Potential verbs

N V dictionary-form ことが できます was explained before as a form expressing potential.

This lesson explains potential verbs in another form.
Potential verbs

Polie form Plain form

Ⅰ ー(い)ます ー(え)ます ー(え)る

Ⅱ ーます ーられます ーられる
Ⅲ きます こられます こられる
します できます できる
Potential verbs are conjugated as Group II verbs.
Note that because わかります already includes the meaning of possibility,
it does not take the form わかれます.

Sentences in which potential verbs are used

① Potential verbs indicate states, not actions. Thus, although the object of a transitive verb is indicated
by the particle を, the object of a potential verb is usually indicated by が.
Particles other than を remain the same.
② A potential verb can be used to state someone’s ability to do something,
or indicate that an action is possible in a certain situation.

Volitional form
Volitional form

Ⅰ ー(い)ます ー(お)う
Ⅱ ーます ーよう
Ⅲ きます こよう
します しよう

Uses of the volitional form

① In plain-style sentences as the plain form of ～ましょう.
Although plain-style questions do not usually take the particle か on their end,
it is required with questions using the plain form of ～ましょうか.
② V volitional form と 思っています
This sentence pattern is used to convey the speaker’s intention to the listener.
V volitional form と 思います can also be used with the same meaning, but
V volitional form と 思っています indicates that the speaker made the decision some time ago.
V volitional form と 思います can only be used to convey the speaker’s intention, but
V volitional form と 思っています can also be used to indicate a third party’s intention.

Imperative and prohibitive forms

Imperative form Prohibitive form

Ⅰ ー(い)ます ー(え) dict form な

Ⅱ ーます ーろ dict form な
くれます くれろ くれるな
Ⅲ きます こい くるな
します しろ するな

Uses of the imperative and prohibitive forms

The imperative form is used when demanding that the listener perform a certain action, and
the prohibitive form is used when demanding that the listener not perform a certain action.
Since they sound strongly coercive, they are very seldomly used at the end of a sentence,
and are used in speech almost exclusively by men.
① By a man senior in age or status to someone who is his junior, or by a parent to their child.
② Among male friends. The particle よ is often attached at the end of the sentence to soften the tone.
③ When giving instructions to a group of people in a place like a factory; or during a fire, earthquake
or other emergencies, when there is no time to be polite. Even in such cases, they are
often only used by men senior in age or status.
④ When giving commands during group training, a school physical education lesson,
club sports activities and so on.
⑤ When yelling encouragement at a sports event.
Women sometimes also use these forms in such cases.
⑥ On traffic signs and in slogans, when brevity and impact are required.
V ます-form なさい is another type of imperative. It is used by a parent to their child
or by a teacher to a pupil, and sounds softer than the imperative form of the verb.
Women use this instead of the imperative form of the verb, but it cannot be used
when addressing someone of superior status.

Conditional form
Conditional form

Ⅰ ー(い)ます ー(え)ば
Ⅱ ーます ーれば
Ⅲ きます くれば
します すれば
ー ます-form ません ない-form なければ
い (～い) (～い) ければ
な [な] [な]なら
N ～ ～なら

Conditional form、～
① Expression something as a precondition for what is expressed in the following (main) clause to
happen.
② Responding to what someone has said or to an explanation of a situation.
As a rule, intentions, hopes, orders, requests, etc. only appear in the following (main) clause,
when the subjects of the preceding and following clauses are different or
when the predicate of the preceding clause is conditional.

Int V cond form いいですか

This is an expression used when asking the listener for advice or instructions.
It can be used in the same way as ～たら いいですか.

Passive verbs
Passive verbs

Polie form Plain form

Ⅰ ー(い)ます ー(あ)れます ー(あ)れる

Ⅱ ーます ーられます ーられる
Ⅲ きます こられます こられる
します されます される
Passive verbs are conjugated as Group II verbs.

Causative verbs
 Causative verbs

Polie form Plain form

Ⅰ ー(い)ます ー(あ)せます ー(あ)せる

Ⅱ ーます ーさせます ーさせる
Ⅲ きます こさせます こさせる
します させます させる
Causative verbs are conjugated as Group II verbs.

Causative-verb sentences
N (person) を causative V (intransitive) make/let a person verb
(intransitive)
N1 (person) に N2 を causative V (transitive) make/let a person verb (transitive)
With some causative verbs, the subject of the action is indicated by を, while with others is indicated by
に.
When an intransitive verb with ‘N (place) を’ is used in the sentence, the subject is indicated by に.

How to use causative verbs

Causative verbs indicate compulsion or permission. For example, they are used by someone of higher
status to someone of lower status (e.g. a parent to a child, an older brother to a younger brother,
or a manager to his team members) to compel or permit the latter to do something.
Someone of inferior status would not normally use a causative verb in relation to their superior, because
someone inferior is not in the position of being able to compel or permit their superior to do anything.
To express having someone of superior status do something, the speaker uses a phrase designed to
show that he or she has received a favour, such as V て-form いただきます and V て-form もらいます.
This usage can also be employed when the speaker wishes to indicate that he or she
has received a favor or benefit from someone of equal or inferior status.

