials between different posts and regions.

 Examples of individuals like Vladimir Tsesarsky and S. Mironov-Korol shifting roles.

 Illustrating the fluidity of positions within the NKVD.

Section 6: Impact of Soviet Occupation

 Discussion on the consequences of Soviet occupation in Baltic states.

 Mention of Kaplan's harsh actions leading to public outrage against Jews.

 Reflection on the repercussions of NKVD activities in occupied territories.

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Section 7: Literary References and Historical Context

 Reference to D.P. Vitkovsky's novel and its portrayal of Jewish investigators.

 Analysis of historical events and societal perceptions during Khrushchev's regime.

 Examination of attitudes towards Jewish representation in certain professions.

Section 8: Purges and Executions

 Documentation of the significant number of Jewish Chekists executed during Stalin's purges.

 Listing names of individuals and their fates during the Yezhov period.

 Impact of purges on the composition of leadership within the NKVD.

Section 9: Revelations and Secrecy

 Uncovering previously undisclosed biographies of key figures like Grigory Mayranovsky.

 Details about Mayranovsky's role in executing death sentences using poisons.

 Revelation of the invention of mobile gas chambers and their use in executions.

Section 10: Legacy and Historical Reflection

 Reflection on the legacy of Jewish Chekists and their impact on Soviet history.

 Consideration of the changing dynamics within the NKVD over time.

 Implications of the revelations and disclosures on understanding Soviet-era atrocities.

Pages - 481 -- 490

Section 1: Isai Davidovich Berg and the NKVD Executions

 Isai Davidovich Berg, head of the administrative section of the NKVD of Moscow Oblast in 1937,
organized executions during the Soviet era.

 Berg was responsible for carrying out sentences from the troika of the NKVD of Moscow Oblast,
involving transporting prisoners to execution sites.

 Due to the overwhelming number of executions, a time-saving method was invented where
victims were stripped, tied, and suffocated in a disguised bread truck using redirected exhaust
fumes.

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Section 2: Purges and Executions of Prominent Figures

 Many Party activists, Bolsheviks, and military commanders fell victim to the destructive wave of
purges in 1937-1938.

 Notable figures like Yakovlev, Kalmanovich, Rukhimovich, Kamenev, Zinoviev, and others were
executed or faced severe consequences during this period.

 The purge extended to Red Army commanders, with high losses in the Political Administration of
the Red Army during the massacre of 1937.

Section 3: Grigory Shtern's Military Career

 Grigory Shtern had a distinguished military career, advancing through various political and
military roles.

 He participated in battles at Lake Khasan in 1938 and conspired against Marshall Blücher,
eventually taking over his post.

 Shtern made a speech at the 18th Party Congress in 1939, mentioning the elimination of
prominent figures like Tukhachevskys and Gamarniks.

Section 4: Yakov Smushkevich's Career in Aviation

 Yakov Smushkevich, known as "General Douglas," rose through the ranks in aviation,
commanding air forces of the Red Army.

 He fought in Spain in 1936-37 and later commanded the aviation group at Khalkhin Gol on the
Manchurian-Mongolian border.

 Smushkevich was arrested in May 1941 and executed in the same year.

Section 5: Persecution of Diplomats and Administrators

 The wave of terror spared neither administrators nor diplomats, with many mentioned
individuals being executed.

 A list of persecuted individuals includes prominent names like Boris Belenky, Lev Gordon,
Solomon Kruglikov, and many others who faced arrests and executions.

Section 6: Fate of Prominent Russian Jewish Socialists

 Boris Osipovich Bogdanov, Boris Davidovich Kamkov-Kats, and Abram Rafailovich Gots were
notable Russian Jewish socialists who faced persecution.

 Their backgrounds, involvement in socialist movements, arrests, exiles, and eventual fates are
detailed, showcasing the hardships they endured under the Soviet regime.

 Despite their contributions and struggles against the Bolsheviks, these individuals faced
repeated arrests, exiles, and even execution during the tumultuous times.

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Section 7: Isai Davidovich Berg's Rehabilitation

 Isai Davidovich Berg, despite his involvement in organizing executions, was shot in 1939 for anti-
Soviet conspiracy.

 He was rehabilitated in 1956 without any issues, although the records of his case preserved the
story of his murderous invention.

 Berg's role in the executions and subsequent rehabilitation highlights the complexities and
contradictions of the Soviet era justice system.

Section 8: Impact of Purges on Military Commanders

 The purges of 1937-1938 had a significant impact on military commanders, with a large number
of Red Army officers being executed or facing severe consequences.

 Lists of executed military chiefs include a significant percentage of Jews, reflecting the diversity
of those affected by the purges.

 The loss of experienced military leaders during this period had long-lasting effects on the Red
Army's structure and operations.

Section 9: Legacy of Prominent Figures in Soviet History

 The commemoration roster lists numerous top-placed Jews who were executed or faced
persecution during the Soviet dictatorship.

 The fate of individuals like Lazar Aronshtam, Moisey Kalmanovich, Ilya Kit-Viytenko, and others
showcases the wide-ranging impact of the purges on various sectors of society.

 These individuals played significant roles in Soviet history but met tragic ends due to political
circumstances and power struggles within the regime.

Section 10: Struggles of Russian Jewish Socialists

 Boris Osipovich Bogdanov, Boris Davidovich Kamkov-Kats, and Abram Rafailovich Gots were
Russian Jewish socialists who faced persecution for their political beliefs and actions.

 Their involvement in socialist movements, arrests, exiles, and eventual fates highlight the
challenges faced by individuals who opposed or struggled against the Bolshevik regime.

 Despite their efforts to bring about change and uphold their convictions, these individuals
endured years of hardship, imprisonment, and even execution under the Soviet regime.

Pages - 491 -- 500

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Section 1: Biographies of Socialist Revolutionaries

 Mikhail Yakovlevich Gendelman (born 1881) was an attorney-at-law and a Socialist

Revolutionary who participated in various revolutionary activities, including the February
Revolution in Moscow.

 Mikhail Isaakovich Liber-Goldman (born 1880) was one of the founders of the Bund and a
member of the Central Committee of the General Jewish Labor Bund of Lithuania, Poland, and
Russia in Emigration.

Section 2: Persecution of Jews under Stalin

 Several prominent Jewish individuals faced persecution, arrests, and executions during the
Stalin era, including scholars, scientists, and political figures.

 The fate of many Jews included repeated sentences, exiles, and deaths during the purges of
1937-38.

Section 3: Fate of the Shpilrein Brothers

 The three Shpilrein brothers from Rostov-on-Don, Jan, Isaak, and Emil, faced persecution and
were either arrested or executed during the Stalin era.

 Jan was a mathematician, Isaak a psychologist, and Emil a biologist, each contributing to their
respective fields before facing tragic ends.

Section 4: Impact on Peasants and Ukrainian-Jewish Relations

 Millions of peasants suffered due to collectivization policies, leading to widespread devastation

and loss of livelihood.

 Tensions between Ukrainians and Jews escalated during the famine of 1932-33, with suspicions
arising that the famine was orchestrated by Jews.

Section 5: Anti-Semitism and Soviet Policies

 Official Soviet policy did not exhibit hostility towards Jews, with anti-Semitism being prosecuted
as a crime.

 Foreign Jewish circles perceived the Soviet regime as protective against pogroms and anti-
Semitic violence.

Section 6: Struggle Against Chauvinism

 The Party emphasized an energetic struggle against chauvinism, particularly Great Russian
chauvinism, during the 1930s.

 Stalin's efforts to combat chauvinism were met with enthusiasm, although the threat of Russian
patriotism was highlighted as a concern.

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Section 7: Return to National Traditions

 Concerns arose about the return to national traditions of Moscovite Russ and Imperial Russia
within the Soviet dictatorship.

 Alarm was raised about the danger of Russian patriotism resurging, posing a threat to the
regime.

Section 8: Jewish Publicists' Perspectives

 Jewish publicists expressed concerns about the resurgence of Russian patriotism and its
potential impact on the Soviet regime.

 Even during WWII, mass patriotism was viewed with caution by Jewish publicists, highlighting
the complex relationship between patriotism and Soviet Jewry.

Section 9: Critique of Soviet Patriotism

 Soviet patriotism was critiqued for its foundation in the traditions of the Black Hundreds, raising
concerns among Jewish publicists.

 The development of Soviet patriotism during the Great Patriotic War was viewed through a
critical lens by Jewish commentators.

Section 10: Reflections on Russian Patriotism

 The alarm over Russian patriotism persisted among Jewish publicists for decades, even in
hindsight of WWII.

 The role of patriotism in saving Soviet Jewry during the war was acknowledged, but concerns
about the implications of patriotism remained prevalent.

Pages - 501 -- 510

Russian Patriotism and Jewish Intelligentsia

 The text questions the existence of Russian patriotism and its treatment of Jewish culture and
society.

 It discusses the impact of Soviet policies on Jewish intelligentsia, including arrests, executions,
and closures of cultural and educational institutions.

 Persecutions extended to writers in Yiddish, closure of Jewish schools, and suppression of Jewish
cultural expression.

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Education and Cultural Decline

 Jewish education faced challenges with a decline in Yiddish schools and institutions of higher
education.

 Persecution of Jewish writers, critics, and educators led to a significant decline in Jewish cultural
development.

 Literature in Yiddish during the 1930s was marked by socialist realism and flattery for Stalin.

Hebrew Culture and Zionist Movement

 Hebrew culture was suppressed, and the Zionist movement faced crackdowns and arrests.

