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Perspective article

Petrochemical Industry for the Future

Yao Zhang, Enhui Xing, Wei Han, Panfeng Yang, Song Zhang, Su Liu,
Dongxue Cao, Mingfeng Li

PII: S2095-8099(24)00477-6
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2024.06.017
Reference: ENG 1622

To appear in: Engineering

Received Date: 17 November 2023

Please cite this article as: Y. Zhang, E. Xing, W. Han, P. Yang, S. Zhang, S. Liu, D. Cao, M. Li, Petrochemical
Industry for the Future, Engineering (2024), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2024.06.017

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Research
Green Chemical Engineering—Perspective
Petrochemical Industry for the Future
Yao Zhanga,*, Enhui Xingb, Wei Hanb, Panfeng Yangc, Song Zhangc, Su Liud, Dongxue Caoa, Mingfeng Lib,*
aSINOPEC Group, Beijing 100055, China
bSINOPEC Research Institute of Petroleum Processing Co., Ltd., Beijing 100083, China
cSINOPEC Economics & Development Research Institute Co., Ltd., Beijing 100029, China
dSINOPEC Shanghai Research Institute of Petrochemical Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai 201208, China
*Corresponding author.

E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Zhang), [email protected] (M. Li).

Abstract:

Petroleum has played a vital role as the major supplier of materials and energy during the evolution of human civilization.
Given the change in demand for energy from high to low carbon and ultimately net zero carbon, the energy framework has
undergone revolutionary changes. The energy attribute of petroleum will be gradually weakened, while the material and CO2
emission attributes will be gradually strengthened. Thus, the petrochemical processing basis, scientific concepts, and ideas
will undergo major adjustments to reshape the petrochemical industry. Hence, it is necessary to reconsider the evolution of
the petrochemical industry from a historical perspective and to clarify the historical causes, development contexts, and
possible challenges in future development. Herein, we critically reassess the key drivers and rules guiding the development
of the petrochemical industry and propose a reconstruction strategy based on simplified engineering thinking, innate nature
of energy and material, and CO2 emissions, which can be realized through the integration of gasification with CO as the target
product and recent C1 chemistry targeting the precise synthesis of chemicals. The concept of the petrochemical industry will
change from the product-based process of selection and transformation of raw material molecules to the process of carbon
atom reconfiguration driven by product CO2 emissions. More accurate management of C atoms can be accomplished with
greatly improved utilization efficiency and the reduction of separation intensity and CO2 emissions via the stepwise
introduction of a new approach in the current petrochemical industry.

Keywords: reconstruction, petrochemical industry, refining, CO2 emissions, gasification technology, C1 chemistry

1. Introduction

Materials and energy are fundamental carriers and drivers for the evolution of life and human civilization. The transition
of energy supply from wood to coal, and subsequently to petroleum, especially with the widespread application of electricity,
has promoted the productivity of society. Energy revolutions have laid almost every significant milestone of technological
advancements in industrial sectors. In the 20th century, the demand for fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) continued to
increase. In 2022, fossil fuels accounted for 82.3% of global energy consumption, rendering them primary components of
human energy supply. With the development of the synthetic materials industry, the proportion as resource essence of fossil
fuels has increased. Chemical products that originate from fossil fuels, especially petroleum, have provided vast amounts of
raw materials for clothing, food, housing, and transportation, thereby creating an important material foundation for humans
[1,2].

However, in the process of obtaining energy from fossil fuels, CO2 emissions have increased markedly and have caused

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prominent and serious environmental issues [3]. In 2022, the global CO2 emission from fossil fuels was approximately
3.66×1010 t for power generation, heating, and transportation accounting for 69% of the total [4]. Fig. 1 [5] shows the trend
of global primary energy consumption predicted by the International Energy Agency (IEA). To accomplish the net zero
emission (NZE) scenario, energy supplies will have to undergo significant changes, which would inevitably decrease the
contribution made by fossil fuels. The proportion of green energy such as renewable and nuclear energies in the primary
energy structure is predicted to reach over 60% around 2050. At that time, using petroleum as a source of energy should
decrease, and the role of petroleum as a resource for materials will be highlighted. Thus, the foundation of the petrochemical
industry will undergo significant changes, for example, present petrochemical processes will need to be restructured [6,7].

Fig. 1. Global total primary energy supply in the net zero emission (NZE) scenario [5].

This review aims to scrutinize the history and evolution of the petrochemical industry with contemporary hindsight, to
examine the trends, identify possible problems in the context of the NZE scenario, and propose a simplified and green
reconstruction of the petrochemical industry. These proposals could enhance comprehensive reconsideration of the past,
current, and future petrochemical industry to provide insight into possible research directions.

2. Why did the petrochemical industry become complicated?

2.1. How did the petrochemical industry evolve?

Over the course of the 19th century, the development of the petrochemical technology, which is closely related to the
necessities of human life (food, clothing, housing, and transportation), has had a huge impact on human society and
civilization. An estimation from Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), indicates that the global
consumption of crude oil will reach a record high of 106.1 million barrels per day (1 barrel = 158.98 L) in 2025 [8].

The evolution and development of the petrochemical industry are closely related to the material needs of humans, which
have also driven developments in the petrochemical industry. Distillation is the earliest technology that was used in the
petroleum industry to meet the demand for household kerosene [9]. At the beginning of the 20th century, thermal cracking
technology emerged with the development of the automotive industry. In the 1940s, catalytic cracking technology became
the predominant process for gasoline production. In the 1950s, platinum reforming technology was developed to satisfy the
requirements for the anti-knock performance of gasoline. In the 1960s, the large-scale use of zeolites in refineries was a
milestone in catalytic cracking technology. In the 1980s, hydro-fining and hydro-cracking as typical hydrogenation
technologies were commercialized on a large-scale along with the increasingly stricter requirements on environmental
protection. Additionally, technologies such as steam cracking, catalytic cracking, and aromatization were developed to
produce more olefins and aromatics as the demands for bulk chemicals increased [9–12]. At this point, the petrochemical
industry has evolved into a highly complicated, but rationally integrated system (a typical petrochemical process is shown in
Fig. 2).

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 Fig. 2. Typical petroleum refining process. FCC: fluid catalytic cracking; LPG: liquefied petroleum gas.

2.2. How did the petroleum industry form?

Given the history and evolution of the petrochemical industry, it is apparent that the driving force for technological
development is to produce more value-added products from crude oil in a more efficient and economical manner. A central
unanswered question is why the petrochemical industry became so complicated. We consider that the evolution of the
petrochemical engineering is closely related to the general needs of humans, availability of raw materials, advancement of
science and technology, and path dependence. The following factors have contributed to the development of the petroleum
industry in its current form.