いただけませんか
Caus V て-form いただけませんか Would you please let me do ～?
The sentence pattern V て-form いただけませんか was introduced before as a very polite way of asking
someone to do something. Causative verb て-form いただけませんか is used when politely asking the
listener to allow one to do something.

ましょうか
V ます-form ましょうか
This sentence pattern was presented before as an expression for when the speaker is offering to do
something for the listener. However, it can also be presented as an expression for when the speaker is
suggesting to the listener that they do something together.
(the one in the main clause, after と) will inevitably occur.

ましょう
V ます-form ましょう
V ます-form ましょう is an expression used to convey the speaker’s intention to the listener,
and is used when announcing an action. It has a more assertive tone than V ます-form ましょうか.

ながら
V1 ます-form ながら V2
This sentence pattern indicates that someone performing an action indicated by V1,
is simultaneously performing a separate action indicated by V2, where V2 indicates the main action.
It is also used to describe someone doing two things continuously over a period of time.

そうです
～ そうです looks like ～
V ます-form そうです looks like ～
い-adj (～い) そうです looks like ～
な-adj [な] そうです looks like ～
① This sentence pattern expresses the speaker’s belief that the movement or change indicated
by the verb is likely to occur. It can be used with an adverb such as 今にも, もうすぐ, これから
indicating a time frame.
② This expression is used when inferring the nature of something from its external appearance,
without having actually confirmed that inference.
An adjective expressing feelings (嬉しい, 悲しい, 寂しい, etc.) cannot be used without modification
when describing someone else’s feelings; そうです must be attached to the adjective in order to
indicate that the speaker is necessarily inferring what the person is feeling from external appearance.

すぎます
V ます-form すぎます
い-adj (～い) すぎます
な-adj [な] すぎます
～すぎます indicates that the extent of an action or state is excessive,
and is therefore usually used when that action or state is undesirable.
〜すぎます conjugates like a Group II verb.

やすい / にくいです
V ます-form やすいです
V ます-form にくいです
① When V ます-form is a volitional verb, ～やすい means it is easy to carry out the action indicated,
while ～にくい means that it is difficult to carry it out.
② When V ます-form is a non-volitional verb, ～やすい means that the action indicated by the verb
is likely to occur, while ～にくい means that the action indicated by the verb is unlikely to occur.
〜やすい and ～にくい decline like い-adjectives.

あげます / もらいます / くれます

V て-form あげます
V て-form もらいます
V て-form くれます
あげますもらいますくれます refer to the giving and receiving of things,
while ～て あげます, ～て もらいます, ～てくれます are used to denote that
an action confers some find of profit or benefit to the recipient.
In a sentence using ～て あげます or ～て くれます, the particle that marks the person receiving
the benefit is the same as in an equivalent sentence that does not use ～て あげます or ～て くれます.

いただきます / くださいます / やります

Expressions for giving and receiving
It was introduced before the expressions for the giving and receiving of things and actions.
The following introduces different expressions for the giving and receiving of things and actions
which reflect the relationship between the giver and the receiver.
N1 (person) に N2 を いただきます (more polite than もらいます)
[わたしに] N2 を くださいます (more polite than くれます)
N1 に N2 を やります (more casual than あげます)

Giving and receiving of actions

いただきます, くださいます and やります are also used for expressing the giving and receiving of actions.
V て-form いただきます
V て-form くださいます
V て-form やります

くれませんか
V て-form くれませんか Could you ～?
This is a polite expression than ～て ください, but not as polite as ～て いただきませんか or
〜て くださいませんか. It is appropriate when speaking to someone of equal or lower status than oneself.

くださいませんか
V て-form くださいませんか
This way of making a request is politer than ～て ください but not as polite as ～ていただきませんか.

いただけませんか
V て-form いただけませんか Would you be so kind as to ～?
This is a more polite way of asking for something than ～く ださい.

て来ます
V て-form 来ます
① V て-form 来ます indicates that the speaker is going to go somewhere, do something, and come back.
The place where the action indicated by V て-form is performed is marked by で, but
から is used when that place is taken as the point of origin of what is indicated by を.
Verbs such as 持って 来ます and 運んで 来ます can also be used as well as
取ってきます as the verb used with から.
② N (place) へ 行って 来ます
The て-form of the verb 行きます is used before 来ます to indicate that the speaker
is going somewhere and then coming back. It is used when the speaker is saying nothing
in particular about what he or she will do at the place he or she is going to.
③ The て-form of the verb 出かけます is used before 来ます to indicate that the speaker
is going out somewhere and then coming back. It is used when the speaker is saying nothing
in particular either where he or she is going or what he or she intends to do there.