 Closure of semi-legal cheder schools, yeshivas, and synagogues impacted Jewish religious life.

 The text highlights the persecution of rabbis and restrictions on religious practices.

Birobidzhan: Jewish Autonomous Oblast

 Efforts to establish a Jewish colony in Birobidzhan faced challenges with low Jewish population
and lack of agricultural success.

 Despite cultural developments in Yiddish, the region struggled economically and socially.

 The text discusses the failure to create a strong Jewish presence in Birobidzhan.

Jewish Demographics in the 1930s

 Migration of Jews to major cities increased significantly in the 1930s.

 Jews played prominent roles in government, industry, and office work.

 Jewish youth showed high levels of educational attainment compared to other populations in
the USSR.

Pages - 511 -- 520

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Jewish Influence in Soviet Culture

 Yury Levitan was the voice of Moscow and a favorite of Stalin, known for reading Stalin's
speeches and war announcements.

 Musicians like Mikhail Gnesin, Isaak Dunaevsky, and Matvey Blanter made significant
contributions to Soviet music.

 Jewish songwriters and composers, such as the Pokrass brothers and Oskar Feltsman, enjoyed
fame and success in the 1930s.

 The movie industry in the 1930s focused on glorifying socialism with many Jewish filmmakers
participating in ideological films.

Prominent Figures in Soviet Filmmaking

 Filmmakers like F. Ermler, S. Yutkevich, and Mikhail Romm created films promoting socialist
values.

 Despite arrests in the cinema industry, filmmakers were not persecuted in the 1930s.

 Jewish filmmakers played a significant role in shaping Soviet cinema during this period.

Jewish Presence in Soviet Propaganda

 Jewish individuals were involved in various branches of printed propaganda works in the Soviet
Union.

 Notable figures like Boris Efimov and R. Karmen contributed to propaganda efforts through
caricatures and documentaries.

 Jewish involvement in propaganda extended to mass brochures and publications aimed at

influencing public opinion.

Jewish Contribution to Soviet Science

 Jews played a prominent role in Soviet science, especially in critical technological fields.

 By the late 1930s, the percentage of Jewish scientists and lecturers in institutions of higher
learning had increased significantly.

 Jewish scientists faced repressions, but their contributions to fields like physics and military
technology were substantial.

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Shifts in Jewish Representation in Soviet Life

 In the late 1930s, Jews held key positions in various sectors of Soviet society, including
engineering, medicine, education, arts, and law.

 The significant representation of Jews in professional roles created tensions within the state.

 Observations by S. Schwartz highlighted a gradual displacement of Jews from positions of power

in public life.

Stalin's Relationship with Jewish Leaders

 Stalin allied with Jewish leaders of the Communist Party but also harbored potential hostility
towards Jews.

 During the purges of the 1930s, important Jewish communists were removed from power.

 Lazar Kaganovich remained an exception to the decreasing Jewish influence in the party.

Restrictions on Jewish Access to Education

 In the second half of the 1930s, Jews were gradually barred from entering certain educational
institutions in the Soviet Union.

 Rumors circulated about secret quotas on Jewish admissions to higher education institutions
enforced from 1939.

 Molotov's actions in dismissing Jews from positions of power indicated a shift in policy towards
Jewish individuals.

European Jewry's Sympathy Towards the USSR

 European Jewish intelligentsia sought support from the Comintern against anti-Semitism.

 The Comintern's approval of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact had negative consequences for East
European Jewry.

 Polish Jews fleeing German armies found varying treatment by the Soviet authorities during
World War II.

Soviet Response to Jewish Refugees

 Soviet government closed the border to Polish Jewish refugees in November 1939.

 Around 300,000 Jews managed to migrate from Western to Eastern Poland in the early stages of
the war.

 Soviet authorities demanded that Polish Jews register as Soviet citizens after evacuating them
deeper into the USSR.

Pages - 521 -- 530

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Section 1: Soviet Union's Acceptance of European Jewish Refugees

 The Soviet Union provided refuge to 90% of all European Jewish refugees fleeing from Hitler.

 Before the war, there were 3,020,000 Jews in the USSR, and after annexations and taking in
refugees, the total increased to around 5 million.

 Jews became the fourth largest people in the USSR after the three Slavic peoples.

Section 2: Soviet-German Collaboration and Jewish Population

 Despite the Soviet-German non-aggression pact, the legal status of the Jewish population
remained unchanged during the collaboration.

 Polish Jews supported the advancing Red Army with enthusiasm.

 Mutual non-aggression pact evoked fear about the future of Soviet Jewry.

Section 3: Perception of Soviet Welcome by East European Jews

 East European Jews sensed a catastrophe coming from Germany and saw the Soviet welcome as
a form of salvation.

Section 4: Nationalities in Gulag Camps

 Nationality played a significant role in the treatment of prisoners in the Gulag camps.

 Ethnic proportions among Idiots (inmates with easier duties) varied, with certain nationalities
being overrepresented.

Section 5: Survival Strategies in Gulag Camps

 Different nationalities in the Gulag camps employed various strategies for survival.

 Jews were sometimes perceived as having advantages in securing less labor-intensive roles.

Section 6: Jewish Inmates' Experiences in Gulag Camps

 Contrasting views exist on the experiences of Jewish inmates in the Gulag camps.

 Some accounts suggest that life for Jewish inmates was easier, while others argue they faced
double oppression.

Section 7: Support Networks Among Jewish Inmates

 Jewish inmates in the Gulag camps often formed support networks based on shared ethnicity.

 Free Jewish employees in the camps were inclined to help Jewish prisoners.

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Section 8: Notable Figures and Incidents in the Gulag Camps

 Accounts of specific individuals and incidents shed light on the dynamics within the Gulag
camps.

 Examples include the actions of Naftaly Frenkel and Lev Ilyich Inzhir.

Section 9: Recognition and Awards in the Gulag System

 Recognition and awards within the Gulag system were sometimes granted based on political
affiliations rather than merit.

 Notable figures involved in the construction of infrastructure projects received high honors.

Section 10: Controversies and Criticisms Surrounding Jewish Involvement in the Gulag System

 Controversies arose regarding the representation of Jews in key positions within the Gulag
system.

 The author addresses criticisms and accusations related to the treatment of Jewish inmates in
the camps.

Pages - 531 -- 540

Section 1: Description of Half-Colonel Arm

 Half-colonel Arm was described as a tall black-haired Jew with a notorious reputation.

 His orderly was involved in selling ethanol to others.

 Arm's wife held a paid accountant position but did not actually work, as her duties were
performed by an inmate.

Section 2: GULAG Administration and Trust of Arais

 Anecdotes about corruption and misconduct within the GULAG administration were shared.

 Mention of the Trust of Arais, a tunnel-building project between Sakhalin and the mainland.

 Stories of individuals like Boris Gammerov and Ingal who faced different fates in the camp.

Section 3: Examples of Jewish Individuals in Labor Camps

 Accounts of Jews like Volodya Gershuni, Jog Masamed, Tatyana Moiseevna Falike, and Vladimir
Efroimson doing common labor in camps.

 Details of their principled choices and challenges faced due to their Jewish identity.

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Section 4: Notable Figures in Camp Uprisings and Artillery Squadrons

 Mention of Gersh Keller, a leader in the Kengir uprising, and Yitzhak Kaganov, a commander
sentenced for Zionism.

 Information about Alexander Ginsburg's response during his trial and his work for the Russian
Public Relief Fund.

Section 5: Influence of Idiots in Camps

 Description of the influence and actions of Solomon Solomonov, David Burstein, and Isaac
Bershader in the camp setting.

 Instances of manipulation and power dynamics among camp officials and inmates.

Section 6: Conflict and Misunderstanding Among Jewish Inmates

 Narratives of Jewish individuals like Vladimir Efroimson and Jacov Davydovich Grodzensky facing
judgment and ridicule from fellow inmates.

 Themes of austerity, dedication, and societal perceptions explored through their experiences.

Section 7: Challenges Faced by the Author in Depicting Jewish Characters

 Author's struggles in portraying Jewish characters truthfully while navigating sensitivities and
criticisms.

 Anecdotes of feedback received from readers, including V. L. Teush's objections to the portrayal
of Solomon Solomonov.

Section 8: Impact of Soviet-German War on Jews

 Accounts of the Jewish Catastrophe during the Soviet-German War, detailing mass killings and
hardships faced by Soviet Jews.

 Mention of prominent Jewish figures who perished or were saved during the war.

Section 9: Evacuation of Jews During the War

 Discussion on the evacuation efforts undertaken by Soviet authorities to save Jews during the
war.

 Estimates and accounts of successful evacuations of Jewish populations from various cities.

Section 10: Reflections on Jewish Survival and Loss

 Reflections on the survival and loss of Jewish individuals during the war, including those who
were saved through evacuation.

 Insights into the impact of the war on Jewish communities and the efforts made to protect them
amidst the conflict.

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Pages - 541 -- 550

Evacuation of Jews from German-Occupied Territories

 Priority given to evacuating Jews by Soviet authorities.

 Thousands of trains and haywagons used for Jewish evacuation.

 Estimates suggest around 1,000,000 to 1,100,000 Jews managed to escape Eastern regions
occupied by Germans.

Evacuation of Jews from Newly Incorporated Territories

 Lightning-speed German attack left little chance for escape in newly incorporated territories.

 Only about 10-12% of the Jewish population in these areas managed to escape.

 Approximately 2,226,000 Jews escaped German occupation within the new USSR borders.