(1) Complexity of crude oil. Crude oil is a complex mixture of molecules containing C, H, O, N, S, and trace metal atoms
(Ni, V, Fe, etc.), and usually comprises alkanes, cycloalkanes, aromatics, and/or their mixtures. The numbers of C atoms in
these compounds vary greatly, with relative molecular weights ranging from tens to thousands; furthermore, the boiling points
range from room temperature to ≥ 500 °C; these wide ranges imply that crude oil in the unrefined state is of limited valued
and of limited use [9]. Therefore, refineries transform crude oil to different degrees using the most common form of separation,

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refining, to obtain fuels and other chemicals.

(2) Low requirements on power fuels. Combustion is a high-temperature exothermic oxidation chemical reaction
between fuels and oxidants, usually O2, involving rapid lighting and heating, and is the predominant manner of utilizing fossil
fuels. Power fuels comprise mixtures of hydrocarbons to satisfy thermal and emission requirements. Fuels combine molecules
with different compositions and structures, thereby balancing energy requirements, complexity of the crude oil and level of
technology. Even widely distributed compositions of gasoline and diesel can meet requirements on combustion. Hence the
molecular composition of fuels produced by each refinery varies significantly. In other words, the fuel has become a pool for
imprecise processing in the petrochemical industry.

(3) Limitations of technology. Science and technology play a vital role in the development of the petrochemical industry,
and they determine and limit the choice of process routes. For instance, the breakage of C–C bonds is the most fundamental
reaction in petrochemical processing. However, due to its endothermic nature, excessive breakage usually requires extra
energy input. Petrochemical processes, especially those that focus on producing fuels, generally follow the principle of
maximizing the preservation of the original molecular structure, which limits the development of processing routes to an
extent. Despite the intensive energy input, most separation processes still rely on differences in boiling points due to
limitations in technology that is based on molecular sizes, adsorption energy, binding energy and others.

(4) Path dependence. The progress of technology can restrict creativity which limits further developments; petrochemical
technology is a typical example. This path dependence is similar to inertia in physics [13]. Using distillation as the basic
technology, a processing path has gradually developed that uses the original molecular structure as the core and cracking and
isomerization as the main chemical reactions [14]. This phenomenon of the path dependence of technology drives strengthens
processing schemes many times over; hence, petroleum processing has become more complicated.

2.3. What are the limitations?

From the perspectives of economy, CO2 emissions, material and energy demands, current petrochemical technologies can
meet the needs of society. However, as the NZE target approaches and with the continuous increase in demand for raw
materials, current solutions will not meet the overall needs. In the future the problems listed below will gradually emerge.

(1) High dependence on raw materials. Due to the limitations of units, processing, and product distribution, enterprises
have specific requirements for the sulfur and wax content, and fraction composition of crude oil. Those industries that use
base oil and solvent oil, among others, as products, have very high requirements for a specific composition and cannot tolerate
significant adjustments in the composition of crude oil. Factors such as the yield of light oil should be considered
comprehensively during the design of plants for the production of aromatics and olefins. Importantly, coal, biomass, natural
gas, and CO2 cannot be used as raw materials for the plants currently in operation [15]. When it becomes necessary to switch
raw materials owing to environmental factors or other reasons, the enterprises cannot manage the transformation of through
equipment within a short period.

(2) Low utilization efficiency of C atoms. Conversion and separation are the most important processes in the
petrochemical industry. To obtain products containing the ideal components, complicated reactions and separations are
sometimes needed. However, many reactions occur via multiple steps owing to thermodynamic and kinetic limitations,
leading to extremely complex processes. Additionally, the yields of target chemicals are influenced by the nature of the
feedstocks, and is not optimal. For example, in the production process of aromatics, the yield is affected by the feedstock,
typically with the aromaticity value at 45%–50%, implying that more than 50% of the molecules are not easily converted into
aromatics. A significant portion of molecules in petrochemical processing undergo catalysis, heat transfer, and separation
processes without effectively participating in the reforming process, which causes lower utilization efficiency of C atoms
with more energy loss.

(3) Higher energy consumption. Energy is an important factor for petrochemical production processes, and plays a role
in driving the flow of fluid materials, separation of process media and promoting the reaction. The form and amount of energy
used are determined by the process characteristics. As a result, many problems, such as a wide variety of energy and
conversion and energy use forms still need to be solved in the petrochemical industry. Energy efficiency became more
important in those processes whose products are chemicals,. In a typical case, the energy consumption of petroleum refining

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is approximately 2.47×106 kJ for one metric ton product [16]. Moreover, more than 2.68×107 kJ of energy was consumed to
produce one metric ton of ethylene via naphtha steam cracking; the separation processes account for 31% of the total [17,18].

(4) Inadequate standardization of equipment. The poor standardization of equipment and processing has always been
regarded as hindering improvements to the petrochemical industry. For example, during the design and construction of units,
factors, such as raw materials, scale, flow, products, location, must be considered. Therefore, each enterprise has its unique
characteristics and requires the customized design of equipment. Consequently, the problem of the lack of equipment
versatility is commonly encountered. The construction of petrochemical processes still relies on on-site fabrication and
assembly with complicated operations, intensive labor and cost, with increased concerns regarding quality management.
Devices such as reactors and pipe racks are difficult to manufacture in a standardized and streamlined manner, and prominent
issues such as long processing cycles, intensive labor input, and transportation difficulties abound. Additionally, scale
manufacturing advantages cannot be leveraged.

(5) Limitation of current processes. The petrochemical industry has developed a systematic technology based on raw
material molecule selection and transformation determined by product molecules. The fundamental principle underpinning
petrochemical processing involves obtaining ideal molecules from complicated mixtures with non-ideal structures via
reconstruction and other chemical or physical pathways. Given the higher quality requirements for products, traditional
technology will not suffice. Therefore, process intensification, fine separation, and other operations will need to increase,
leading to additional energy consumption and CO2 emissions; however, it is difficult to overcome the limitations of the
thermodynamic and kinetic equilibrium of the reaction process itself, which prevents further improvement in product yield
and quality. Thus, the interplay between demand and efficiency will become more pronounced.

3. Reconstruction approaching

3.1. New round industrial revolution

(1) The rise of renewable energy. In the past 20 years, human demand for energy has continued to increase. The share of
electricity in the global final energy consumption is rising, from 20% in 2022, to 52% in 2050 with a huge overall increase
in demand of 150% predicted in the NZE scenario [19]. As shown in Fig. 3 [20], in the global newly built electricity plants,
the proportion of renewable energy generation in 2002 was only 15%, while fossil fuel generation accounted for 85%. In
2014, renewable energy generation accounted for 50%. In 2022, global renewable energy generation increased by 295 GW,
accounting for 83%, while the proportion of fossil fuel generation decreased to 17%. To achieve the 1.5 °C scenario, the
share of renewable energy in final global energy consumption would reach 83%, and the share in electricity generation could
reach 91% with a new renewable power capacity addition of 1066 GW [20]. In China, the newly installed capacity of wind
and solar power generation in 2022 exceeded 120 GW with the newly installed capacity of renewable energy being 152 GW
[21,22]. Green electricity and electrification are absolutely central to meet the requirements of NZE. Therefore, fossil energy
will gradually shift from the primary to supplementary roles, with renewable energy as the dominant source of energy supply.