ています
V て-form います
As well as indicating what someone is doing now, this sentence pattern can also be used to indicate a
habitual behavior. Such a behavior taking place in the past is indicated by V て-form いました.

ています
V て-form います
Another way of using V て-form います is to show that the state resulting from the action indicated
by the verb is still continuing. Verbs that can be used in this way include 開きます, 閉まります, つきます, 消
えます, 割れます, and others where a change takes place, and a different state is produced, as a result of
the action indicated by the verb.
When describing a situation in front of one’s eyes as a whole, the subject is indicated by が.
When introducing the subject as the topic, the particle は is used.

ていません
まだ V て-form いません
This expression indicates that a situation has not yet occurred, or something has not yet been done.

てあります
V て-form あります
V て-form あります indicates a continuing state resulting from a purposeful action.
Transitive verbs are used for this.
① N1 に N2 が V て-form あります
② N2 は N1 に V て-form あります
When N2 is taken as the topic, it is indicated by the particle は.

ておきます
V て-form おきます
① This can indicate that a necessary action or behavior is to be performed by a certain time.
② It can indicate taking some temporary measures or completing a necessary action
in preparation for the next time one uses something.
③ It indicates keeping a resultant state as it is.
In speech, ～て おきます often becomes ～てきます.

しまいました / しまいます
V て-form しまいました ⁄ しまいます
～て しまいました emphazises that an action has been completed,
and may also indicate a feeling of regret or disappointment on the part of the speaker.
～て しまいます indicates that an action will be completed at some point in the future.

て/で
V て-form V2
V ない-formないで V2
① This indicates that V1 is an action or state that accompanies V2.
V1 and V2 are actions performed by the same person.
② V ない-formないで V2 can also be used to indicate a decision to perform on
one or other of two mutually-exclusive alternative actions V1 and V2.

ても / でも
V て-form も、～(main clause) Even if……
V ない-form なくて も、～(main clause) Even if……
い-adj (～い) → ～くて も、～(main clause) Even if……
な-adj [な] → ～で も、～(main clause) Even if……
N で も、～(main clause) Even if……
This expression is used to present contrasting conditions.
The clause that follows て-form も (the main clause) describes something that will happen
that would not normally be expected to happen if what was stated in the main clause was true.

て (で)
～ て (で) 、～
V て-form 、～
V ない-formなくて 、～
い-adj (～い) → ～くて 、～
な-adj [な] → ～で 、～
N で 、～
The sentence pattern ～て (で)、～ was introduced before, but it also introduces the usage
in which the first part of the sentence (i.e. the ～て (で) part) indicates a cause or reason for
the result indicated in the second part. The second part of the sentence can only be
a non-volitional expression or expression of state.
① The second part of the sentence usually consists of an expression of the following type:
Verbs and adjectives expressing emotions:
びっくりします, 安心します, 困ります, 寂しい, 嬉しい, 残念[な], etc.
Verbs and expressions expressing potential or state.
When the second part of the sentence consists of an expression embodying intention
(an intention, order, invitation or request), ～から is used.
② N で is often used with natural phenomena and events such as
事故 (accidents), 地震 (earthquakes) and 火事 (fires).

てみます
V て-form みます
This sentence pattern is used to indicate trying out an action.
The form ～て みたい can be used to express more reticently something one hopes for
than when using ～たい.

ないと
V ない-form ない と······
This expression is created by omitting the ければなりません from V ない-form なければなりません.
V ない-form ないといけません means more or less the same as V ない-form なければなりません.

たら
Plain past form ら、～(main clause) If……
Attaching ら to the past-tense plain form of verbs, adjectives, or nouns, makes there conditional.
The clause that follows it (the main clause) describes what would happen if the conditional was true.
The speaker’s opinion, wishes, invitations, requests, etc. can be expressed in the main clause.
Expressions of wish, desire, invitation, request and so on cannot be used
in a clause (the main clause) following ～と.

たら
V た-form ら、～(main clause) When……/After……/Once……
This pattern is used to express that a certain action will be done or a certain situation will arise
on the completion or occurrence of a matter, action or state that the speaker is certain will happen.

たらいいですか
Int V た-form ら いいですか What/When/Where/Which/How/Who should I ～?
This is a way of asking for advice or instruction.
The expression V た-form ら いいですかよ can be used to
advise someone about something or recommend something to them.

ほうが いいです
V た-form ほうが いいです
V ない-form ない ほうが いいです
This sentence pattern is used to make suggestions or give advice.
Since V た-form ほうが いいです includes the meaning of comparing two things and selecting one of them,
it implies that it would be bad not to take the action specified by the verb. Because of this, it may give
the impression that the speaker is being overbearing. When simply recommending a certain action,
～たら いい is used.

