Computer

hardware

Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as

the central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM),
motherboard, computer data storage, graphics card, sound card, and
computer case. It includes external devices such as a monitor, mouse,
keyboard, and speakers.[1][2]

PDP-11 CPU board

By contrast, software is a set of written instructions that can be stored and

run by hardware. Hardware derived its name from the fact it is hard or rigid
with respect to changes, whereas software is soft because it is easy to

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 change.

Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or

instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable
computing system, although other systems exist with only hardware.

History
Early computing devices were more complicated than the ancient abacus
date to the seventeenth century. French mathematician Blaise Pascal
designed a gear-based device that could add and subtract, selling around
50 models. The stepped reckoner was invented by Gottfried Leibniz by
1676, which could also divide and multiply. Due to the limitations of
contemporary fabrication and design flaws, Leibniz' reckoner was not very
functional, but similar devices (Leibniz wheel) remained in use into the
1970s.[3] In the 19th century, Englishman Charles Babbage invented the
difference engine, a mechanical device to calculate polynomials for
astronomical purposes.[4] Babbage also designed a general-purpose
computer that was never built. Much of the design was incorporated into
the earliest computers: punch cards for input and output, memory, an
arithmetic unit analogous to central processing units, and even a primitive
programming language similar to assembly language.[5]

In 1936, Alan Turing developed the universal Turing machine to model any
type of computer, proving that no computer would be able to solve the
decision problem.[6] The universal Turing machine was a type of stored-
program computer capable of mimicking the operations of any Turing
machine (computer model) based on the software instructions passed to
it. The storage of computer programs is key to the operation of modern
computers and is the connection between computer hardware and
software.[7] Even prior to this, in the mid-19th century mathematician
George Boole invented Boolean algebra—a system of logic where each
proposition is either true or false. Boolean algebra is now the basis of the
circuits that model the transistors and other components of integrated

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 circuits that make up modern computer hardware.[8] In 1945, Turing
finished the design for a computer (the Automatic Computing Engine) that
was never built.[9]

Von Neumann architecture scheme

Around this time, technological advancement in relays and vacuum tubes

enabled the construction of the first computers.[10] Building on Babbage's
design, relay computers were built by George Stibitz at Bell Laboratories
and Harvard University's Howard Aiken, who engineered the MARK I.[5]
Also in 1945, mathematician John von Neumann—working on the ENIAC
project at the University of Pennsylvania—devised the underlying von
Neumann architecture that has served as the template for most modern
computers.[11] Von Neumann's design featured a centralized memory that
stored both data and programs, a central processing unit (CPU) with
priority of access to the memory, and input and output (I/O) units. Von
Neumann used a single bus to transfer data, meaning that his solution to
the storage problem by locating programs and data adjacent to each other
created the Von Neumann bottleneck when the system tries to fetch both
at the same time—often throttling the system's performance.[12]

Computer architecture

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 Growth in processor performance (as
measured by benchmarks),[13] 1978–
2010

Computer architecture requires prioritizing between different goals, such

as cost, speed, availability, and energy efficiency. The designer must have
a good grasp of the hardware requirements and many different aspects of
computing, from compilers to integrated circuit design.[14] Cost has also
become a significant constraint for manufacturers seeking to sell their
products for less money than competitors offering a very similar
commodity. Profit margins have also been reduced.[15] Even when the
performance is not increasing, the cost of components has been dropping
over time due to improved manufacturing techniques that have fewer
components rejected at quality assurance stage.[16]

Instruction set architecture

The most common instruction set architecture (ISA)—the interface
between a computer's hardware and software—is based on the one
devised by von Neumann in 1945.[17] Despite the separation of the
computing unit and the I/O system in many diagrams, typically the
hardware is shared, with a bit in the computing unit indicating whether it is