Resettlement of Evacuees

 Majority of Jews resettled beyond the Ural Mountains, including Western Siberia, Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan.

 Around one and a half million Jews were evacuated to Central Asian Republics.

 No organized evacuation into Birobidzhan; housing available for up to 11,000 families.

Challenges to the Narrative of Evacuation

 Later sources began to challenge the narrative of organized evacuation of Jews.

 Disputes regarding the existence of specific orders for Jewish evacuation.

 Recognition of the magnitude of evacuation efforts despite differing perspectives.

Evacuation Council and Priorities

 Evacuation Council established shortly after German invasion.

 Priorities included evacuating state agencies, industries, workers, and young people.

 Approximately 12 million people evacuated from threatened areas to the rear by November
1941.

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Jewish Representation Among Evacuees

 Jews overrepresented among evacuees due to social structure.

 Jews evacuated by all available means without discrimination.

 Share of Jews among evacuees larger than their share in urban population.

Soviet Silence on Jewish Evacuation

 Lack of public announcements or press coverage on overrepresentation of Jews among

evacuees.

 Jews not discriminated against during evacuation but done silently.

 Propaganda for foreign consumption highlighted Jewish suffering.

Soviet Response to German Atrocities

 Limited coverage of Nazi atrocities against Jews in Soviet press.

 Stalin's rare mention of Jews in a speech.

 Declaration highlighting Hitler's plan for total extermination of Jewish population.

Awareness of Jewish Catastrophe

 Soviet Jews had limited awareness of the scale of the Jewish Catastrophe.

 Soviet press coverage of German anti-Semitism in the mid-thirties.

 Silence in Soviet media about persecution of Jews post Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact.

Impact of WWII Experience on Perception

 Many Jews considered post-WWII propaganda about Nazi anti-Semitism as false.

 Jews relied on personal experiences rather than media reports.

 Memory of German treatment of Jews during WWI influenced perceptions.

Pages - 551 -- 560

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Jews' Response to Occupation

 In 1941, a significant number of Jews remained in occupied territories voluntarily.

 Jews in cities like Voronezh, Rostov, and Krasnodar hoped to continue their work despite the
occupation.

 Soviet press censored information about atrocities against Jews, but Yiddish newspaper Einigkeit
openly discussed these issues from 1942.

Establishment of Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (EAK)

 EAK was established in 1941 with influential members like Solomon Mikhoels and Shakhno
Epstein.

 EAK aimed to influence international public opinion and raise funds for the Red Army.

 The Committee's success led to the establishment of a permanent Jewish Committee in the
Soviet Union.

Role of Jews in Soviet Military

 Jews were prominent in top command positions in the Red Army during WWII.

 Over 100 Jewish generals served in the Red Army during the war.

 Jews also held key roles in military administration, science, and technology.

Recognition of Jewish Soldiers

 Thousands of Jews were awarded orders and medals for courage and heroism in combat.

 Jewish soldiers received recognition as Heroes of the Soviet Union.

 Jews were among the top recipients of military decorations in the Soviet Union during WWII.

Perceptions of Jewish Participation in War

 There were beliefs and accusations that Jews avoided combat units during the war.

 Anti-Semitic sentiments regarding Jewish participation in the war were prevalent.

 Despite examples of Jewish bravery, doubts and criticisms persisted about Jewish contributions
to the war effort.

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Estimates of Jewish Participation in Soviet Army

 Estimates suggest that around 420,000-430,000 Jews fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army
against the Nazis.

 Additional estimates include thousands of Jewish partisans who fought against the German
invaders.

 Lower estimates indicate over 15,000 Jews fought in underground organizations and partisan
units in the Soviet Union.

Challenges Faced by Jewish Soldiers

 Jewish soldiers faced challenges and prejudices within the army and society.

 Accusations of Jews evading military service or front line duty were common.

 Post-war sentiments reflected doubts and criticisms about Jewish contributions to the war
effort.

Impact of Jewish Soldiers

 Jewish soldiers made significant sacrifices and contributions to the war effort.

 Many Jewish soldiers displayed bravery and dedication on the front lines.

 Despite challenges and prejudices, Jewish soldiers played a crucial role in the Soviet Army during
WWII.

Pages - 561 -- 570

Section 1: Mobilization of Eastern Jews

 Arad assumes the proportion of mobilized Jews was similar to the average percentage of
mobilized for the entire USSR population during the war, around 13-13.5%.

 Estimated 390,000-405,000 Eastern Jews served in the army out of slightly more than 3 million
total.

Section 2: Mobilization of Western Jews

 Approximately 30,000 Jewish youths were enlisted in Western Byelorussia and Western Ukraine
before being transferred to the Labor Army due to reliability concerns.

 By the end of 1943, re-mobilization efforts began, including 6,000-7,000 Western Jewish
refugees fighting in national Baltic divisions.

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Section 3: Total Number of Jews in Military Service

 Author concludes that at least 50,000 Jews from annexed territories served in the Red Army.

 Overall number estimated by Arad for Jews in military service between 1941-1944 is 420,000-
430,000.

Section 4: Comparison with Commonly Used Figures

 Arad challenges the commonly used figure of 500,000 soldiers, suggesting a base of 3,700,000-
3,850,000 people would be needed.

 Maximum estimate for total number of Eastern and Western Jews who escaped German
occupation was 2,226,000.

Section 5: Mobilized Personnel Numbers

 Data from the Institute of Military History shows mobilized personnel numbers during the Great
Patriotic War for various nationalities.

 Jews accounted for 434,000 mobilized personnel during the war.

Section 6: Representation of Jews in the Red Army

 Contrary to popular belief, the number of Jews in the Red Army was proportional to the size of
the mobilization base of the Jewish population.

 The fraction of Jews participating in the war matched their proportion in the population.

Section 7: Role of Jews in Military Leadership

 Jews were disproportionately represented among senior officers in the Red Army, particularly in
political leadership roles.

 Percentage of Jews in political leadership of the army was three times higher than overall
percentage of Jews in the USSR population.

Section 8: Jewish Professionals in Military Roles

 Jewish doctors and military engineers held significant positions in the Red Army, including
generals in Medical Corps and Veterinary Corps.

 Proportion of Jews among military doctors increased during the war due to high representation
in medicine and engineering professions.

Section 9: Participation of Jews in Various Roles

 Not all Jews served on the front lines; many contributed in support roles such as medical staff,
engineers, and propaganda.

 Concentration of Jews was higher in rear positions compared to frontline combat.

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Section 10: Diverse Contributions of Jews

 Examples of Jews engaging in espionage activities against Hitler's regime during the war.

 Instances of Jews serving in non-combat roles or facing challenges based on anti-Semitic

sentiments during evacuation to Central Asia.

Pages - 571 -- 580

Russian Jews and Anti-Semitism in Central Asia

 Russian Jews, seen as bureaucrats with wealth, faced hostility from locals for inflating market
prices.

 Hitler's propaganda influenced anti-Semitic attitudes in Central Asia during the Soviet regime.

 Evacuation of organizations into hinterland areas highlighted social contrasts between locals
and privileged bureaucrats.

Anti-Semitism in German-Occupied Territories

 Testimonies from Ukraine post-liberation revealed hostile attitudes towards Jews.

 German occupation led to a significant increase in anti-Semitism in Ukraine, Moldova, and

Lithuania.

 Local populations viewed Jews as informants and agents of the NKVD, contributing to animosity.

Pogroms in Baltic States

 Hatred towards Jews in the Baltics intensified during Hitler's invasion of Soviet Russia.

 Lithuanian partisans collaborated with the SS to exterminate thousands of Jews.

 Pogroms and mass executions of Jews occurred in Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia under German
control.

Actions in Byelorussia

 Germans faced resistance from locals in Byelorussia regarding anti-Jewish policies.

 Secret German documents revealed lack of support from the population for extermination of
Jews.

 Local sentiment in Byelorussia was sympathetic towards Jews and critical of German actions.

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Ukrainian Nationalists and Jewish Extermination

 Ukrainian nationalists allied with Germans against Bolsheviks and targeted Jews.

 OUN adopted resolutions supporting extermination of Jews in Ukraine.

 Ukrainian auxiliary police assisted Germans in slaughtering thousands of Jews in various

locations.

Einsatzgruppen Operations

 Special groups (Einsatzgrüppen) were established by the SS for executing hostile individuals,
including Jews.

 Einsatzgruppen operated in different regions of the USSR, reporting directly to Reinhard

Heydrich.

 Extermination of Jews in Soviet Russia varied in methods and locations, lacking a standardized
system.

Mass Executions in Western USSR

 Documented numbers of Jews exterminated in cities of Western USSR were staggering.

 Mass exterminations took place in Vilnius, Riga, Minsk, Rovno, Mogilev, Vitebsk, and other
locations.

 Babi Yar in Kiev became a symbol of Nazi atrocities, with tens of thousands of Jews executed.

Symbolism of Babi Yar

 Babi Yar executions in Kiev symbolized the cold-blooded nature of Nazi extermination.

 Over 33,000 Jews were methodically shot at Babi Yar over two days.

 The executions at Babi Yar have become a symbol in world history, representing the horrors of
the Holocaust.

Widespread Tragedy in Occupied Soviet Territories

 The Catastrophe claimed victims from all occupied Soviet territories.

 Tens of thousands of Soviet prisoners of war died in camps near Babi Yar.

 Millions of Soviet prisoners of war perished during the early years of the war, often overlooked
in commemorations.