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 Fig. 3. Annual power capacity expansion 2002–2022 [20].

(2) Reshaping industry by green hydrogen. As the material and energy vector in our societies, green hydrogen presents
advantages such as being environmentally benign and producing a minimal CO2 footprint. Additionally, the flexibility of
green hydrogen production ensures convenience owing to the power transmission network. Despite the hydrogen energy
industry being nascent, with disadvantages such as immature technology, high investment, and incomplete facility
construction, the development of green hydrogen will quickly enter into a growth period with the accelerated global layout
of renewable electricity. The US government predicted that the manufacturing cost of green hydrogen would decrease to 1
USD·kg−1 by 2030, close to that of gray hydrogen [23]. At that time, green hydrogen, as the main source material, will
significantly change the concept of the current petrochemical industry.

3.2. Enlightenment from other fields

3.2.1. Electric vehicles

The first electric vehicle was invented in 1837. In the early 20th century, the sales of electric vehicles reached the first peak
with 38% of cars in the United States powered by electricity, and 22% being powered by liquid fuels [24]. In the 20th century,
the global petroleum industry and the automotive internal combustion engines experienced significant development, thus
electric vehicles were gradually displaced. In 2016, the rise of Tesla electric vehicles promoted by the rapid innovation in
battery production and other technologies, led to the rapid expansion of electric vehicles. In 2023, global electric car markets
are experiencing exponential growth as sales exceed 14 million, and the market share increased from 2% in 2018 to 18% in
2023 [25].

The efficiency of energy is paramount in the competition between electric and fuel vehicles. First, electric vehicles convert
electricity into mechanical energy from batteries, while engines convert chemical energy into mechanical energy by burning
fuels. In terms of efficiency from on-board energy storage devices to wheels, the energy efficiency of electric vehicles is
usually between 80%–90% without considering the origins of electricity, while the efficiency of fuel vehicles is usually only
between 16%–32% and is limited by the Carnot cycle [26]. Second, the process of replacing fuel engines with electric motors
greatly simplifies the car manufacturing process with significantly reduced spare parts. Third, some characteristics are unique
to electric vehicles, such as autonomous driving, ultra-high acceleration, independent four-wheel drive, and so on, which are
attributed to the simplified operation of the electronic system. The improvements in energy conversion efficiency and the
simplification processes promote the choice of electric vehicles over automotive vehicles again after 100 years.

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3.2.2. Lab-grown meat

The history of human development is a history of transforming food. Approximately 11 000 years ago, humans began
intentionally cultivating plants and domestic animals, allowing a series of occasional genetic mutations to be passed down
through the generations. This advancement enables humans to create various meats and foods. With the global population
more than 8.1 billion, meat consumption reached approximately 3.7×108 t in 2023 [27]. Inadequate feeding began limiting
the growth of meat production. In the recent past 100 years, extensive efforts have been made to improve the growth rate,
production efficiency, and protein content of meat-producing animals through agricultural, medical, and biotechnological
advancements. Nonetheless, we are still unable to enhance the efficiency of meat production fundamentally. In addition, the
moral dilemma and ethical issues associated with meat consumption are continuously raised.

Fortunately, it has been proven that lab-grown meat will significantly change the history of human food production [28].
The principle of lab-grown meat is to utilize modern bioengineering techniques to scale up the cultivation of animal cells or
extract plant-based proteins, that is, the preparation of various types of meat products with distinctive textures through
efficient and targeted cellular cultivation/extraction. As a result, significantly reduced material and energy consumption can
be achieved. For instance, the energy conversion efficiency could reach 47%. The protein feed conversion of protein reached
72% as animal breeding was eliminated [29], however, the land occupation, water use, and CO2 emissions decreased by 99%,
82%–96%, and 78%–96%, respectively [29].

The development of lab-grown meat illustrates that technological progresses can trigger leapfrog transformations to
improve production efficiency through targeted cultivation and recombination based on simplified units. Leapfrog
transformations remind us to breach the boundaries of current knowledge, revert to the innate nature of matter, and to start
from the most fundamental elements of matter (such as atoms, molecules, and cells), and to address our most essential needs.

4. Ideas for the future

4.1. Engineering mindset

Engineering is a discipline that applies theories to solve problems, and promotes industrial revolutions, economic
development, and social progress. The engineering mindset was initially formed in the Stone Age, gradually gained
momentum during the Agricultural Age, and matured in the Industrial Age [30]. The engineering mindset has evolved from
simplicity to complexity. Recently, with the advance of automation and intelligentization, the engineering mindset has begun
reverting to simplification. For example, the precise design of product, processing, and assembly could be efficiently
accomplished with advanced design software, precision machine tools, 3D printing, artificial intelligence, and other
technologies. Through modular designs, rapid replacement and adjustment can be realized to improve the flexibility of
production and speed of market response.

The simplified engineering mindset has begun to emerge in various fields. For instance, in automotive engineering, the use
of integrated body die-casting significantly enhanced the production efficiency of car bodies. Additionally, modular design
enables sharing car components among different car models to reduce repetition of design, and has significantly simplified
the management of supply chains. However, these approaches have become vital for cost control. In construction engineering,
utilizing prefabricated components and modular design has enhanced building quality and construction efficiency, reduced
the formation of waste building raw materials, and has been more conducive to secondary recycling. In software engineering,
the concept that begins from systematic design to modular overlay reduces the complexity of software design, simplifies
software development, and improves efficiency and maintainability.

Chemical engineering is a discipline that explores the principles of chemical processes and reaction engineering.
Production processes are designed and improved by optimizing feedstocks, momentum transfer, heat transfer, mass transfer,
and chemical reaction engineering. Recently, chemical engineering has also begun reverting to simplification. The highly
regarded crude oil direct cracking technology, which is innovatively designed to achieve low energy consumption and high
yield through a shortened process, has the advantages of a simple process, low investment requirement, low energy
consumption, and high chemical yields. The technology is considered a disruptive technological transformation of the
traditional refining industry [31]. ExxonMobil has built a 1 Mt·a−1 crude oil direct cracking unit in Singapore. This process
involves the separation of crude oil via flash distillation to form light and heavy fractions. The light fraction (~76%) enters

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the steam cracking unit, and the heavy fraction (~24%) enters refining units for deep processing. The yield of chemicals could
reach 40%–50% [32]. Based on the scientific principle of different cracking temperatures required for light and heavy
fractions, the SINOPEC Research Institute of Petroleum Processing (RIPP) designed a dual riser catalytic cracking reactor to
construct two catalytic cracking reaction zones at 560–620 and 640–670 °C, respectively, which achieved a total yield of over
50% for ethylene, propylene, and light aromatics [33]. This innovative approach has been scaled up to industrial scale in
Yangzhou, China.