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 in computation or I/O mode.[18] Common types of ISAs include CISC
(complex instruction set computer), RISC (reduced instruction set
computer), vector operations, and hybrid modes.[19] CISC involves using a
larger expression set to minimize the number of instructions the machines
need to use.[20] Based on a recognition that only a few instructions are
commonly used, RISC shrinks the instruction set for added simplicity,
which also enables the inclusion of more registers.[21] After the invention
of RISC in the 1980s, RISC based architectures that used pipelining and
caching to increase performance displaced CISC architectures,
particularly in applications with restrictions on power usage or space (such
as mobile phones). From 1986 to 2003, the annual rate of improvement in
hardware performance exceeded 50 percent, enabling the development of
new computing devices such as tablets and mobiles.[22] Alongside the
density of transistors, DRAM memory as well as flash and magnetic disk
storage also became exponentially more compact and cheaper. The rate of
improvement slackened off in the twenty-first century.[23]

In the twenty-first century, increases in performance have been driven by

increasing exploitation of parallelism.[24] Applications are often
parallelizable in two ways: either the same function is running across
multiple areas of data (data parallelism) or different tasks can be
performed simultaneously with limited interaction (task parallelism).[25]
These forms of parallelism are accommodated by various hardware
strategies, including instruction-level parallelism (such as instruction
pipelining), vector architectures and graphical processing units (GPUs)
that are able to implement data parallelism, thread-level parallelism and
request-level parallelism (both implementing task-level parallelism).[25]

Microarchitecture
Microarchitecture, also known as computer organization, refers to high-
level hardware questions such as the design of the CPU, memory, and

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 memory interconnect.[26] Memory hierarchy ensures that the memory
quicker to access (and more expensive) is located closer to the CPU, while
slower, cheaper memory for large-volume storage is located further away.
[27]
Memory is typically segregated to separate programs from data and
limit an attacker's ability to alter programs.[28] Most computers use virtual
memory to simplify addressing for programs, using the operating system
to map virtual memory to different areas of the finite physical memory.[29]

Cooling
Computer processors generate heat, and excessive heat impacts their
performance and can harm the components. Many computer chips will
automatically throttle their performance to avoid overheating. Computers
also typically have mechanisms for dissipating excessive heat, such as air
or liquid coolers for the CPU and GPU and heatsinks for other
components, such as the RAM. Computer cases are also often ventilated
to help dissipate heat from the computer.[30] Data centers typically use
more sophisticated cooling solutions to keep the operating temperature of
the entire center safe. Air-cooled systems are more common in smaller or
older data centers, while liquid-cooled immersion (where each computer is
surrounded by cooling fluid) and direct-to-chip (where the cooling fluid is
directed to each computer chip) can be more expensive but are also more
efficient.[31] Most computers are designed to be more powerful than their
cooling system, but their sustained operations cannot exceed the capacity
of the cooling system.[32] While performance can be temporarily increased
when the computer is not hot (overclocking),[33] in order to protect the
hardware from excessive heat, the system will automatically reduce
performance or shut down the processor if necessary.[32] Processors also
will shut off or enter a low power mode when inactive to reduce heat.[34]
Power delivery as well as heat dissipation are the most challenging
aspects of hardware design,[35] and have been the limiting factor to the
development of smaller and faster chips since the early twenty-first

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 century.[34] Increases in performance require a commensurate increase in
energy use and cooling demand.[36]

Types of computer
hardware systems

Personal computer

Basic hardware components of a

personal computer, including a
monitor, a motherboard, a CPU, a
RAM, two expansion cards, a power
supply, an optical disc drive, a hard
disk drive, a keyboard and a mouse

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 Inside a custom-built computer:
power supply at the bottom has its
own cooling fan

The personal computer is one of the most common types of computer due
to its versatility and relatively low price.

Desktop personal computers

have a monitor, a keyboard, a
mouse, and a computer case.
The computer case holds the
motherboard, fixed or
removable disk drives for data
storage, the power supply, and
may contain other peripheral
devices such as modems or

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 network interfaces. Some
models of desktop computers
integrated the monitor and
keyboard into the same case
as the processor and power
supply. Separating the
elements allows the user to
arrange the components in a
pleasing, comfortable array, at
the cost of managing power
and data cables between
them.
Laptops are designed for
portability but operate similarly

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 to desktop PCs.[37] They may
use lower-power or reduced
size components, with lower
performance than a similarly
priced desktop computer.[38]
Laptops contain the keyboard,
display, and processor in one
case. The monitor in the
folding upper cover of the case
can be closed for
transportation, to protect the
screen and keyboard. Instead
of a mouse, laptops may have
a touchpad or pointing stick.