Pages - 581 -- 590

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Section 1: Mass Killings and Deportations in Occupied Territories

 Thousands of Jews were killed in various locations such as Kherson, Nikolayev, Dnepropetrovsk,
Mariupol’, Kharkov, Simferopol’, and Western Crimea.

 In November 1941, about 55,000 Jews were shot in the Domanevskiy District.

 By the end of 1941, over 22,000 Jews were killed in Kherson and Nikolayev, with similar
numbers in other cities.

Section 2: Changes in German Strategy

 The German High Command shifted focus from blitz tactics to a prolonged war.

 Some ghettoes were spared extermination temporarily to utilize Jewish labor for the war
economy.

 Ghettoes survived in cities like Riga, Vilnius, Kaunas, Minsk, and others due to labor needs.

Section 3: Resumption of Mass Killings

 In spring 1942, mass killings resumed in Western Byelorussia, Western Ukraine, Southern Russia,
and Crimea.

 Approximately 30,000 Jews were deported to Treblinka and Auschwitz.

 Jews in various regions like Polesia, Pinsk, Brest-Litovsk, and Smolensk were eradicated.

Section 4: Resistance Efforts and Partisan Activities

 Underground groups formed in ghettoes to organize escapes.

 Soviet guerrillas' attitudes towards Jews varied, with instances of anti-Semitism among some
detachments.

 Partisans assisted fleeing Jews, conducted attacks on small towns, and helped thousands hide in
forests.

Section 5: Challenges Faced by Jewish Partisans

 Anti-Semitic sentiments among Soviet guerrillas posed challenges for Jewish partisans.

 Instances of clashes and separations within partisan units due to growing numbers of Jews.

 Improved conditions for Jews with disciplined personnel arriving from the Soviet Union.

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Section 6: Soviet Jewish Losses During the War

 Estimates of total losses among Soviet Jews during WWII vary between different sources.

 Figures suggest significant losses among Soviet Jews under Nazi rule.

 Demographic studies indicate substantial casualties within the Jewish population.

Section 7: Reflections on the Catastrophe

 The Catastrophe aimed at eradicating European Jewry, including Soviet Jews.

 Various reflections among Jews on the Catastrophe's impact and historical significance.

 The Catastrophe led to intensified Jewish identity and diverse interpretations of its causes.

Section 8: Legacy of the Catastrophe

 The Catastrophe became a central theme in Jewish identity and memory.

 Different perspectives on the Catastrophe's impact on Jewish consciousness and national

identity.

 Criticisms of excessive focus on the Catastrophe as a defining element of Jewish identity.

Section 9: Re-examination of the Catastrophe

 Ongoing re-evaluation of the Catastrophe among Jews.

 Hannah Arendt's perspective on the Catastrophe and its causes within Jewry.

 Acknowledgment of Jewish participation in historical events leading to the Catastrophe.

Section 10: Lessons Learned and Future Perspectives

 Continuous examination of the Catastrophe's causes and implications.

 Calls for recovery from the trauma of Auschwitz and normalization of Jewish identity.

 Emphasis on understanding the Catastrophe's complexities and avoiding oversimplification.

Pages - 591 -- 600

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Section 1: Attitudes of Jews towards the Catastrophe

 Prof. Branover believed the Catastrophe was a punishment for sins, including leading the
communist movement.

 Some contemporary Jews found such conclusions insulting and blasphemous.

 The Catastrophe served as moral justification for Jewish chauvinism.

 Lessons of the Second World War led to the growth of Jewish nationalism.

Section 2: Moral Capital of Auschwitz

 A Jewish publicist from Germany stated that the moral capital gained by Jews due to Auschwitz
seemed depleted.

 Jews were urged to break the mirror and look around, realizing they are not alone in the world.

 Calls for not mixing ancient blood with alien blood emerged.

Section 3: Russian Self-Criticism

 There was a call for Russian self-criticism regarding the brutality of the Revolutionary period and
Soviet times.

 Russians were urged to perceive their history as possibly a punishment from a higher power.

 Acknowledgment of the role of useless rulers and personal worthlessness in ruining Russian
history.

Section 4: Soviet Jews during Stalin's Era

 Soviet Jews faced persecutions under Stalin, including targeting of "cosmopolitans" and the
Doctors' Plot.

 Stalin initiated campaigns to weaken Jewish presence and influence in the Soviet system.

 Changes in bureaucracy and propaganda subtly marginalized Jews in various sectors.

Section 5: Post-War Repatriation

 Wartime Jewish refugees faced hostility upon returning to Siberia, Central Asia, and Ukraine.

 Khrushchev upheld instructions not to employ Jews in positions of authority in Ukraine.

 Anti-Semitic incidents and massacres occurred post-war, reflecting tensions.

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Section 6: Jewish Projects in Crimea and Birobidzhan

 Plans for a Jewish Republic in Crimea and Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
were discussed.

 Stalin rejected the Crimean project due to strategic concerns.

 Jewish resettlement efforts in Birobidzhan faced challenges and arrests.

Section 7: Changing Attitudes in Ukraine

 Ukrainian government started a campaign against anti-Semitism post-war.

 Jews were promoted in the party and appointed to key positions.

 Many non-Polish Jews relocated to Poland after the war.

Section 8: Creation of Israel and Soviet Jews

 Stalin initially supported the creation of Israel but later changed policies towards Jews.

 Soviet Jews showed enthusiasm for Israel, leading to mass applications for relocation.

 Stalin feared a schism in Jewish national feelings and altered his policies.

Section 9: Shift in Policies Towards Jews

 Stalin began acting quietly but determinedly against Jews from late 1948 onwards.

 Jewish leaders felt fear and concern about anti-Jewish attitudes.

 Discrimination against Jews in the Soviet Union became a focus of anti-Soviet propaganda.

Section 10: Impact of Cold War on Soviet Jews

 Discrimination against Jews in the USSR became a main anti-Soviet card of the West during the
Cold War.

 Ehrenburg's article stating Jews are doomed to assimilate caused dismay among Soviet Jews and
in America.

 Discrimination against Jews in the Soviet Union was highlighted as a human rights issue.

Pages - 601 -- 610

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Section 1: Rise of the EAK

 The EAK (Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee) gained influence in the USSR, functioning as a
representative body for Soviet Jews.

 It had administrative apparatus, a newspaper, and a publishing house, becoming a symbol of

Jewish national autonomy.

 EAK executives enjoyed privileges like decent salaries, publishing opportunities abroad, and
travel permissions.

Section 2: Crackdown on EAK Leadership

 Lozovsky, a key figure in the EAK, was removed from his positions due to suspicions of Jewish
concentration in Sovinformburo.

 The Central Committee criticized EAK for supporting Zionist propaganda instead of focusing on
ideological warfare against Western influences.

 EAK's activities were restricted, leading to its gradual dismantling.

Section 3: Persecution of EAK Members

 EAK Chairman Mikhoels faced suspicions of gathering private information about Stalin.

 Mikhoels was murdered in 1948 under the guise of an accident, causing shock among Soviet
Jewry.

 Other notable EAK members were secretly arrested and interrogated intensively.

Section 4: Campaign Against "Cosmopolitans"

 Stalin initiated a campaign against "cosmopolitans," many of whom were Jews camouflaging
their origins.

 The campaign aimed to displace Jewish intellectuals from various spheres of Soviet life.

 Jews faced public humiliation, job dismissals, and restrictions in education and cultural
institutions.

Section 5: Purges in Scientific and Technical Fields

 Jews were gradually removed from prestigious positions in scientific and technical fields post-
World War II.

 Notable Jewish figures faced dismissals and restrictions in academia and industry.

 The purging campaigns extended to defense, aviation, and automobile industries, affecting
Jewish professionals.

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Section 6: Restrictions on Jewish Participation

 Positions of importance in the KGB, party apparatus, and military were closed to Jews.

 Quotas were imposed on Jewish admissions to educational and cultural institutions.

 Jews faced oppression through discriminatory practices in various sectors.

Section 7: Impact on Jewish Elite

 Middle stratum of Jewish elite, including officials, journalists, and professors, bore the brunt of
post-war purges.

 Despite the campaign, highly educated Jews still held significant positions.

 Jewish representation in prestigious roles decreased post-World War II.

Section 8: Cultural Suppression

 Jewish culture revival post-war was curtailed and suppressed in 1948-1951.

 Jewish theaters, book publishing houses, newspapers, and radio broadcasts were shut down.

 Jewish generals and officers in the military were forced to resign by 1953.

Section 9: Dismantling of EAK

 Investigation into EAK activities reopened in 1952, leading to the execution of key EAK
members.

 Stalin proceeded cautiously in dismantling the EAK to avoid international backlash.

 Arrests among Jews intensified, spreading fear among Soviet Jews.

Section 10: Doctors' Plot

 The Doctors' Plot emerged in 1951, accusing prominent physicians of criminal treatment of state
leaders.

 Similar accusations had been made in the past, but the plot gained momentum in the early
1950s.

 The case marked a period of heightened persecution and suspicion within the Soviet leadership.

Pages - 611 -- 620

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Section 1: Background of the Doctors' Plot

 Stalin's fear of plots and mistrust of doctors fueled the affair.

 Prominent doctors were arrested in groups starting in September 1952.

 Investigations involved beatings, wild accusations, and connections to foreign intelligence

organizations.

Section 2: Involvement of Highly Placed Doctors

 Dr. Levin cooperated with the Cheka since 1920.

 Several doctors signed accusative resolutions against Professor Pletnev.

 Doctors were subjected to torture in connection with the "case of doctor-saboteurs."