The direct cracking of crude oil is an effective step toward simplified reconstruction of petrochemical processes [31].
However, it is still based upon the concept of distillate refining with low utilization efficiency of C atoms, strong dependence
on light crude oil, and high yield of low-value products such as coke and dry gas (> 34.84%) [34]. From the perspective of
simplified engineering, high-quality development can be achieved with reduced units and separation intensity only by
stepping away from the concept of distillate refining and starting from efficient atomic assembly.

4.2. Scientific perspective

4.2.1. Nature of a chemical reaction

The core aim of petrochemical processes is the conversion of crude oil molecules into useful or valuable chemicals via a
series of reactions. Chemical reactions involve the breaking of chemical bonds in reactants and formation of chemical bonds
in products, as well as the generation of new substances and transformation of energy, which strictly follows the principles
of mass and energy balances [35]. Fossil fuels mainly consist of C, H, and O atoms. C atoms are the main component forming
a major part of the molecular skeletons and H and O atoms occur in different proportions (Fig. 4). C, CO, H2, CnHx, and
CnHxOy form the material basis for fossil energy to participate in combustion reactions. CO2 and H2O are the final products
after the release of energy from fossil fuels, which is the material basis for recycling in nature through photosynthesis. An
energy balance means that energy undergoes mutual transformation or transfer from one substance to another in different
forms with the total amount of energy remaining unchanged. Energy conversion includes mechanical, electrical, and thermal
energy conversion via fossil fuel combustion and potential energy and photoelectric conversion, among others; in addition,
the transfer of chemical and internal energy occurs in the molecular reconstruction process caused by the participation of
chemical energy.

Fig. 4. Ternary system of C, H, and O atoms.

Petrochemical engineering is a dual management process of both material and energy. C and H atoms in fossil fuel
molecules are used as the material base, and the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas is the energy base
used for reconstruction to enhance the utilization of the original molecules. Typical chemical reactions include cracking,

8
hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, and isomerization, as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Summary of main reactions involved in the petrochemical process.

Petrochemical engineering in its current form has established the processing method based on the concept of petroleum
fractions, in which the boiling point and C atom number are used as the main basis for separation. Nonetheless, the reactivity
of different isomers varies greatly. For example, the C–C bond energy of long-chain alkanes is approximately 365 kJ·mol−1,
that of cycloalkanes is approximately 407.3 kJ·mol−1, and that of aromatic hydrocarbons is as high as 580.6 kJ·mol−1 [36].
Moreover, even if the structure is similar, the difference in the number of C atoms ensure a wide variation in the properties;
using the activity of n-alkanes as an example, in which, n-C16(42.3)> n-C14(19) > n-C12(4.5) > n-C10(1)> n-C8(0.23),
350 °C, over Y zeolite [37]. Therefore, it is difficult for molecules with different structures and C atoms to react
simultaneously. Molecules that do not participate in reactions often reduce the efficiency and energy consumption of
processing methods.

In the past two decades, the concept of component molecular refining has been proposed and is currently being into practice.
Molecular refining refers to the understanding and utilization of fossil fuels at the molecular level, which involves using every
molecule in its most efficient state. However, given the C, H, and O ternary system, current molecular refining is limited to
dealing with mixtures of molecules with similar structures, instead of accurate combinations of atoms. To fundamentally
improve atom utilization, traditional petroleum processing will have to be substantially overhauled. In doing so, the concept
of the precise control of reaction chemistry can be used to accomplish the evolution of petrochemical processes from
complexity to simplicity. Thus, leapfrog progresses in the petrochemical system can be ultimately realized.

4.2.2. Proposed optimal scheme

C1 chemistry is the organic chemistry and process of synthesizing chemicals or liquid fuels from compounds containing
one C atom such as CH4, CO, and CO2 [38]. CH4 is the main component of natural gas, with a high C–H bond energy (bond
dissociation energy (BDE) = 439.3 kJ·mol−1), low polarity, and electron affinity with extremely stable chemical properties
[39]. Methane is an important energy carrier, and humans have obtained heat via the combustion of CH4 for a long time. CO,
is a heteronuclear diatomic molecule and contains a total of ten valence electrons. Those electrons are distributed as defined
by the octet rule, in which four shared electrons originate from the O atom and two from the C atom. The resulting triple
bond comprises 2π-bonds and 1σ bond with a length of 112.82 pm and bond association energy of 1070 kJ·mol−1. Two
electrons from the O atom in one of the bonding orbitals form a dipolar bond, resulting in polarization within the molecule.
Moreover, the difference in electronegativity between the C and O atom, which are 2.55 and 3.44, respectively, on the Pauling
scale, leads to an unequal charge distribution within the molecule [40]. These two characteristics and the asymmetric
geometrical nature of the CO molecule, together, give rise to a relatively small electric dipole moment. The electrons of the
C atom are easily lost and C is easily oxidized. CO is the most commonly used synthetic gas fuel and is the main component
of syngas (a mixture of H2 and CO), which can be used as an intermediate to synthesize a series of basic chemicals. CO2 is a
linear molecule composed of a C atom and two O atoms [41]. CO2 has a strong C=O bond energy (~799 kJ·mol−1), resulting
in high thermodynamic stability [42]. CO2 is the iconic greenhouse gas and the major factor driving global climate change,

9
and is also the material basis for natural recycling through pathways such as photosynthesis [43,44]. As shown in Fig. 6,
almost all basic chemicals can be produced starting from CH4, CO, and CO2 [45].

Fig. 6. Overview of representative routes used to produce value-added chemicals from C1 molecules. FT: Fischer–Tropsch;
DME: dimethyl ether; MDA: methane dehydroaromatization; DMTM: direct oxidation of methane to methanol; OCM:
oxidative coupling of methane; MTO: methanol to olefins; MTA: methanol to aromatics

CO is one of most widely used C1 molecules because of its relatively high activity and easy availability. For example,
syngas obtained through coal gasification, can be utilized as the raw material to produce CH4, methanol, fuels, and light
olefins, which have been commercially available. Using C1 chemistry, the energy supply may be diversified fossil fuels can
be efficiently utilized. By using the approach of energy, materials, and CO2 emissions, the scientific nature of the C1 chemical
industry can become consistent with the concept of simplified engineering, as C1 chemistry refocuses on the basis and innate
characteristics of materials. Furthermore, by further optimizing science, technology, and engineering, using the basics of C1
chemistry, C1 chemistry can become an important path for more efficient use of petroleum resources; additionally, C1
chemistry could lay the chemical foundation for the clean and efficient use of biomass, CO2, and waste plastics [46].