とおりに
V1 た-form とおりに、V2
N の とおりに、V2
① V1 た-form とおりに、V2
This indicates doing V2 by the same method or under the same condition as V1.
② N の とおりに、V2
This indicates performing an action without deviating from the standard defined by the preceding
phrase.
As とおり is a noun, it can be used with an demonstrative such as この, その, あの directly attached,
to mean ‘by the same method or in the same way as specified by that demonstrative’.

あとで
V1 た-form あとで、V2
N の あとで、V2
This indicates that the action denoted by V2 happens after an action or situation denoted by V1 or N.
This puts more emphasis on the time context in which the events happen than V て-form から,
which has the same meaning. Also, unlike with V て-form から, there is no implication that V1 or N
is a precondition of, or preparatory action for V2.

ばかりです
V た-form ばかりです
This sentence pattern also expresses the speaker’s sense that not much time has passed since an action
has performed or an event has occurred. However, unlike V た-form ところです, this sentence pattern can
be used regardless of how much time has elapsed if the speaker feels it is short.
〜ばかりです can also be attached to various sentence patterns as a nominal clause.
ところです
V dict form ところです
V て-form いる ところです
V た-form ところです
The ところ introduced here is used when describing an aspect of an action or event.
① V dictionary form ところです
This indicates that an action is just about to begin.
It is often used with adverbs such as これ, [ちょうど] 今から, etc.
② V て-form いる ところです
This indicates that an action is in progress.
It is often used together with 今.
③ V た-form ところです
This indicates that an action has just been completed.
It is often used with an adverb such as たった今.
〜ところです can be connected to various sentence patterns as a nominal clause.

はずです
V dict form はずです
V ない-form ない はずです
い-adj (～い) はずです
な-adj な はずです
N の はずです
This sentence pattern is used when a speaker is decisively stating a conclusion that he or she
has reached based on particular grounds. The speaker can use ～はずです to convey the certainty
he or she feels about the correctness of that conclusion.

とき
V dict form とき、～(main clause) When……
V ない-form ない とき、～(main clause) When……
い-adj plain form とき、～(main clause) When……
な-adj plain form な とき、～(main clause) When……
N plain form の とき、～(main clause) When……
とき is used to connect two sentences while expressing a time or occasion
when the state or action described in the main sentence exists or occurs.
The form of the word preceding とき is the same as the form that modifies a noun.
The tense of the clause modify とき is not affected by the tense of the main clause.

とき
V dict form とき、～(main clause) When…… (main clause is before)
V た-form とき、～(main clause) When…… (main clause is after)
When the verb in front of とき is in the dictionary form / た-form,
whatever described in the main clause happened before / after
whatever described in the ～とき clause.

と
V dict form と、 ～(main clause) If …… then ……
This sentence pattern is used to indicated that if a certain action, situation or phenomenon
(the one before と) occurs, then another action, situation or phenomenon

時間 / 約束 / 用事
V dict form 時間 ⁄ 約束 ⁄ 用事
When talking about the time required for doing something or describing an appointment, errand, etc.,
the verb is put in the dictionary form and is placed in front of the noun 時間, 約束, 用事, etc.
つもりです
V dict form つもりです
V ない-form ない つもりです
V dict form つもりです expresses the speaker’s intention to do something.
V ない-form ない つもりです is usually used to indicate an intention of not to do something.
There is little difference in meaning between V volitional form と 思っています
and V dictionary form つもりです, but the latter sounds more determined.

予定です
V dict form 予定です
N の 予定です
This is a way of stating something one plans to do.

ように
V1 dict form ように、V2
V1 ない-form ない ように、V2
This usage indicates taking the action denoted by V2 in order to achieve the situation
expressed by ～ように. The dictionary form of a non-volitional verb (such as potential verb,
わかります, 見えます, 聞こえます, なります, etc.) or a verb’s negative form is used before ように.

ように なります
V dict form ように なります
① なります indicates a change of state, When a potential verb, or verbs such as わかります or 見えます
are used, V dictionary form ように なります indicates changing from a state of being unable to do
something to a state of being able to do it.
② When using いいえ to answer the question ～ように なります in the negative,
the answer is given as まだ V ます-form ません.
When a verb other than a potential verb, it means that a practice
that previously did not exist has come into being.

ように します
V dict form ように します
V ない-form ない ように します
① ～ように して います
This indicates that the speaker tries to perform a certain behavior habitually.
② ～ように して ください
This expression is used to ask someone to try to acquire the habit of performing a certain behavior.
While ～て ⁄ ～ないで ください is a direct expression of a request, ～ように して ください
is an indirect expression of a request and is therefore more polite.
～ように して ください cannot be used to make a request for an action to be performed on the spot.