Section 3: Public Announcement and Reaction

 On January 3, 1953, Pravda and Izvestia announced the arrest of doctor-saboteurs.

 Soviet Jews were forced to sign a letter condemning Jewish bourgeois nationalists.

 The Doctors' Plot led to a wave of repression against Jewish physicians.

Section 4: Fear of Mass Eviction and Deportation

 Rumors spread about mass eviction of Jews to remote parts of Siberia.

 G. Kostyrchenko refuted the myth of deportation of Jews.

 Many Soviet Jews felt ashamed for believing in the Doctors' Plot.

Section 5: Events Surrounding Stalin's Death

 A bomb exploded at the Soviet embassy in Tel Aviv on February 9, 1953.

 Diplomatic relations with Israel were broken off on February 11, 1953.

 Stalin died 51 days after the public announcement of the Doctors' Plot.

Section 6: Changes After Stalin's Death

 The MGB ceased to exist on March 6, 1953, incorporated into the MVD by Beria.

 Beria dismissed the Doctors' Plot and accused Ryumin of its fabrication.

 Diplomatic relations with Israel were restored three months later.

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Section 7: Hopes and Disappointments Among Soviet Jews

 Soviet Jews hoped for positive changes under Beria but were soon disappointed.

 Old Zionists were released from camps during the thaw period.

 First Zionist groups started to emerge at local levels post-Stalin.

Section 8: Shift in Soviet Foreign Policy

 Soviet Union vetoed UN Security Council attempt to open Suez Canal to Israeli ships in March
1954.

 Khrushchev declared a pro-Arab, anti-Israel turn in Soviet foreign policy in late 1955.

 Khrushchev's report at the 20th Party Congress did not emphasize Jewish victims or the anti-
Jewish nature of the Doctors' Plot.

Section 9: International Pressure and Demands

 Foreign visitors questioned Soviet government about the Jewish situation.

 Western communist parties and Jewish social circles demanded explanations from Soviet
leaders.

 Khrushchev's responses regarding Jews and Jewish culture were met with criticism and demands
for justice.

Section 10: Jewish Sentiments and Recommendations

 David Burg's formula advised Jews to hold on to the Soviet government despite oppression.

 Some Jews shifted focus from Soviet government's anti-Semitism to Russian people's anti-
Semitism.

 Recollections of the YevSek as a guardian of Jewish national interests resurfaced among Soviet
Jews.

Pages - 621 -- 630

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Khrushchev's Policies Towards Jews

 Khrushchev had an equivocal policy towards Jews, allowing some cultural activities while
implementing hostile policies against the Jewish religion.

 Jewish cultural events like literary soirees and song performances were authorized in the late
1950s and early 1960s.

 Publications of books by Jewish authors resumed, and a Yiddish magazine was established in
Moscow in 1961.

 However, restrictions on Jewish religious practices intensified, with obstacles to baking matzoh
and closure of synagogues.

Jewish Cultural Life in the Soviet Union

 By 1966, around 100 Jewish authors were writing in Yiddish in the Soviet Union.

 Jewish theater reopened in 1966 after a long hiatus.

 Despite cultural initiatives, there was a lack of enthusiasm from the wider Jewish population,
leading to half-empty halls during performances and poor book sales.

 The Jewish situation in the USSR was described as "cultural orphanhood" by S. Schwartz.

Soviet Policies Towards Zionism

 Soviet authorities adopted hostile policies towards Zionism post-Suez War to secure friendship
with Arab nations.

 Zionism was presented as a caricature with anti-Jewish messages in Soviet propaganda.

 Struggle against Zionism intensified in the late 1950s, targeting not just Judaism but Jews in
general.

Challenges Faced by Jewish Religious Practices

 Restrictions on Jewish religious practices included hindering printing of prayer books, banning
matzoh baking, and closing down synagogues.

 Only a limited number of synagogues were allowed to function, with significant decline in Jewish
religious life observed in the 1960s.

 Jewish religious leaders were used for political shows by the Soviet authorities for foreign policy
purposes.

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Jewish Population in the Soviet Union

 In 1959, the USSR Census reported 2,268,000 Jews living in the country, with a majority residing
in urban areas.

 Concentration of Jews in large cities increased over the years, impacting their living standards
and cultural activities.

 Migration to cities like Moscow, Leningrad, and Kiev contributed to the rise in Jewish population
in these urban centers.

Education and Professional Representation of Jews

 Relative share of Jewish students in higher education decreased from pre-war levels to the
1960s.

 Number of Jewish scientists declined from 1960 to 1973, while Jewish representation in various
professions like medicine remained significant.

 Jews faced challenges in accessing higher education and professional opportunities due to
unofficial discriminatory practices.

Jewish Representation in Various Sectors

 Jews held influential positions in sectors like art, literature, medicine, and legal professions in
the Soviet Union.

 Jewish presence in Soviet bureaucracy was noted, with instances of displacement in national
republics.

 Jewish emigrants highlighted their roles in publishing and film industries back in the USSR.

Anti-Semitic Sentiments and Discrimination

 Anti-Semitism grew stronger in the second half of the 1960s, leading to discreditation,
humiliation, and isolation of the Jewish population.

 Alarming signals from economic barons raised concerns among Jews about their activities in key
economic spheres.

 An anti-Semitic campaign against theft of socialist property was initiated in 1961, leading to
punitive decrees by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

Pages - 631 -- 640

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Section 1: Introduction to Soviet Policies and Executions

 The Soviet Union implemented harsh measures against economic crimes, including foreign
currency speculations and bribery.

 Capital punishment was introduced for these crimes, with retroactive application leading to
executions starting in the first year.

 Jewish individuals were disproportionately targeted in trials related to economic crimes, with a
significant number being sentenced to death.

Section 2: Anti-Jewish Sentiment in Trials

 Court reports specifically highlighted the Jewish identity of defendants in economic crime trials.

 Publicity surrounding the trials emphasized the Jewish names of defendants, contributing to an
anti-Jewish sentiment.

 The Vilnius case of speculators in foreign currency in 1962 involved all Jewish defendants,
further fueling anti-Jewish sentiments.

Section 3: International Response and Anti-Semitism

 Western media interpreted Soviet actions as anti-Semitic, leading to protests from figures like
Bertrand Russell.

 The Soviet authorities faced criticism for their treatment of Jews, prompting a softening of
policies post-Khrushchev era.

 The campaign against Zionism in the press created challenges for Soviet Jews to prove loyalty
and distance themselves from Jewish identity.

Section 4: Social Dynamics and Encounters

 Encounters between the young Soviet political establishment and Jews in various fields led to
tensions and antagonism.

 The shift in power from a Jewish elite to a Russian one resulted in social conflicts and ridicule
towards Jews.

 By 1965, Soviet anti-Semitism began to diminish due to various social influences and changes in
policies.

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Section 5: Revival of Jewish Identity

 Events like the Suez Crisis and the International Youth Festival in Moscow sparked a revival of
Zionist activity among Soviet Jews.

 The Khrushchev thaw period allowed Soviet Jews to express their Jewish identity openly and
engage in cultural activities.

 Works like Yevtushenko's "Babi Yar" and literature with Jewish themes contributed to the
strengthening of Jewish identity in the 1960s.

Section 6: Softening of Policies and Propaganda

 Post-Khrushchev era saw a relaxation of restrictions on Jewish practices like baking matzoh.

 While economic crime campaigns faded, propaganda against Zionist activities among Soviet
Jews intensified.

 Political fluctuations and changes in Jewish policies served to awaken Soviet Jews to their
identity.

Section 7: Preservation of Jewish Identity

 Despite assimilation efforts, Soviet Jews retained a distinct Jewish character and sense of
national solidarity.

 The official mouthpiece Sovetish Heymland acknowledged the unique character of Russian-
speaking Jews.

 Testimonials from individuals like Natan Sharansky highlighted the enduring Jewish identity
among Soviet Jews.

Section 8: Historical Ordeals and Awakening

 Soviet Jews experienced historical ordeals like the Jewish Catastrophe and campaigns against
"cosmopolitans."

 The Six-Day War and threats from the Soviet authorities fueled a spiritual awakening and sense
of kinship with Israel.

 A small group of scientists played a crucial role in rebuilding Jewish national consciousness in
Russia.

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Section 9: Campaign Against Zionism and National Consciousness

 The Soviet authorities launched a campaign against "Judeo-Zionist-Fascism," targeting Soviet

Jews.

 Despite fears and propaganda, a growing explosion of Jewish national consciousness emerged
among Soviet Jews.

 The victory of the Israeli Army in the Six-Day War contributed to the awakening of national
consciousness among Soviet Jews.

Section 10: Emigration and National Revival

 The victory of the Israeli Army spurred Zionist activity and attempts to create a united Zionist
Organization in the USSR.

 Increasing numbers of Soviet Jews applied to emigrate, seeking to sever ties with the Soviet
Union.

 The process of national revival and the surge in Zionist groups across the country marked a
turning point for Soviet Jews.

Pages - 641 -- 650

Section 1: Failed Attempt to Hijack an Airplane

 Failed attempt to hijack an airplane on June 15, 1970.

 Dymshits-Kuznetsov hijacking affair considered a historic landmark in the fate of Soviet Jewry.

Section 2: Nationalism in Europe

 Europe at the beginning of the 20th century envisioned worldwide enlightenment.

 Nationalism exploded among all nations in the 20th century.

 Nationalist feelings continue to gain strength.

Section 3: The Jewish Question in the Soviet Empire

 Propaganda in the Soviet empire denied the existence of the Jewish question.

 The Jewish question's significance in Russian society and history.