However, current C1 chemistry has drawbacks, including, complicated multi-step reaction systems, high energy
consumption, and high CO2 emissions despite successful commercialization of methanol-to-olefins (MTO), methanol-to-
propylene (MTP) and Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis [47]. In the current coal chemical industry, coal may be used in three
predominant ways. The first is as a provider of energy. In a typical coal gasification stage, approximately 25%–30% of C
atoms are converted into CO2 after releasing energy through oxidation to meet the requirements of high-temperature
conditions. The second is to serve as the transfer vector for generation of H2. The CO:H2 ratio in coal-based syngas, however,
is approximately 1.0:0.8 owing to the high C:H ratio of coal. For the production of methanol, fuel, and ethylene glycol, the
CO:H2 of syngas should be adjusted to 1:2 via the water gas shift reaction, during which more than 30% of CO is converted
into CO2. The third is to serve as the material basis for C chains in chemicals. In the synthesis stage, C atoms in CO molecules
participate in molecular recombination to form C–C chains. Nonetheless, the high consumption of C atoms during energy
and hydrogen production results in a low proportion of C atoms into the final products [48]. For a typical MTO process, less
than 35% of C atoms are transformed into methanol while with more than 60% of C atoms are converted into CO2.

Novel solutions are required to solve long existing problems that have been classically approached and cannot be
completely or satisfactorily solved [49]. A gap remains between the process efficiency and economy of C1 chemistry and the
petrochemical industry at present, and the issue of CO2 emission is particularly prominent. Eventually, when significant
changes occur in the production of renewable energy and H2, the C, H, and O ternary system in industry will be reconstructed,
as shown in Fig. 7. From the perspective of materials, originated will be sourced from H2O molecules through electrolysis of

10
water and partly from C-based materials via gasification, which would significantly reduce dependence on fossil fuels. The
sources of C atoms will be more extensive, including but not limited to crude oil and coal. Biomass, CO2, and waste plastics
will predominantly provide C atoms. O atoms from air and H2O molecules could be directly or indirectly transferred into
final products [50]. From the perspective of energy, the dependence on the combustion of fossil fuels will be markedly
reduced with solar, wind, and nuclear being the primary energy suppliers [51]. Furthermore, the recombination of C atoms
will be a vitally important step in the chemical process, and H atoms will lose their dominance. The material and energy
structure will undergo significant changes in the future with more precise management of C atoms. Therefore, C1 chemistry
will become the key strategy in the simplified reconstruction of petrochemical engineering.

Fig. 7. Predicted material and energy composition in future petrochemical industry. CCUS: carbon capture, utilization, and
storage

4.3. Toward simplification

The evolution of chemistry is a process that considers the mutual influence of science, technology, and social requirements.
From the earliest use of fire to the brilliant accomplishments of modern chemistry, chemistry has driven the progress of
society. The research focus of chemistry and chemical technology evolved from activity to selectivity, then to an atom
economy. With the implementation of the net zero target, the phenomenon of CO2 emissions will become critical, and the
renewability of carbon resources will gradually become an important consideration.

Any change is not overnight, it needs to be affected by the level of science and technology, social needs and so on. The
reconstruction of the petrochemical process will be accomplished in different stages based upon developments in the maturity
of the current petrochemical processes, utilization level of equipment, and availability of green energy, which will evolve
according to the short to medium and long terms, as shown in Fig. 8.

11
 Fig. 8. Two-step routes in the simplified reconstruction of petrochemical process. BTX: benzene–toluene–xylene.

In the short to medium term, the maturity and scale effects of green hydrogen and electricity technology will gradually
emerge. The CO2 emissions from the C1 chemistry process will therefore be significantly reduced owing to green hydrogen
and green electricity replacing gray hydrogen and fuel. The olefins and aromatics produced via C1 chemistry will be cost
effective. At this stage, on the basis of current petroleum processes, simplified procedures for heavy fractions (e.g., heavy
and residual oils) could be realized. Similar to current petrochemical processes, crude oil is pre-treated and then separated
into distillation units. The naphtha fraction generally follows the existing processing flow. While the heavy fractions would
preferably enter the gasification unit in the liquid form to form the target product (i.e., syngas), instead of being processed
via traditional processing units such as hydrogenation, cracking, coking, and extraction. Subsequently syngas will be purified
via desulfurization, denitrification, and dechlorination, among other treatments, and mixed with green hydrogen in
proportions determined by different requirements, without the water gas shift reaction. Thus, the syngas will participate in
the process of the growth of the carbon length to selectively generate olefins, aromatics, oxides, liquid fuels, and other
products.

In the medium to long term, once transportation fuels have been replaced by power batteries, the global crude oil
consumption will be significantly decreased. At this time, the relationship between the supply and demand of petroleum will
be reshaped; the C atom price of crude oil and coal will be unified, and the comprehensive cost of gasification will be similar.
Simultaneously, the efficiency of C1 chemistry will be significantly enhanced with high selectivity being the most prominent
characteristic. Thus, the petrochemical processes will undergo a complete reconstruction through combination with C1
chemistry, as shown in Fig. 9. Gasification will become the key unit to produce high purity CO, in which crude oil is processed
on a large scale and biomass will be processed on the small and medium scales [51]. The reconstruction of C atoms will be
accomplished in efficient synthetic units via the combination of CO and green hydrogen, and the catalysts and process
parameters will be optimized to furnish different target products. In addition, syngas derived from the gasification of biomass
will enter a skid-mounted and modular synthesis device to form sustainable aviation fuels and other carbon neutral products.
Simultaneously, CO2 generated in industries would be captured economically and converted into CO or chemicals via

12
electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, and direct hydrogenation processing.

Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of predicted future petrochemical process.

4.4. Advantages

The simplified development pathway proposed in this article is the preferred pathway to improve the efficiency of the
petrochemical process, and the efficient utilization of C atoms with minimal CO2 emissions; the pathway exhibits notable
advantages such as, a lower dependence on raw material, process sustainability, and better construction standards.

(1) Lower dependence on raw materials. As a highly versatile process, gasification with CO as the target product will
significantly reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and is similar to the lab-grown meat process which displays reduced
dependence on animals (Fig. 10). The raw materials for gasification can be expanded to all carbon-based materials such as
natural gas, crude oil, biomass, and waste plastics. It should be noted that the main characteristic of the new gasification
processes is that CO is the target product and H2 is the byproduct, which is different to current gasification. Thus, there it will
not be necessary to sacrifice the efficiency of C atoms to adjust the H2:CO ratio. In particular, with a high C and O, and low
H content, biomass will be partially oxidized, resulting in it being a less energy dense fuel. However, the direct gasification
of biomass can efficiently produce syngas with CO as the primary product, which will be a vital strategy to overcome the
drawback of low energy density [52,53].

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 Fig. 10. Scheme illustrating the simplified engineering concept in the food and chemical industry.