ために
V dict form ために、～
N の ために、～
ために indicates a purpose. N の ために may also be used in the sense of ‘for the benefit of N’.
The similar expression ～ように was introduced before, but,
while the dictionary form of a volitional verb is used in front of ために,
the dictionary form of a non-volitional verb or the negative form of a verb is used in front of ように.
なります can be used as both a volitional verb and a non-volitional verb.

に
V dict form の に ～
N に ～
This sentence pattern is used together with phrases such as 使います, いいです, 便利です,
役に立ちます, [時間]がかかります in order to indicate their application or purpose.
場合は
V dict form 場合は、～
V ない-form ない 場合は、～
V た-form 場合は、～
い-adj (～い) 場合は、～
な-adj な 場合は、～
N の 場合は、～
～場合 is an expression used for postulating a situation. The sentence that follows it indicates
how to cope with the situation or its consequences. Since 場合 is a noun, it is connected
in the same way as a noun modifier.

の
の as nominalizer
の has the function of nominalizing various expressions. The verbs, adjectives and nouns to which の
is attached take the plain form. Nominalized expressions can form various elements of sentences.

のは
V dict form のは adj です
This sentence pattern in which V dictionary form の is presented as the topic by attaching は to it.
Adjectives such as 難しい, 易しい, おもしろい, 楽しい, 大変[な] are often used in this sentence pattern.
Compared with a sentence which does not employ の, this sentence pattern can be more precise, stating
that the specific acts are fun.

のが
V dict form のが adj です
‘V dict form の’ is what is described by the adjective. Adjectives describing things like
preferences, skills and abilities, such as 好き[な], 嫌い[な], 上手[な], 下手[な], 早い, 遅い,
are often seen in this sentence pattern.

のを 忘れました
V dict form のを 忘れました forgot to do ～
This is an example in which ‘V dictionary form の’ has become an object, marked by を.
It introduces an action that was supposed to have been taken regarding the object, and states that
it has been forgotten.

のを 知って いますか
V plain form のを 知って いますか Do you know that ～?
This is an example in which ‘V plain form の’ has become an object, marked by を.
It is used when asking whether someone knows something specific.
Note the difference between 知りません and 知りませんでした.
知りませんでした is used when the listener did not possess the information until asked the question,
but came into possession through being asked the question. On the other hand, when the listen
possesses
the information neither before the question nor after it, 知りません is used.

のは
V plain form のは N2 です
い-adj plain form のは N2 です
な-adi plain form ～だ → ～な のは N2 です
N1 plain form ～だ → ～な のは N2 です
This sentence pattern is a way of emphasizing N2.
This sentence pattern is often used to correct what someone has said.
The subject of the sentence prior to ～のは is indicated by が, not は.

んです
V plain form んです
い-adj plain form んです
な-adj plain form ～だ → ～な んです
N plain form ～だ → ～な ん
～んです is used in speech. In writing, ～のです is used.
① ～んですか
When asking the listener to confirm something that the speaker has seen or heard.
When asking the listener for more detailed information about something the speaker has seen or
heard.
When asking the listener for a reason for something that the speaker has seen or heard.
When asking for an explanation of a situation.
～んですか should not be used when it is not needed, as this will sound strange to the listener.
② ～んです
When giving a reason or explanation in a reply to a sentence with ～んですか in it.
When adding a reason to explain something one has just said.
～んです is not used when not giving a reason but merely stating a fact.
③ ～んですが、～
～んですが is used to introduce a topic when this is followed by a request, an invitation, or
an expression seeking permission. The が in this case is used to lightly preface what is coming next.
What follows ～んですが may be ommitted if it is obvious.

でしょう？
V plain form でしょう？ ……right?
い-adj plain form でしょう？ ……right?
な-adj plain form ～だ でしょう？ ……right?
N plain form ～だ でしょう？ ……right?
The sentence form is used when seeking agreement or confirmation from the listener.
The plain form is used before でしょう, but without ～だ in the case of a な-adjective or noun.
でしょう is spoken with a rising intonation.

でしょう
V plain form でしょう
い-adj plain form でしょう
な-adj plain form ～だ でしょう
N plain form ～だ でしょう
～でしょう is used when a speaker wants to express an opinion
about something in the future or something uncertain, without being definite.

～でしょうか
～でしょうか
Using ～でしょう is an interrogative sentence is a way of asking a question without demanding an answer,
so it enables the speaker to give a softer impression to the listener.

かも しれません
V plain form かも しれません
い-adj plain form かも しれません
な-adj plain form ～だ かも しれません
N plain form ～だ かも しれません
～かも しれません can be used when the speaker wants to point out
that there is a possibility, however small, or ～.

ようです
V plain form ようです It seems that ～
い-adj plain form ようです It seems that ～
な-adj plain form ～だ → ～な ようです It seems that ～
N plain form ～だ → ～の ようです It seems that ～
～ようです is an expression used to describe what the speaker has concluded from observing a situation.
It is sometimes used with the adverb どうも when the speaker wishes to emphasize the tentative nature of
his or her conclusion.