 Socialists viewed the Jewish question as hindrance attributed to capitalism.

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Section 4: Evolution of Views on the Jewish Question

 Pre-revolutionary Russian society considered omission of the Jewish question anti-Semitic.

 European socialism viewed national issues as obstacles.

 Shift in understanding of the Jewish question post-World War II.

Section 5: Impact of World Events on Perception of the Jewish Question

 Six-Day War led to a shift in perception among Soviet and world Jewry.

 Emergence of Israel added complexity to socialist views on the Jewish question.

Section 6: Reactions to Political Events

 Examples of individuals' reactions to political events like the Six-Day War.

 Intensity of feelings regarding the Jewish question in the 20th century.

Section 7: Perception of the Jewish Question in the Soviet Union

 American radio broadcasts highlighted the importance of the Jewish question in the Soviet
Union.

 Perception of discrimination by American Jews despite privileged status.

Section 8: Omnipresence of the Jewish Question in World History

 The Jewish question intertwined with broader historical contexts.

 Not a national question in the narrow sense but interconnected with larger themes.

Section 9: Jews Abandoning Bolshevism

 Observations on Jews abandoning support for the communist regime.

 Shift in Jewish support from communism to opposition.

Section 10: Reflections on Jewish Role in Communism

 Disappointment among Jews with communist power post-Soviet-German War.

 Split of Soviet Jews from communism and growing national consciousness.

Pages - 651 -- 660

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Section 1: Jewish Activity at the Beginning of the Century

 Jewish activity focused on building a new fair society.

 The army of revolution was described as plain rabble, implementing totalitarianism.

 Jews were victimized leaders during the consolidation of the regime.

Section 2: Disillusionment and Purge

 The disappointment among Jews grew as they were pushed out of ruling, administrative,
cultural, and scientific circles.

 The disillusionment led to a lack of strength to discuss the situation even with their children.

 Soviet history was characterized by oppression and exclusion of Jews.

Section 3: Acknowledging Jewish Responsibility

 Calls for acknowledging Jewish responsibility for communism and its impact on Russia.

 Some Jews expressed contrasts, comprehension, and remorse regarding their role in Soviet
history.

 Discussion on moral responsibility and acknowledgment of actions by Jews in the Soviet Union.

Section 4: Role of Jews in Opposition Movements

 Jews became reliable supporters and members of democratic and dissident movements.

 Jewish intellectuals played significant roles in opposing the Soviet regime.

 Dissidents, including Jews, faced challenges and sacrifices in their opposition efforts.

Section 5: Individual Cases of Jewish Dissidents

 Notable Jewish dissidents like Alexander Ginzburg, Pavel Litvinov, and Larisa Bogoraz played key
roles in challenging the Soviet regime.

 Jewish dissidents faced persecution and imprisonment for their activism.

 Dissidents did not regret their Jewish heritage despite facing hardships.

Section 6: Transformation in Public Consciousness

 Outstanding individuals like Alexander Galich represented the changing attitudes in Soviet
intellectual circles.

 Galich transitioned from a successful scriptwriter to a dissenting singer-songwriter.

 His anti-regime songs addressed Stalin's era and societal issues.

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Section 7: Themes in Galich's Songs

 Galich's songs called for moral cleansing, resistance, and reflection on past events.

 He criticized the current establishment and privileged lifestyle of leaders.

 Galich's songs resonated with societal discontent and challenged the status quo.

Section 8: Impact of Galich's Songs

 Galich's songs personalized the suffering, persecution, and struggles of the people.

 He created a strong impression of being a Gulag inmate through his songs.

 Galich's music reflected the spirit of the time and resonated with societal grievances.

Section 9: Symbolism and Representation in Galich's Work

 Galich symbolized the social revival of the 1960s through his music.

 His songs resonated with the Soviet intelligentsia and addressed societal issues.

 Galich's transition from mainstream success to dissenting artist marked a shift in public
consciousness.

Section 10: Personal Evolution of Galich

 Galich's evolution from a successful playwright to a dissenting singer-songwriter showcased

personal courage and commitment to societal change.

 His songs reflected societal discontent and challenged the established norms.

 Galich's music became a powerful tool for expressing dissent and advocating for social change.

Pages - 661 -- 670

Section 1: Reflections on Past Actions

 The text discusses the internal conflict of a former camp inmate who participated in Soviet lies.

 Questions are raised about the individual's lack of personal remorse or repentance for past
actions.

 The individual eventually realizes the need to speak the truth and renounce their previous pro-
official works.

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Section 2: Transition to Speaking the Truth

 The individual, no longer in Russia, acknowledges their role as a well-off screenwriter and
playwright within the Soviet system.

 A shift occurs where the individual feels compelled to speak loudly and share the truth about
their past experiences.

Section 3: Critique of Gospel Commandments

 The individual challenges traditional beliefs by expressing contempt for certain aspects of
existence.

 There is a portrayal of the individual assuming the role of a judge despite not being elected,
showcasing growing confidence in their beliefs.

Section 4: Intellectual Anarchism

 The text criticizes the individual for promoting intellectual anarchism that lacks clear ideas or
resolute offers.

 The individual's words are described as muzzling any coherent thought and leading to a sense of
aimless wandering.

Section 5: Jewish Identity and Pain

 The individual's lyrics often reflect a deep connection to Jewish identity and the pain associated
with it.

 Examples such as references to Auschwitz, Jewish symbols, and historical events highlight the
recurring theme of Jewish suffering in the individual's work.

Section 6: Portrayal of Jews in Lyrics

 The text points out that the individual's portrayal of Jews in their lyrics often focuses on
humiliation, suffering, or imprisonment.

 There is a lack of representation of prosperous or non-oppressed Jews in the individual's poems,

perpetuating a specific narrative of Jewish experience.

Section 7: Critique of Audience's Response

 The audience is criticized for wholeheartedly accepting sentimental lines without considering
the broader context of Soviet Jewry.

 The text highlights the difficulty of remembering negative aspects of one's own history.

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Section 8: Satire Targeting Russians

 The individual's satire extends to targeting Russians, portraying them as informers, prison
guards, or fools.

 The text describes how the individual's songs invoke social anger towards Russians through
derogatory imagery and details.

Section 9: Lack of Positive Russian Representation

 The individual's work lacks positive portrayals of Russian heroes, soldiers, intellectuals, or
decent camp inmates.

 Russians are depicted as drunk, idle, foolish individuals, reflecting a caricatured or pitied view of
the Russian population.

Section 10: Critique of Russia

 The text includes scathing critiques of Russia, labeling it as brimming with filth and despair.

 The individual's words express desperation and disillusionment with the state of Russia,
highlighting a sense of hopelessness.

Pages - 671 -- 680

Section 1: Galich's Internal Struggle

 Galich faced a dilemma between the legendary Russian city of Kitezh and the present reality.

 He expressed his conflict through poetic words about the vicious circle and the inability to close
or open it.

 Galich left with a statement emphasizing his connection to Russia as a poet.

Section 2: Departing Jews' Perception of Russia

 Some departing Jews drew inspiration from Galich's songs to break away from Russia.

 They viewed leaving Russia as a painful but necessary step towards finding their own home.

 The departure of Jews marked a significant historical movement away from Soviet communism.

Section 3: Accusations Against Russia

 Jewish emigrants, while leaving Bolshevism, directed blame towards the Russian people for
various issues.

 There was a lack of remorse or acknowledgment of past involvement in supporting the regime.

 Criticisms included accusations of ruining democracy and supporting oppressive regimes.

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Section 4: Views on Bolshevik Revolution and Russian Intelligentsia

 Different perspectives were presented on the Bolshevik Revolution and the role of the Russian
intelligentsia.

 The guilt of the intelligentsia for subsequent events in Russian history was debated.

 The totalitarian rule in Russia was attributed to the choice of the Russian people.

Section 5: Critiques of Russian History and Culture

 Chaadayev's theories were used to criticize Russian history and culture.

 Negative expressions about Russian culture entered samisdat publications and contemporary
slang.

 Emotions of contempt and hatred towards Russia were expressed by some intellectuals.

Section 6: Criticisms of Russian Society

 Arkady Belinkov criticized Russian society and its perceived lack of revolutionary spirit.

 Belinkov's writings showcased strong anti-Russian sentiments and bitterness.

 Dissident Jews were questioned for their repudiation of Bolshevism based on these criticisms.

Section 7: Anti-Russian Sentiments Abroad

 A collection published in London included derogatory remarks about the Russian soul and
character.

 Insulting judgments about Russians were repeated without protest or doubt.

 The tradition of criticizing Russia dates back to the 19th century and continues into modern
times.

Section 8: Reflections on Russian National Identity

 The text reflects on the perception of Russian national identity and character.

 Contempt towards Russian culture and society is highlighted through various quotes.

 The portrayal of Russia as a cesspool and the lack of protest against such views are discussed.

Section 9: Impact of Jewish Emigration

 Jewish emigration led to open criticisms of Russia in the Western world.

 Criticisms focused on the Russian people, society, and historical events.

 The departure of Arkady Belinkov and his writings exemplified anti-Russian sentiments among
dissidents.

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Section 10: Conclusion on Anti-Russian Sentiments

 The text concludes with reflections on the acceptance of anti-Russian sentiments in intellectual
circles.

 Insulting judgments about Russia are normalized and not met with protest.

 The tradition of criticizing Russia is acknowledged as longstanding and deeply ingrained.

Pages - 681 -- 690

Section 1: Criticism of Russian Orthodoxy

 Telegin criticizes Russian Orthodoxy for not earning the credence of intellectuals.