(2) Greater utilization efficiency of C atoms. In the future, simplified synthesis and separation will be vital for
minimizing CO2 emissions and the economy of the entire process. By replacing gray with green hydrogen, CO2 emissions
will be reduced by more than 30%, and the gasification scale will be reduced by more than 50%. However, with the continuous
evolution of science and technology, processing units based on native or quasi-native structures in the current petrochemical
process will be replaced by the efficient recombination of C atoms. Therefore, the efficient utilization of C atoms will break
the limitation of the composition of the raw material to significantly reduce silent molecules. It is beyond doubt that utilizing
C atoms more efficiently will result in a substantial increase in atom efficiency, greatly simplifying the reaction and separation
process, and significantly reducing the overall energy consumption.

(3) Higher energy efficiency. Gasification has always been considered as being energy intensive. However, energy is
expended to obtain CO and H2 through combining C atoms with O atoms from CO2 and H2O at high temperature during the
gasification phase, while a large amount of energy is released when C atoms further dissociate from O atoms to rebuild the
C–C bond in the reconstruction phase. In this case, the energy can be relatively balanced. Simultaneously, given a relatively
simple process, the form of energy required and its utilization will be simplified, resulting in an improvement in the recovery
of energy. The continuous progress of energy recovery technology and input of zero-carbon energy, will be conducive to
accomplishing a comprehensive balance of energy and CO2 emissions.

(4) Better construction standards. Owing to the relatively simple nature of the reaction processes, the units of gasification
and C1 chemistry will gradually transform from those of specialization to those of standardization and modularization. Thus,
construction areas will be moved from on-site construction to assembly workshops, which is more conducive for using
advanced tools such as industrial robots. Hence, the effects of human factors on manufacturing will be reduced, leading to an
improved quality of equipment, reduced failure rate, and controlled safety risk. Standardization can also improve the
interchangeability of equipment and efficiency of maintenance. In particular, upgrading can be accomplished by adding or
replacing different modules without shutdown, which would enhance the efficiency and avoid production stagnation and risks
caused by the shutdown of units.

(5) Larger space for development. The key to simplified development is the C atom reconfiguration process driven by
the CO2 emissions of the process and products. Through gasification of the raw material into the smallest unit, followed by
precise combination, the limitations of internal thermodynamics and dynamic balance in traditional refining will be overcome,
creating space for more efficient, accurate, and characteristic synthesis. In terms of science, the task of research will be more

14
focused on efficient gasification and targeted synthesis, indicating the directions for rapid iterative advances in technology.
Simultaneously, the simple path uses CO and H2 as the most basic material units and electric energy as the basic energy unit,
which is more conducive to the inclusion of green energy. With the large-scale input of green energy and hydrogen, this path
will have the opportunity to provide a broader space for the green, low-carbon, or even net-zero development of petrochemical
industry.

5. Issues to be resolved

Petrochemical engineering is a complicated and comprehensive system involving multiple disciplines. A simplified process
focuses on the integrated revolution of energy, resource, and CO2 emissions, instead of partial progress. However, the
theoretical potential will encounter huge practical challenges. The deficiency of science and technology is a key factor
affecting the reconstruction, while reliance on traditional petrochemical processing would also begin limiting progress.

5.1. Science and technology for the future

5.1.1. Gasification

The traditional process of gasification involves the reaction between coal and gasification agents (O2, H2O, or CO2) at a
high temperature via a series of physical processes and chemical reactions [54]. C and H atoms in coal are partially oxidized
and converted into syngas. Over the last century, gasification has been widely applied in the coal chemical industry owing to
its strong compatibility with feed stocks, versatile application scenarios, and various downstream industrial chains. Moreover,
heavy oil, coke, and biomass have been utilized as feed for gasification, which has become a fundamental and leading
technology in many chemical industries [55].

Coal is more complicated and contains various impurities; it is distinct from oil and natural gas. The properties of syngas
are often affected by the quality of coal, such as moisture, volatile matter, adhesion, activity, slurry ability, ash melting point,
and mechanical strength. Owing to the inherent complexity of coal, gasification technologies still have shortcomings that are
difficult to completely eradicate. For fixed-bed gasification technology, several problems exist, including, the high
requirement of mechanical strength, adhesion, slagging and thermal stability of raw coal, and the ease of formation of tar and
phenolamine wastewater. For fluidized bed technology, the high coal activity and low carbon conversion rate need to be
resolved. For gas-fluidized beds, problems such as burner ablation, water wall burning loss, short life of refractory lining,
gasifier slagging, must be resolved. With the chilling process, obvious energy loss occurs at high temperatures. In the waste
pot process, ash accumulation and clogging in the system emerge as drawbacks to be overcome [56,57]. The development of
coal gasification technology has been an iterative evolution process, with the main focus involving overcoming the
complexity of coal.

Nonetheless, gasification should play a crucial role as the platform technology in the development of the simplified
petrochemical industry. Using more diverse and abundant feed stocks as carbon sources enables the shift in the function of
carbon-containing organics from that of energy unit to resource unit; this shift would maximize atom economy value and
minimize CO2 footprints to the greatest extent.

In the short term, gasification technologies must be developed with carbon-containing resources such as crude oil and coal
as raw materials, with CO as primary product, H2 as the secondary product, and CO2 as the byproduct [58]. Most noteworthy,
petroleum in the liquid form, with a high hydrogen content, and low impurity, would exhibit significant advantages in the
gasification stage. Thus, the key focus lies in the design of petroleum gasification technologies, with the necessity of
improving the compatibility of raw materials, increasing CO selectivity with reduced CO2 selectivity and energy consumption.
Simultaneously, research and application demonstration must be promoted in the relevant application scenarios of raw
material diversification and low carbonization, especially the integrated development of gasification, new energy, and
integrated utilization of gasification and CO2. In terms of basic research, the gasification reaction law, gasification process
control mechanism, and new catalysts must be continuously studied. In the medium to long term, biomass, as organic
compounds primarily composed of C, H, O, N, and minerals, is considered an ideal renewable resource owing to its abundance
(approximately 2.2×1011 t of biomass available globally each year), low sulfur content, and its carbon neutrality [59,60].
Utilization of biomass enables the complete lifecycle of C atoms, which will be the most valuable pathway in the future.
Nonetheless in terms of technology, further exploration on biomass coke regulation, catalytic processes, and gas purification,

15
among others are still needed [61,62].

5.1.2. Chemicals from syngas

Olefins and aromatics are vital chemicals closely related to human life and industry. Recently, with the development of the
coal chemical industry, both MTO and MTP processes have been successfully commercialized [63]. Methanol-to-aromatics
(MTA) has been demonstrated on an industrial scale. The diagram of olefin and aromatic synthesis paths using syngas as raw
materials is shown in Fig. 11. From the perspective of the simplified engineering mindset, the direct synthesis of hydrocarbons
without the formation of methanol becomes feasible and potentially economical.