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 Tablets are portable computers
that use a touch screen as the
primary input device. Tablets
generally weigh less and are
smaller than laptops. Some
tablets include fold-out
keyboards or offer connections
to separate external keyboards.
Some models of laptop
computers have a detachable
keyboard, which allows the
system to be configured as a
touch-screen tablet. They are
sometimes called 2-in-1

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 detachable laptops or tablet-
laptop hybrids.[39]
Mobile phones are designed to
have an extended battery life
and light weight, while having
less functionality than larger
computers. They have diverse
hardware architecture, often
including antennas,
microphones, cameras, GPS
devices, and speakers. Power
and data connections vary
between phones.[40]

Large-scale computers

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 An IBM System z9 mainframe

A mainframe computer is a
much larger computer that
typically fills a room and may
cost many hundreds or
thousands of times as much as
a personal computer. They are
designed to perform large
numbers of calculations for
governments and large
enterprises.

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 In the 1960s and 1970s, more
and more departments started
to use cheaper and dedicated
systems for specific purposes
like process control and
laboratory automation. A
minicomputer, or colloquially
mini, is a class of smaller
computers that was developed
in the mid-1960s [41][42] and
sold for much less than
mainframe[43] and mid-size
computers from IBM and its
direct competitors.

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 Supercomputers can cost
hundreds of millions of dollars.
They are intended to maximize
performance with floating-
point arithmetic and running
batch programs that take a
very long time (such as weeks)
to complete. As a result of the
need for communication
between parallel programs, the
speed of the internal network
must be prioritized.[44]
Warehouse scale computers
are larger versions of cluster

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 computers that came into
fashion with software as a
service provided via the
internet. Their design is
intended to minimize cost per
operation and power usage, as
they can cost over $100
million for a warehouse and the
computers which go inside
(the computers must be
replaced every few years).
Although availability is crucial
for SaaS products, the
software is designed to

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 compensate for availability
failures—unlike
supercomputers.[44]

Virtual hardware
Virtual hardware is software that mimics the function of hardware; it is
commonly used in infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) and platform as a
Service (PaaS).[45]

Embedded system
Embedded systems have the most variation in their processing power and
cost: from an 8-bit processor that could cost less than USD$0.10, to
higher-end processors capable of billions of operations per second and
costing over USD$100. Cost is a particular concern with these systems,
with designers often choosing the cheapest option that satisfies the
performance requirements.[46]

Components

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 Case
A computer case encloses most of the components of a desktop computer
system. It provides mechanical support and protection for internal
elements such as the motherboard, disk drives, and power supply, and
controls and directs the flow of cooling air over internal components. The
case is also part of the system to control electromagnetic interference
radiated by the computer and protects internal parts from electrostatic
discharge. Large tower cases provide space for multiple disk drives or
other peripherals and usually stand on the floor, while desktop cases
provide less expansion room. All-in-one style designs include a video
display built into the same case. Portable and laptop computers require
cases that provide impact protection for the unit. Hobbyists may decorate
the cases with colored lights, paint, or other features, in an activity called
case modding.

Power supply
Most personal computer power supply units meet the ATX standard and
convert from alternating current (AC) at between 120 and 277 volts
provided from a power outlet to direct current (DC) at a much lower
voltage: typically 12, 5, or 3.3 volts.[47]

Motherboard

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 Computer motherboard

The motherboard is the main component of a computer. It is a board with

integrated circuitry that connects the other parts of the computer
including the CPU, the RAM, the disk drives (CD, DVD, hard disk, or any
others) as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or the expansion
slots. The integrated circuit (IC) chips in a computer typically contain
billions of tiny metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors
(MOSFETs).[48]

Components directly attached to or to part of the motherboard include:

At least one CPU (central

processing unit), which
performs most of the
calculations that enable a
computer to function.[49] It can
be informally referred to as the
brain of the computer.[50] It
takes program instructions

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 from random-access memory
(RAM), interprets and
processes them and then
sends back results so that the
relevant components can carry
out the instructions. The CPU
is a microprocessor, which is
fabricated on a metal–oxide–
semiconductor (MOS)
integrated circuit (IC) chip. It is
usually cooled by a heatsink
and fan, or water-cooling
system. Many newer CPUs
include an on-die graphics