 The text questions if the Russian people only temporarily submitted to Christianity for 950 years
and waited for a moment to get rid of it during the revolution.

Section 2: Criticism of Russian Publicists

 Russian publicists, including S. Rafalsky, are criticized for their distorted consciousness regarding
Orthodox Holy Russia.

 Some publicists describe Russian Orthodoxy as a "Hottentot religion" or "idiocy perfumed by

Rublev, Dionysius, and Berdyaev."

Section 3: Grigory Pomerants' Views

 Grigory Pomerants rises above controversies and discusses the fate of nations and the
intelligentsia.

 Pomerants emphasizes the importance of the solidarity of the intelligentsia across borders.

Section 4: Nationality and Identity

 Pomerants suggests ignoring nationality when making personal, psychological, or social

judgments.

 The text explores the complexities of nationality and belonging in relation to writing and
identity.

Section 5: Correspondence with Pomerants

 Solzhenitsyn's correspondence with Pomerants involves discussions on handling the Jewish

question in literature.

 Pomerants advocates for avoiding judgment based on nationality and focusing on shared
humanity.

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Section 6: Mutual Understanding Between Russians and Jews

 Pomerants engages in a polemic against Solzhenitsyn, emphasizing the need for mutual
understanding between Russians and Jews.

 The text highlights tensions and misunderstandings between the Russian and Jewish
communities.

Section 7: Inferiority Complex in Russian History

 The text discusses how an inferiority complex among Russian leaders led to military conquests
and influenced the Revolution of 1917.

 There is a critique of Russian socialism being seen as a direct heir of Russian autocracy.

Section 8: Critique of Russian Culture and History

 The text critiques Russian culture for its perceived hostility towards other cultures and its
unique national characteristics.

 Russian history is condemned for its bloodshed and provocations, leading to negative
perceptions of Russian nationalism.

Section 9: Jewish Sentiments Towards Russians

 The text explores Jewish sentiments towards Russians, highlighting resentment and contempt
towards Russian culture.

 There is a discussion on the portrayal of Russians and Jews in literature and historical contexts.

Section 10: Contemporary Views on Russian Revival

 Contemporary Jewish authors express fear and hostility towards the idea of Russian revival,
fearing the replacement of Soviet culture with Russian culture.

 The text reflects on the complexities of Russian-Jewish relations and the challenges of
overcoming historical animosities.

Pages - 691 -- 700

Section 1: Call for Repentance

 The author calls on Russians and Jews to share responsibility for historical atrocities committed
during the Soviet administration.

 Emphasizes the importance of exchanging contrition for past actions and encourages
repentance for involvement in oppressive systems.

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Section 2: Invitation to Jews for Honest Reflection

 Urges Jews to look into the oppressive depths of the early Soviet system beyond well-known
figures like Trotsky, Kamenev, and Zinoviev.

 Encourages reflection on the roles played by lesser-known individuals like Isai Davidovich Berg in
creating harmful technologies.

Section 3: Diverse Jewish Voices

 Acknowledges the diversity among Jews in responding to historical events.

 Highlights the importance of voices from different waves of Jewish emigration in fostering
understanding and support between Russians and Jews.

Section 4: Recognition of National Guilt

 Discusses the concept of national repentance and the need for acknowledging national guilt.

 Mentions the importance of learning from the German example of facing historical mistakes and
embracing national repentance.

Section 5: Intellectual Contributions

 Recognizes the contributions of Jewish intellectuals in fighting communist lies and supporting
persecuted individuals in Russia.

 Highlights the role of individuals like M. Agursky, D. Shturman, and A. Nekrich in journalism and
historical research.

Section 6: Challenges to Remembrance and Repentance

 Describes the backlash faced by those advocating for remembrance and repentance, both from
extreme nationalists and within Jewish communities.

 Illustrates how calls for repentance can be misconstrued as anti-Semitic or unpatriotic.

Section 7: The Beginning of Exodus

 Traces the start of the "Age of Exodus" for Soviet Jews to the late 1960s, following events like
the Six-Day War and changes in emigration policies.

 Discusses the impact of these events on ethnic consciousness and attitudes towards assimilation
among Soviet Jews.

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Section 8: Perceptions of Oppression

 Explores the sense of oppression felt by many Soviet Jews, despite a seemingly higher standard
of living.

 Notes that cultural oppression was often more prominent than economic oppression among
cultivated Jews.

Section 9: Cultural Identity Struggles

 Examines the struggle of Soviet Jews to retain their presence in Russian culture while facing
xenophobia and discrimination.

 Highlights the challenges faced by Jews who identified with Russian culture but were treated as
outsiders.

Section 10: Importance of Mutual Understanding

 Stresses the necessity for mutual understanding between Russians and Jews, rooted in shared
historical experiences.

 Calls for honesty, openness, and a willingness to confront past wrongs as essential for building a
better future together.

Pages - 701 -- 710

Section 1: Soviet Jews' Desire for Assimilation

 Soviet Jews aspired to become equal with Russians and be indistinguishable from them.

 The silence about their Jewish identity created tension within them, reminding them of who
they are.

 Some Soviet Jews felt spiritually impoverished after trying to transform into Russians.

Section 2: Alienation and National Identity

 Some Soviet Jews, especially in the cultural stratum, felt alienated and not fully belonging
anywhere.

 The feeling of being different from others in Russia led to a sense of not belonging.

 Some individuals found it unbearable to live in a country where they didn't feel at home.

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Section 3: Awakening of Jewish Ethnic Consciousness

 A natural awakening of Jewish national identity occurred among Soviet Jews.

 The emergence of Jewish groups and underground centers for Hebrew and Jewish history
studies started in the mid-1960s.

 The hijacking incident in the early 1970s acted as a breakthrough for Jewish self-identification.

Section 4: Transition to Mass Movement

 The Jewish movement transitioned from underground to a mass, open phenomenon.

 Soviet Jews began signing open letters demanding to be released to Israel.

 The Zionist movement was reborn, echoing the call "Let my people go!"

Section 5: Trials and Stimulus for Ethnic Consciousness

 Trials in Leningrad became a powerful stimulus for the development of Jewish ethnic
consciousness.

 The establishment of samisdat journal "The Jews in the USSR" covered the struggle for
emigration rights and Jewish culture development.

 Only a minority of Jews were initially involved in the emigration movement.

Section 6: Opposition and Fear

 Some Soviet Jews opposed the rise of Jewish ethnic consciousness due to fear and concerns
about career advancement.

 The Soviet government intensified propaganda against Israel and Zionism to deter the newly
conscious Jews.

 A denunciatory public press conference aimed to denounce Israeli aggression and Zionism.

Section 7: Public Reactions and Criticisms

 Public figures like I. Zilberberg publicly rebuked the official stance against Israel and Zionism.

 Mikhail Kalik addressed a letter about his loyalty to Jewish culture to the Russian intelligentsia
before leaving for Israel.

 Grigory Svirsky faced consequences for speaking out against anti-Semitism and decided to leave
for Israel.

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Section 8: Struggle for Emigration Rights

 Soviet Jews engaged in various forms of protest and activism to fight for the right to emigrate to
Israel.

 Support from Jewish communities abroad played a crucial role in the struggle for emigration
rights.

 Material assistance and economic support from Jews abroad empowered refuseniks in Moscow.

Section 9: Tax on Educated Emigrants

 The Soviet government proposed a tax on educated emigrants leaving for other countries.

 International outrage erupted over the tax on educated emigrants, leading to widespread
protests.

 The Soviet government eventually revoked the tax order due to intense international pressure.

Section 10: Reflections on National Identity

 Some Soviet Jews reflected on their past focus on settling debts with Russia rather than
embracing their Jewish identity.

 The struggle for emigration rights showcased determination and inventiveness among Soviet
Jews.

 International support and solidarity were crucial in empowering Soviet Jews in their fight for
emigration rights.

Pages - 711 -- 720

Section 1: Introduction to Trade Agreement and Jackson Amendment

 In April 1973, union leader George Meany criticized the trade agreement between the USA and
the USSR.

 Senators passed the agreement with the addition of the "Jackson amendment," linking it to the
freedom of Soviet Jews to emigrate.

 The Jackson amendment highlighted the specific focus on Jewish emigration from the USSR.

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Section 2: International Response to Soviet Jewish Emigration

 The international community's response to Jewish emigration from the USSR was initially
focused on Soviet Jews.

 Support for Jewish emigration grew in America and Europe through various organizations and
demonstrations.

 Nobel laureates and academics also supported individual cases of Jewish emigration.

Section 3: Impact of Soviet Refusal on Jewish Activists

 The Soviet government's refusal of the trade agreement shifted the focus back to Jewish
activists in the USSR and abroad.

 Support for Jewish emigration continued to increase despite the Soviet government's actions.

 Various campaigns and protests aimed at supporting Jewish emigration were organized globally.

Section 4: Patterns of Jewish Emigration from the USSR

 Mass Jewish emigration from the USSR began in 1971, with varying numbers leaving each year.

 Emigrants primarily went to Israel initially, but later preferences shifted towards other countries
like the United States.

 Different regions within the USSR experienced varying levels of Jewish emigration.

Section 5: Changing Perceptions of Israel

 The Yom Kippur War in 1973 altered perceptions of Israel among Soviet Jews considering
emigration.

 Israel's image changed from a secure refuge to a country facing internal challenges.

 Decreasing numbers of Soviet Jews chose Israel as their destination over time.