The direct transformation of syngas to hydrocarbons is based on FT synthesis and the synergistic catalytic mechanism.
The FT synthesis process occurs via the mechanism of surface polymerization with the carbon number distribution of products
approximately following the Anderson–Schulz–Flory (ASF) distribution [64]. By optimizing the catalysts, the distribution
can be limited within a specific range; however, it is challenging to go beyond the constraints of ASF limits, such as maximum
C2=–C4= selectivity at 58% and aromatic selectivity at 15% on an industrial scale [65,66].

Fig. 11. Summary diagram of olefin and aromatic synthesis paths using syngas as raw material.

Synergistic catalysis can couple multiple catalytic reactions, in which the products of one reaction are utilized as
substrates for subsequent reactions. By coupling FT synthesis and cracking, a simultaneous advancement in FT synthesis and
the acid catalyzed reaction can be realized to increase the selectivity toward desired products, during which products such as
C2=–C4= could be formed by cracking long-chain hydrocarbon products [67]. Furthermore, by coupling FT synthesis and
aromatization, the formation of aromatics can be enhanced, but the aromatic selectivity still cannot be greater than 57%
because of the high conversion to CH4. Other synergistic catalysts (oxide–zeolite, OXZEO) composed of oxides having CO
hydrogenation activity and zeolites with cracking activity exhibited excellent catalytic performance for the transformation
from syngas to light olefins and aromatics [68,69]. In such a system, the intermediate products such as methanol, dimethyl
ether (DME), and vinyl ketones are formed on the oxide surface, and subsequently transform to olefins and aromatics
selectively within the confined environment of the zeolitic channels. Owing to the combination of C–O bond activation and
C–C chain growth in this process, the OXZEO system display advantages, such as, the control of product distribution [70–
72].

Recently, through combining efforts in fundamental theory on synergistic catalysis, catalysts such as Zn-ZrO2/ZSM-5
and Zn-CrOx/ZSM-5 have been prepared to accomplish the direct conversion of syngas to aromatics, with CO conversion at
20% and 16%, and aromatics selectivity at 80% and 73.9%, respectively [73,74]. Ethylene selectivity of 73% and 65% has
been obtained over ZnCrOx/MOR and ZnAl2O4/MOR, respectively, by the selective poisoning of acids located in the 12
membered-ring channels of MOR zeolites and design of methanol carbonylation pathways [75–77]. Additionally, through
incorporating germanium-substituted AlPO-18 within the framework of the OXZEO catalyst concept, and disentangling the
target reaction from the secondary reactions, an unprecedented light olefin yield of 48% has been realized under optimal
conditions [76]. With an increase in the density of acid sites, a single-pass conversion of CO of 85% has been achieved with
light olefin selectivity over 80%; this was ascribed to the C–C coupling of vinyl ketones and olefins while inhibiting secondary
reactions that consume the olefins [78].

Synergistic catalysis provides valuable solutions to obtain more light olefins and aromatics beyond the ASF distribution

16
obtained through FT synthesis. Researchers are still exploring the classic FT synthesis, and challenges regarding activity,
selectivity, and stability on an industrial scale must still be overcome [79]. Needless to say, it is of great significance for the
direct conversion of syngas to chemicals that the structure of energy resources be adjusted and the strategy of the NZE target
be supported. Commercialization of the direct conversion of syngas to chemicals could be successfully realized via the
development of high-performance catalysts in the near future.

5.1.3. Electrocatalytic reduction of CO2

As a major greenhouse gas, CO2 is the ultimate product formed from the oxidation of organic compounds. Through
reduction and hydrogenation, CO2 can be converted into valuable fuels and chemicals, such as CO, CH4, CH3OH, DME, and
olefins, through which CO2 can be used as the material foundation and storage of energy for efficient recycling [80,81].
However, the engineering processes and the reaction chemistry of CO2 reduction can be difficult to realize as the CO2
molecule is quite stable and its Gibbs free energy (△G0 = −394 kJ·mol−1) is much lower than those of the products (CO:
137.2 kJ·mol−1, CH4: −51 kJ·mol−1, CH3OH: −166.4 kJ·mol−1, HCOOH: −361.4 kJ·mol−1l, HCHO: −109.9 kJ·mol−1,
(NH2)2CO: −197.5 kJ·mol−1) [82].

With a low empty orbital (2 πu) and high electron affinity (38 eV), CO2 tends to accept electrons from other molecules,
through which the CO2 molecules can be activated thereby accomplishing energy input to overcome the energy barrier of
CO2 reduction [83]. The electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 refers to the use of electrical energy in an electrolysis cell to convert
CO2 into fuels and chemicals (Fig. 12(a)) [84]. During the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2, H2O molecules undergo
oxidation at the anode to produce O2 and electrons/protons (e−/H+). Simultaneously, CO2 molecules are reduced at the cathode
to yield various carbon-containing compounds, such as CO, CH4, HCOOH, CH3OH, HCHO, CH3CH2OH, and C2H4. The
electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 is a complicated process involving multiple steps of electron transfer and reactions with
different quantities of electrons, such as the two-electron reduction of CO and HCOOH, six-electron reduction of CH3OH,
C2H4, and CH3CH2OH, and eight-electron reduction of CH4 (Fig. 12(b)) [85,86]. Distinct from photocatalysis, thermal
catalysis, and biocatalysis, electrocatalysis is characterized by being environmentally benign with controllable selectivity, is
performed under relatively mild conditions in compact devices and can be easily scaled up using modular systems.
Additionally, thermodynamic limitations can be overcome by using H2O as a source of hydrogen [87].

Fig. 12. Electrocatalytic reduction of CO2. (a) Configuration of electrocatalytic CO2 reduction (ECO2R); (b) roadmaps of
electrocatalytic CO2 reduction toward value-added products.

Predictably, electrocatalysis would play a crucial role in energy storage and CO2 conversion, which will be an ideal
pathway for closing the anthropogenic carbon cycle and storing intermittent renewable electricity potentially. However, there
are numerous challenges on the path to commercialization, such as catalytic activity, selectivity, stability, cost, and the
stability of ion exchange membranes, ion conductivity, and selection of new types of electrolytes [88,89]. In particular, the
complex generation steps of C2+ hydrocarbons and oxygen-containing compounds require more electron transfers (> 12e−),
resulting in relatively low Faradaic efficiencies (FEs) [90]. For example, the FEs for the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to

17
ethylene and ethanol are only approximately 60% and 40%, respectively, while FEs for other C2+ products are even lower
(Fig. 13(a)). Consequently, low FEs result in additional energy, and low selectivity increases the cost of product separation,
both of which become the primary barrier to industrialization. Fortunately, the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO
demonstrates promising industrialization. For instance, the FEs for syngas can approach 100%, with an overall CO energy
efficiency of 40%–50% and a minimum cost of 130 USD·t−1 at a current density of 300 mA·cm−2. The cost of ethylene
synthesized using CO is 40% lower than that of one-step electrocatalytic reduction (780 USD·t−1) [91]. Fusing existing
technologies, in this case, through the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO, and further conversion to ethylene becomes
economically feasible.