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 processing unit (GPU). The
clock speed of the CPU
governs how fast it executes
instructions and is measured in
GHz; typical values lie between
1 GHz and 5 GHz. There is also
an increasing trend to add
more cores to a processor—
with each acting as if it were an
independent processor—for
increased parallelism.[50]
The internal bus connects the
CPU to the main memory with
several lines for simultaneous

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 communication—typically 50
to 100—which are separated
into those for addressing or
memory, data, and command
or control.[51] Although parallel
buses used to be more
common, serial buses with a
serializer to send more
information over the same wire
have become more common in
the twenty-first century.[52]
Computers with multiple
processors will need an
interconnection bus, usually

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 managed by a northbridge,
while the southbridge
manages communication with
slower peripheral and I/O
devices.[53]
Random-access memory
(RAM), which stores the code
and data that are being
actively accessed by the CPU
in a hierarchy based on when it
is expected to be next used.
Registers are closest to the
CPU but have very limited
capacity.[54] CPUs also

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 typically have multiple areas of
cache memory that have much
more capacity than registers,
but much less than main
memory; they are slower to
access than registers, but
much faster than main
memory.[55] Caching works by
prefetching data before the
CPU needs it, reducing latency.
[55][56] If the data the CPU
needs is not in the cache, it can
be accessed from main
memory.[55] Cache memory is

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 typically SRAM, while the main
memory is typically DRAM.[27]
RAM is volatile, meaning its
contents will disappear if the
computer powers down.[57]
Permanent storage or non-
volatile memory is typically
higher capacity and cheaper
than memory, but takes much
longer to access. Historically,
such storage was typically
provided in the form of a hard
drive, but solid-state drives
(SSD) are becoming cheaper

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 and are much faster, thus
leading to their increasing
adoption. USB drives and
network or cloud storage are
also options.[58]
Read-only memory (ROM),
which stores the BIOS that
runs when the computer is
powered on or otherwise
begins execution, a process
known as Bootstrapping, or
booting or booting up. The
ROM is typically a nonvolatile
BIOS memory chip, which can

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 only be written once with
special technology.[59]
The BIOS (Basic Input
Output System) includes
boot firmware and power
management firmware.
Newer motherboards use
Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface (UEFI)
instead of BIOS.
The CMOS (complementary
MOS) battery, which powers
the CMOS memory for date
and time in the BIOS chip. This

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 battery is generally a watch
battery.
Power MOSFETs make up the
voltage regulator module
(VRM), which controls how
much voltage other hardware
components receive.[60]

Expansion cards
An expansion card in computing is a printed circuit board that can be
inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to
add functionality to a computer system via the expansion bus. Expansion
cards can be used to obtain or expand on features not offered by the
motherboard. Using expansion cards for a video processor used to be
common, but modern computers are more likely to instead have a GPU
integrated into the motherboard.[61]

Input/output

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 Most computers also have an external data bus to connect peripheral
devices to the motherboard. Most commonly, Universal Serial Bus (USB) is
used.[62] Unlike the internal bus, the external bus is connected using a bus
controller that allows the peripheral system to operate at a different speed
from the CPU.[62] Input and output devices are used to receive data from
the external world or write data respectively. Common examples include
keyboards and mice (input) and displays and printers (output). Network
interface controllers are used to access the Internet.[63] USB ports also
allow power to connected devices—a standard USB supplies power at 5
volts and up to 500 milliamps (2.5 watts), while powered USB ports with
additional pins may allow the delivery of more power—up to 6 amps at 24v.
[64]

Sales
Global revenue from computer hardware in 2023 reached $705.17 billion.
[65]

Recycling
Because computer parts contain hazardous materials, there is a growing
movement to recycle old and outdated parts.[66] Computer hardware
contain dangerous chemicals such as lead, mercury, nickel, and cadmium.
According to the EPA these e-wastes have a harmful effect on the
environment unless they are disposed of properly. Making hardware
requires energy, and recycling parts will reduce air pollution, water
pollution, as well as greenhouse gas emissions.[67] Disposing unauthorized
computer equipment is in fact illegal. Legislation makes it mandatory to
recycle computers through the government approved facilities. Recycling a
computer can be made easier by taking out certain reusable parts. For

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 example, the RAM, DVD drive, the graphics card, hard drive or SSD, and
other similar removable parts can be reused.