Section 6: Challenges Faced by Soviet Jews in Israel

 Initial waves of emigrants to Israel were idealistic, but subsequent waves faced challenges
adjusting to Israeli society.

 Many Soviet Jews found Israel lacking in intellectual opportunities and cultural compatibility.

 A growing prejudice against emigrating to Israel emerged among Soviet Jews in the mid-1970s.

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Section 7: Criticisms of Israeli Society

 Soviet Jews criticized Israel for its perceived authoritarianism and lack of intellectual freedom.

 The perception of Israel as a closed society led many Soviet Jews to reconsider their decision to
emigrate there.

 The notion of exchanging one authoritarian regime for another influenced opinions on
emigrating to Israel.

Section 8: Influence of Zionist Beliefs on Jewish Emigration

 Contrary to popular belief, Zionist beliefs were not the primary motivator for Soviet Jews to
emigrate.

 The desire to escape Soviet restrictions and bureaucratic obstacles played a significant role in
emigration decisions.

 Some Soviet Jews felt driven into Jewishness and Zionism due to their struggles within the Soviet
system.

Section 9: Emotional Environment Surrounding Departure

 The act of departure for Soviet Jews was accompanied by a complex emotional environment.

 Many Soviet Jews left reluctantly, feeling torn between leaving familiar surroundings and
traditions.

 Emigration decisions were often made based on practical considerations rather than emotional
attachment.

Section 10: Reflections on Jewish Emigration from the USSR

 Soviet Jews faced a mix of motivations and emotions when deciding to emigrate.

 The departure of Soviet Jews to various destinations reflected a range of personal and societal
factors.

 The act of emigration symbolized both liberation from Soviet constraints and a search for
intellectual freedom.

Pages - 721 -- 730

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Section 1: Growing Desire to Emigrate Among Soviet Jews

 Soviet Jews desired to emigrate coinciding with the dissident movement in the USSR.

 Some Jewish intellectuals saw emigration as a new form of intellectual development and
political cause.

 Dilemma faced by Zionists in deciding whether to maintain a political struggle within Russia
while aiming to leave.

Section 2: Relationship Between Jewish Movement and Dissidents

 Activists in the Jewish movement supported the Helsinki Group of dissidents, leading to
government repression.

 Some dissidents used emigration as an escape from political battles for safety.

 Views on the impact of Jewish emigration on dissidence and freedom movements.

Section 3: Justifications and Criticisms of Emigration

 Cynical justifications for Jewish emigration and its implications.

 Criticisms of potential emigrants' involvement in democratic movements.

 The role of Jewish emigration in promoting rights awareness and perpetuating dissidence.

Section 4: Views on the Right to Emigrate

 Emphasis on the right to emigrate as a primary human right.

 Discussion on the privileged position of Jews regarding emigration.

 Different perspectives on fighting for the right to emigrate.

Section 5: Impact of Jewish Emigration from the USSR

 Historical significance of Jewish emigration marking a shift in Jewish-Russian coexistence.

 Freedom for Soviet Jews to choose to live in Russia or outside it.

 Reflections on the historical events shaping Jewish life in Russia.

Section 6: Origins of Jewish Diaspora

 Dispersal of Jews predating the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70.

 Scattering of Jews foretold in the Pentateuch.

 Establishment of large Jewish centers outside of Palestine.

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Section 7: Jewish Attitudes Towards Assimilation

 Historical perspectives on Jewish assimilation and dispersion.

 Views on the preservation of Jewish culture and values.

 Shift towards assimilation in the 18th century and its consequences.

Section 8: Assimilation and Jewish National Identity

 Effects of assimilation on Jewish national identity in Western Europe.

 Debate on whether assimilation benefited or harmed the Jewish nation.

 Notable figures who assimilated into host cultures while retaining Jewish elements.

Section 9: Gershenzon's Views on Jewish Assimilation

 Mikhail Gershenzon's exploration of Jewish assimilation.

 Struggle within Jewry between blending with the environment and preserving national
uniqueness.

 The ongoing battle between individual and collective will within Jewry.

Section 10: The Jewish Question and Assimilation Ideologies

 Perspectives on Jewish assimilation from Marx, Lenin, and M.O. Gershenzon.

 The ancient phenomenon of Jewish assimilation.

 Struggles within Jewry between individual and collective wills regarding assimilation.

Pages - 731 -- 740

Section 1: Introduction to Assimilation

 Gershenzon expresses surprise at the acceleration of assimilation at the end of the 18th century.

 He questions why assimilation intensified despite Jews obtaining equal rights.

 Gershenzon believes that internal factors, such as decay in religious unity, contribute to Jewish
disintegration.

Section 2: Effects of Assimilation

 Assimilating Jews adopt aspects of local culture but struggle with true acceptance.

 Internal conflict arises when individuals pretend not to be Jewish or change their religion.

 Assimilation leads to tension, self-violation, and a painful search for identity.

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Section 3: Criticisms of Assimilating Jews

 Assimilating Jews face accusations of consumerism, conformism, and deserting their people.

 Lack of trust from surrounding native people adds to the challenges of assimilation.

 Fellow Jews criticize assimilating individuals for national defection.

Section 4: Impact of Zionism on Assimilation

 The emergence of Zionism shed new light on the challenges of assimilation.

 Before Zionism, Jews faced duality between religious tradition and external world.

 Jabotinsky strongly opposed assimilation and warned against Russian influences.

Section 5: Individual Examples of Assimilation

 Benjamin Disraeli symbolized British Empire despite his Jewish background.

 Gershenzon, a historian, struggled with his European upbringing and Jewish identity.

 M. Krol observed Jewish energy in various countries and the preservation of Jewish culture.

Section 6: Influence of Israel on Assimilation

 Arthur Koestler emphasized the significance of Israel for world Jewry.

 Koestler presented a tough choice to Diaspora Jews: become Israelis or stop being Jews.

 Israel serves as a center securing the future of world Jewry.

Section 7: Modern Challenges to Assimilation

 By the 1990s, assimilation had advanced significantly, especially in the United States.

 Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz warned about the shrinking role of the Diaspora and its potential
extinction.

 Anti-Semitic discrimination has decreased in Western countries, affecting Jewish identity.

Section 8: Collapse of the Diaspora

 European Jews reject their Jewishness despite freedom and wealth.

 Western Jews may face gradual degradation and disappearance if current trends continue.

 Authors predict the humiliating degradation and potential death of the Diaspora.

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Section 9: Involvement with Israel

 Jews feel personally involved in the destiny of Israel.

 Jewish mythology of an imminent Catastrophe is linked to life in the Diaspora.

 American and Soviet Jews prepare for the possibility of carrying on the Jewish nation if Israel
falls.

Section 10: Future of Assimilation and Jewish Identity

 Authors express concerns about the survival of Jews in the event of a second Catastrophe.

 Jewish identity is intertwined with the fate of Israel.

 Diaspora Jews may play a crucial role in preserving Jewish heritage in case of a crisis.

Pages - 741 -- 750

Section 1: Purpose of Jewish Diaspora

 Hypotheses suggest that Jewish Diaspora ensures the indestructibility and eternal existence of
Jewry within mankind.

 Various perspectives on the purpose of Diaspora are presented, including a bellicose defense
against the historical demand for aliyah to Israel.

Section 2: Impact of Intermarriage

 Intermarriage is highlighted as a powerful mechanism of assimilation within Jewish

communities.

 Data shows a significant increase in mixed marriages in Western countries, leading to concerns
about the dilution of Jewish identity.

Section 3: Erosion of Jewish Life

 Observations point to a decline in Jewish life globally, with a focus on the erosion of racial,
religious, and ethnic boundaries.

 The impact of assimilation and intermarriage on Jewish identity is discussed, emphasizing the
challenges faced by Diaspora Jews.

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Section 4: Diaspora vs. Israel

 Tensions between Diaspora Jews and Israelis are explored, with criticisms directed at Diaspora
Jews' reluctance to move to Israel.

 The concept of Galut (exile) and its significance in Jewish identity is examined, questioning the
preference for remaining in Diaspora over returning to Israel.

Section 5: Future of the Diaspora

 Predictions suggest a potential decrease in the size of the Diaspora by 2021, with a shift towards
a concentration of Jewish population in Israel.

 Debates on the indestructibility of the Diaspora and the preservation of Jewish national
uniqueness are highlighted.

Section 6: Assimilation and Identity

 The complexity of assimilation among Jews is discussed, emphasizing the preservation of Jewish
identity despite outward signs of assimilation.

 Individual cases of deep assimilation and the persistence of Jewish identity are noted.

Section 7: Dual Identity

 The concept of dual identity as a Russian Jew is explored through historical and personal
reflections.

 The intertwining of Jewish and Russian cultural influences and the challenges of maintaining a
dual identity are discussed.

Section 8: Cultural Fusion

 The fusion of Jewish and Slavic souls in Russia is seen as purposeful, leading to a unique cultural
blend.

 Personal accounts highlight the complexities and depth of cultural fusion and identity among
Russian Jews.

Section 9: Spiritual Completeness

 The idea of spiritual completeness arising from the fusion of Jewish and Russian identities is
examined.

 Deep connections between cultural origins and spiritual layers are emphasized, challenging
notions of division and conflict within one's soul.

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Section 10: Reflections on Identity

 Various perspectives on Jewish identity, assimilation, and cultural fusion are presented,
showcasing the ongoing dialogue and exploration of complex identities.

 The enduring nature of Jewish identity and the intricate balance between cultural influences are
central themes throughout the text.

Pages - 751 -- 760

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