と 思います
Plain form と 思います I think that……
The ideas or judgements expressed with 思います are indicated by the particle と.
① When expressing conjecture.
To express a negative conjecture, the clause before と is put in the negative.
② When stating an opinion.
When asking someone’s opinion about something, the expression
～に ついて どう 思いますか is used, without putting と after どう.

と 言います
“Sentences” と 言います say……
Plain form と 言います say……
The particle と is used to report speech.
① When reporting speech directly, it is repeated word for word.
In writing, the words are placed inside square brackets 「」.
② When reporting speech indirectly, the plain form is used before と
The tense of the quoted sentence is not affected by the tense of the main sentence.
The particle に is used to indicate the person spoken to..
と 言って いました
“Sentences” と 言って いました
Plain form と 言って いました
～と 言いました is used for quoting what someone said, while
〜と 言って いました is used for reporting what someone said.

と 伝えて いただけませんか
“Sentences” と 伝えて いただけませんか
Plain form と 伝えて いただけませんか
This is used when the speaker is politely asking someone to pass a message on for him or her.

～し、～し
Plain form し、plain form し、～
① This sentence pattern is used when mentioning two or more similar things one after the other about
the
topic. Since this sentence pattern expresses the speaker’s desire to mention more than just one thing
about the topic, も is also often used. それに can also be used to make this meaning even clearer.
② This sentence pattern can also be used when the ～し、～し gives the reasons for what follows.
The conclusion may be omitted if it is obvious, leaving the reasons.
The final し can be replaced by から in its ‘because’ sense.

そうです
Plain form そうです They say that ～
This is an expression for conveying information from another source without introducing one’s own
opinion.
When the source of information is given, it is put at the beginning of the sentence and is indicated by
～に よると.

Noun modification
Noun modification
V plain form N
い-adj plain form N
な-adj plain form な N
N plain form の N
(が) Plain form N
The modifying word or clause comes before the noun.
① Verbs, adjectives and nouns in a clause that modifies a noun are in the plain form.
With な-adjective, this is ～な, and with nouns it is ～の.
② Noun-modifying clauses that modify a noun are in the plain form.
③ The subject of a noun-modifying clause is marked by が.

ので
V plain form ので、～
い-adj plain form ので、～
な-adj plain form ～だ → ～な ので、～
N plain form ～だ → ～な ので、～
Like the ～から introduced before, ～ので also indicates a cause or reason.
Since ～ので inherently possesses the characteristic of indicating a consequence (cause and result)
and stating a result derived from a cause, it is suitable for softly expressing a reason or justification
when asking permission for something.

のに
V plain form のに、～
い-adj plain form のに、～
な-adj plain form ～だ → ～な のに、～
N plain form ～だ → ～な のに、～
のに is used when what is stated in the second clause of a sentence contradicts what would have been
expected from the first clause. In most causes, it conveys a feeling of surprise or dissatisfaction.
The difference between ～のに and ～が: If the のに were replaced by が,
the sentence no longer expresses a feeling or surprise or dissatisfaction.
The difference between ～のに and ～ても: ～のに expresses the speaker’s feelings about something that
has actually happened; it cannot be used like the conjunction ～ても to express a contradictory conclusion
in a hypothetical situation.

か
V plain form か、～
い-adj plain form か、～
な-adj plain form ～だ か、～
N plain form ～だ か、～
This sentence pattern is used when using a question that includes an interrogative as
a component of another sentence. Since an interrogative is a noun, it takes the form ‘interrogative か’.

か どうか
V plain form か どうか、～
い-adj plain form か どうか、～
な-adj plain form ～だ か どうか、～
N plain form ～だ か どうか、～
This sentence pattern is adopted when using a question that does not include an interrogative as
a component of another sentence. Be careful, because どうか is required after the plain form か.

N1 (place) で N2 が あります
When N2 is a ceremony or event such as a party, concert, festival, incident or disaster,
あります is used in the sense of ‘to take place’, ‘to be held’ or ‘to occur’.

N (occasion) で
The occasion at which an action takes place is marked by で.

N でも V
When recommending, suggest, or expressing a hope for something,
the particle でも is used to give an example, without restricting it to a specific one.

N を motion V
を is used with motion verbs such as 散歩します, 渡ります and 歩きます
to indicate the place that people or things pass through.

N1 は N2 が V
-

N1 (person 1) は N2 (person 2) に passive V

This sentence pattern expresses an action performed by person 2 in relation to person 1 from the
standpoint of the person at whom the action is directed (person 1). Person 1 is taken as the topic, and the
person taking the action (person 2) is indicated by attaching the particle に.