Many materials used in computer hardware can be recovered by recycling

for use in future production. Reuse of tin, silicon, iron, aluminum, and a
variety of plastics that are present in bulk in computers or other
electronics can reduce the costs of constructing new systems.
Components frequently contain copper, gold, tantalum,[68][69] silver,
platinum, palladium, and lead as well as other valuable materials suitable
for reclamation.[70][71]

Toxic computer
components
The central processing unit contains many toxic materials. It contains lead
and chromium in the metal plates. Resistors, semiconductors, infrared
detectors, stabilizers, cables, and wires contain cadmium. The circuit
boards in a computer contain mercury, and chromium.[72] When these
types of materials, and chemicals are disposed improperly will become
hazardous for the environment.

Environmental effects
When e-waste byproducts leach into groundwater, are burned, or get
mishandled during recycling, it causes harm. Health problems associated
with such toxins include impaired mental development, cancer, and
damage to the lungs, liver, and kidneys.[73] Computer components contain

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 many toxic substances, like dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
cadmium, chromium, radioactive isotopes and mercury. Circuit boards
contain considerable quantities of lead-tin solders that are more likely to
leach into groundwater or create air pollution due to incineration.[74]

Recycling of computer hardware is considered environmentally friendly

because it prevents hazardous waste, including heavy metals and
carcinogens, from entering the atmosphere, landfill or waterways. While
electronics consist a small fraction of total waste generated, they are far
more dangerous. There is stringent legislation designed to enforce and
encourage the sustainable disposal of appliances, the most notable being
the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive of the European
Union and the United States National Computer Recycling Act.[75]

Efforts for minimizing

computer hardware waste
E-cycling, the recycling of computer hardware, refers to the donation,
reuse, shredding and general collection of used electronics. Generically,
the term refers to the process of collecting, brokering, disassembling,
repairing and recycling the components or metals contained in used or
discarded electronic equipment, otherwise known as electronic waste (e-
waste). E-cyclable items include, but are not limited to: televisions,
computers, microwave ovens, vacuum cleaners, telephones and cellular
phones, stereos, and VCRs and DVDs just about anything that has a cord,
light or takes some kind of battery.[76]

Some companies, such as Dell and Apple, will recycle computers of their
make or any other make. Otherwise, a computer can be donated to
Computer Aid International which is an organization that recycles and
refurbishes old computers for hospitals, schools, universities, etc.[77]

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 See also

Electronics
portal

Computer architecture
Electronic hardware
Hardware for artificial
intelligence
Glossary of computer
hardware terms
History of computing hardware
Microprocessor
MOSFET
List of computer hardware
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 List of computer hardware
manufacturers
Open-source computing
hardware
Open-source hardware
Transistor

References

1. "Parts of computer" (http://

windows.microsoft.com/en
-us/windows-vista/parts-of
-a-computer) . Microsoft.
Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/201311271456
07/http://windows.microsof
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 07/http://windows.microsof
t.com/en-US/windows-vist
a/Parts-of-a-computer)
from the original on 27
November 2013. Retrieved
5 December 2013.
2. Gilster, Ron (2001). PC
hardware : a beginner's
guide (http://archive.org/de
tails/pchardwarebeginn00
gils) . Internet Archive.
New York; London :
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-
07-212990-8.
3. Blum 2011, p. 13–14.

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 4. Blum 2011, p. 14.
5. Blum 2011, p. 15.
6. Blum 2011, pp. 21, 23.
7. Blum 2011, p. 25.
8. Blum 2011, pp. 34–35.
9. Blum 2011, pp. 71–72.
10. Blum 2011, p. 72.
11. Blum 2011, pp. 72, 74.
12. Blum 2011, p. 74.
13. Hennessy & Patterson
2011, pp. 41–42.
14. Hennessy & Patterson
2011, p. 11.

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 15. Hennessy & Patterson
2011, pp. 27–28, 32.
16. Hennessy & Patterson
2011, p. 27.
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External links

Media related to Computer

hardware at Wikimedia
Commons
Computer hardware at

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