N1 (person 1) は N2 (person 2) に N3 を passive V

This expresses person 2 performing an action on a possession of, or other thing associated with, person
1
(this thing being N3), where, in most cases, person 1 regards that action as an inconvenience/annoyance.
It is not the possession that is introduced as the topic but the person who regards the action as an
inconvenience or annoyance (the owner).
Since in most cases this sentence pattern indicates that the person subject to the action regards it
as an inconvenience or annoyance, care must be taken when using it. When talking about something
someone has done for you and for which you feel grateful, you should use ～て もらいます.
N (tangible/intangible) が ⁄ は passive V
A passive verb can be used when it is not necessary to mention who is carry out the action involved,
and the subject or topic can be either tangible or intangible.

N (object) は 好きです ⁄ 嫌いです like/dislike →N

N (object) は 上手です ⁄ 下手です be good at/be no good at →N
N (object) は あります, etc. have, etc. →N
Making a direct object marked by を in the topic of a sentence was introduced before.
Nouns indicated by は that are the object of phrases such as 好きです can also be made into a topic.

N は (contrast)
In addition to introducing a topic, は can also indicate a contrast.

N から ⁄ で つくります
から is used when saying what something is made from,
and で is used when saying what something is made of.

N が adj
It was explained before that が is used when describing a phenomenon in terms of how it was perceived
with the five senses (sight, hearing, etc.) or when objectively reporting an event. が can be used not only
with verb sentences but also with adjective sentences.

N (place) に 行きます ⁄ 来ます ⁄ 帰ります

The particle に (indicating an arrival point) is used instead of the particle へ (indicating a direction).
Verbs such as 行きます, 来ます, 帰ります can be used with either ‘place に’ or ‘place へ’.

N に V
The particle に can mean ‘as a token of’ or ‘in memory of’.

～ に よって
When a verb expressing creation or discovery (書きます, 発明します, 発見します, etc.)
is used in the passive, the agent is indicated by に やって, not by に.

N1 を い-adj (～い) → ～く します

N1 を な-adj [な] → ～に します
N1 を N2 に します
While ～く ⁄ ～に なります introduced before expresses a change in the subject of a sentence,
～く ⁄ ～に します indicates changing its object (N1).

N に します
This sentence pattern indicates a choice or decision.

声 ⁄ 音 ⁄ におい ⁄ 味 が します
This describes a voice, other sound, smell, taste or other sensation that the speaker
has perceived using his or her sense organs.

N なら、～
N なら、～ can also be used when giving information to someone about something they have just said.

N1 の N2
-

この ⁄ その ⁄ あの N (position)
When a demonstrative such as この, その or あの is attached to a noun indicating a position,
such as 上, 下, 中, 隣 or 近く, it indicates where the speaker or listener is in relation to
what the positional noun indicates.

〜は ありませんか。(negative question)
This is a more considerate way of asking something because using ありませんか makes it easier
for the listener to answer in negative. In fact, the negative question form is generally a more polite way
of asking something. The answer will be either はい、あります or いいえ、ありません.

XはY と いう 意味です
This form is used when defining X. と いう comes from と 言います.
When inquiring as to the meaning of something, the interrogative ど ういう is used.

～と 書いて あります ⁄ ～と 読みます

The と in this expression has the same function as the と in ～と 言います.

くれます
The word あげます cannot be used to talk about someone else giving something to the speaker or a
member of his or her family. In that case, the word くれます is used.

見えます and 聞こえます

見えます and 聞こえます are not volitional; they denote some something (indicated by が)
naturally coming into sight, or a sound naturally reaching one’s ear, independent of one’s will.
見えます and 聞こえます cannot be used to talk a person deliberately paying attention to something;
in that case, a potential verb is used.

できます
The sense of the verb できます introduced here is to ‘come into being’, ‘be completed’, ‘be finished’, etc.

は used to highlight a word with another particle already attached

As explained before, when は is used with a noun to which another particle is already attached,
it is appended to the particle unless the particle is が or を, which it replaces.

Subject of a subordinate clause

It was explained before that the subject of the clause ～てから is marked by が.
In the same way as ～てから, ～とき, ～と, ～まえに, etc.
the subject of a subordinate clause containing ～たら or ～ても is also marked by が.

もし
もし is used in conjunction with ～たら to give notice that the clause following it is conditional.
It intensifies the speaker’s sense of conditionality.

しか
しか is appended to nouns, quantifiers, etc., and is always used with a negative.
A sentence that contains it negates everything except the word to which it is attached.
When used with a noun to which a particle is attached, it is appended to the particle
unless this is が or を, which it replaces. It suggests insufficiency or inadequacy.

それで
それで indicates that what is about to be said follows from what has just been said.

それ ⁄ その ⁄ そう
それ, その, そう can be used to indicate something appearing in speech or writing.
① In speech: what someone has just said.
② In writing: something that appeared the previous sentence.

ありました
-
どこかで ⁄ どこかに
The particle へ or を after どこか or なにか can be ommited, but the particle で or に cannot.

Particle も
When も is attached to a noun to which が or を is already attached, it replaces these.
When another particle (such as に, で, から, まで or と) is already attached to the noun,
that particle is left in place and も is appended to it.
If the other particle is へ, then も may either replace it or be appended to it.

～とき particle
Since the とき explained before is a noun, it can be used with a particle appended to it.

とか
とか is used in the same way as や i listing instances of something.
It is more colloquial than や and may also be used after the final noun on a list.

まだ affirmative still
まだ (‘yet’ and ‘still’) is used here to indicate that an action or situation is continuing.

Quantifier で
This shows a time limit or other limit.

Quantifier は ⁄ も
When the particle は is attached to a quantifier, it indicates that the speaker thinks that the amount
mentioned is a minimum. When the particle も is attached to a quantifier, it indicates that the speaker
thinks that the amount mentioned is large.

帰ります ー 帰り
遊びます ー 遊び
答えます ー 答え
申し込みます ー 申し込み
楽しみます ー 楽しみ
The same form as the ます-form can be used as a noun.

何か 心配な こと
In certain cases, the expression 何か 心配な こと is used, not 心配 な何か.
Other expressions such as 何か ～ もの, どこか ～ ところ, だれか ～ ひと, いつか ～ とき are also used.

早い → 早く
上手な → 上手に
When an adjective modifies another adjective or a verb, it is used in the ～く form if it is an い-adjective
and the ～に form if it is a な-adjective.

途中で
途中で means ‘during’ or ‘on the way to’.
It is used in conjunction with the dictionary form of a verb or with N の.

い-adj (～い) → ～さ
An い-adjective can be converted to a noun by changing the ending い to さ.

～まして
When wishing to speak politely, V て-form may be changed to V ます-form まして.

～ますので
Polite form ので may be used in order to make plain form ので more polite.
敬語 (Honorific expressions)
敬語 are used to show respect to the listener or the person being referred to.
Whether or not to use them is determined by who the listener or person referred to is, and the situation.
Basically, they are used in situations such as (1) when talking to someone of higher status than oneself,
someone one does not know, or someone with whom one is not on familiar terms, (2) when talking about
someone of higher status than oneself, and (3) when talking in a formal situation.
One type of 敬語 is 尊敬語 (respectful expressions) and another is 謙譲語 (humble expressions).

尊敬語 (Respectful expressions)

Respectful expressions show respect towards the person performing the action or in the state mentioned.
① Verbs
These show respect towards the person performing the action indicated by the verb.
① Respectful verbs
These take the same form as passive verbs and are conjugated as Group II verbs.
② お V ます-form になります
This form is generally considered to be more polite than the respectful verbs introduced in ①.
Group III verbs and verbs whose ます-form consists of one syllable, such as みます and ねます,
do not have this form. If a verb has a respectful equivalent such as those featured in ③ below,
this is used.
③ Special respectful verbs
Several verbs have special respectful equivalents, which show a level of respect similar to ②.
いらっしゃいます (dictionary form: いらっしゃる), なさいます (dictionary form: なさる),
くださいます (dictionary form: くださる) and おっしゃいます (dictionary form: おっしゃる)
are Group I verbs, and care must be taken over their conjugation.
④ お ⁄ ご～ ください
This sentence pattern is the respectful equivalent of V て-form ください.
Verbs in Group I and II take the form お V ます-form ください,
while Group III verbs and special respectful verbs take ご V ください.
Verbs such as 見ます and 寝ます whose ます-form have only one syllable do not use this form.
When a verb has a special respectful equivalent such as those featured in ③,
the respectful equivalent’s て-form with ください attached is used.
② Nouns, adjectives and adverbs
お or ご is prefixed to nouns, adjectives and adverbs in order to signify respect towards the possessor
of the thing represent by the noun or the person in the state described by the adjective or adverb.
Whether to use お or ご depends on the word to which it is to be prefixed; as a general rule,
お is prefixed to uniquely Japanese words, and ご to words of Chinese origin.
敬語 are often used not just with verbs but also with other words in a sentence.

Horrific expression and sentence style

When expressing respect towards someone being talked about, in a case where there is no need to do so
towards the listener, 敬語 can be used in a plain-style sentence.

謙譲語 (Humble expressions - verbs)

① お ⁄ ご～します
① お V (Group I or II) ます-form します
This form cannot be used with verbs whose ます-form consists of a single syllable,
such as 見ます and います.
② ご V (Group III)
This form is used with Group III verbs, including verbs such as 紹介します, 招待します,
相談します and 連絡します, etc. However, some verbs such as 電話します and 約束します
are exceptions, taking お, not ご.
② Special humble verbs
These are used to refer to the actions of the speakers or of his or her associates in a way
that shows politeness towards the listener.