Recently, the concept of “electricity refinery” has been proposed (Fig. 13(b)). Electricity refinery refers to the conversion
of renewable energy into transportable fuels (e.g., ammonia and ethanol), chemicals (e.g., CO, ethylene, methanol, and formic
acid), and renewable specialty chemicals, via various electrocatalytic processes. Distinct from fossil-based refineries, an
electricity refinery is sustainable and carbon neutral and easily modulated and decentralized in scale [91,92]. Furthermore,
the driving force of electrocatalytic reactions can be controlled directly by varying the bias potentials, which is inherently
safer and flexible for selectivity tuning; thus rendering more opportunities for optimizing partial oxidation and reduction
conversions [87,93]. As estimated, with EFs > 60% and renewable electricity price < 0.04 USD·(kW·h)−1, the electrocatalytic
reduction of CO2 will become more economically feasible than the traditional fossil route [94].

Fig. 13. Electrochemical CO2 conversion. CO2R: Reproduced from Ref. [94] with permission.

(a) Highest reported FEs of main chemicals; (b) schematic diagram of electronic refinery

5.1.4. Green electricity and hydrogen

Green electricity and hydrogen are a vital energy and material basis, respectively, for the green transformation and
development of petrochemical industry. High-temperature heat pumps, electrode boilers, and high-temperature nuclear heat
and other technologies will become the main path of energy transformation in the chemical process that replaces fossil
combustion. Green hydrogen, as a widely available low-carbon secondary energy source, provides effective solutions for the
transformation of material and energy, and serves as a crucial facilitator for sustainable development of industry. After rapid
development, green electricity has become a crucial part of the global energy supply [95]. A number of green hydrogen
projects have been in operation or construction in the fields of electrical power, petrochemical, coal chemical, and metallurgy
to support carbon reduction and sustainable reform [96].

It is noteworthy that nuclear energy, a stable and controllable green energy, will probably play a crucial role in the
production of green hydrogen. In particular, nuclear energy-originated thermo chemical water splitting technologies, such as
nuclear energy electrolysis and the iodine–sulfur (IS) cycle, show promising results among many thermochemical cycles
offered so far [97−99]. For example, the coupled electrolysis of water with a high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR)
using helium as a coolant can accomplish hydrogen production efficiency over 50%, at a cost of 1.5 USD·kg−1 [99].

Green hydrogen should play a vital role in the transformation of energy and commodity materials production (Fig. 14).
Because science and technology improve continuously, the cost advantage associated with large-scale manufacturing will be
more obvious. Solar, wind power generation, and electrolytic cell manufacturing costs will continue to decrease, and there is

18
still a very large cost reduction space for hydrogen production from electrolytic water. However, in particular, the current
electric-hydrogen conversion rate is still low (50%–68%) [100], and crucial equipment, components, and integration systems
have not proven their long-term feasibility. In addition, the coupling of renewable energy and electricity net need further
investigation owing to the unstable large-scale production of hydrogen from wind and solar power [101].

Fig. 14. Schematic illustrating the scenario for the preparation and use of green hydrogen

5.2. Thinking beyond traditional views

Innovation is the fundamental driving force behind technological change, however, it is not the only source of technological
developments. Thinking is also crucial to developments in technology. Advanced thinking can accelerate technological
evolution, however rigid thinking can inhibit technological changes. Throughout the history of industrial developments, every
transformation has been accompanied by a process of mindset change. Only by breaking the constraints of conventional views
can transformative technologies have the opportunity to reconstruct industrial schemes. Below are two examples.

5.2.1. Revolution of monomers

Molecules of material monomers are mostly derived from the basic structure of petroleum molecules. The synthesis of
these materials involves processes such as cracking and dehydrogenation of hydrocarbons to form olefins, aromatics, and
other basic chemicals, which are then directly polymerized to produce polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and
polybutylene (PB). In addition, by introducing O and N atoms to the above bulk chemicals, O and N containing monomers
can be synthesized, which can be transformed into synthetic fibers via acid-alcohol or acid-amine copolymerization. Over a
century, the synthetic material system based on core monomers such as ethylene, propylene, butene, phthalic acid, styrene,
and acrylic acid has been established.

Petroleum provides the key raw materials for synthetic materials, and polymer structures are limited by the petroleum
ecosystem. The design of polymers based on molecular configuration is still determined by multiple factors such as the
availability and economic feasibility of raw materials. Most importantly, conventional thinking has always been one of
influential obstacles hindering the selection of monomers. However, would the scope of monomer selection extend infinitely
if C1-based synthetic chemistry is fully practiced? Is it possible for the structural-property relationship of materials to break
the constraints of raw materials? Can the performance and cost of synthetic materials be the determining driving force of

19
technology and development? These questions can all be addressed by future synthetic chemistry.

5.2.2. Rethinking on scale

The large-scale upgrade of individual units is vital to control costs, energy consumption, and efficiency in production,
however there are also limitations on mass, heat transfer, and other related aspects. With C1 chemistry as the typical
exothermic reaction, mass and heat transfer can be enhanced with standardized, modular, and integrated equipment, which
can enhance activity and selectivity. Additionally, the inherent safety of the equipment can be significantly improved.
Moreover, the implementation of modular equipment enables the utilization of more efficient technologies (e.g. electrification
devices, membrane separation, and adsorption separation), resulting in reduced energy consumption and cost in separation
processes. Obvious advantages in terms of equipment standardization, enhanced inherent safety, and advanced intelligent
regulation can be demonstrated via a combination of standardized assembly, workshop installation, and other modern
assembly methods [102].

A few questions arise based upon the above analysis. Will the new C1 chemical engineering be able to reshape trends of
large-scale development in the petrochemical process? Can equipment upgrading through plug-in modular expansion
overcome the limitations and risks of traditional upgrading through shutdowns and disassembly? Is it feasible to achieve
adjustments in product distribution and variety through flexible control on modular devices? The realization of these concepts
will require further effort from relevant practitioners.

6. Outlook

Petroleum has played a key role as the major supplier of materials and energy for humans from agricultural civilization to
industrial civilization, and subsequently to information and artificial intelligence civilization. Until now, the petrochemical
industry has also become intelligence and technology intensive with long supply chains and has a big impact on society.
However, by replacing transportation fuels with electricity for the most part, global crude oil consumption will be significantly
lower than that today with the loss of the associated political overtones. Thus, a glut of supply will develop and the price and
value of crude oil will balance out. By then, the price of C atoms will be unified in crude oil and coal, both of which can be
defined as fossil-derived C atoms. The science, technology, and engineering thinking of energy chemistry is being
reconstructed with the change of human needs.

There is no doubt that the current petrochemical system has become highly integrated and mature after almost one century
of development. Many significant breakthroughs in theory and technologies have emerged in the petrochemical industry, and
a complete production process, equipment system, and huge and complicated industrial ecosystem has arisen. However, has
inertia dependence become an obstacle restricting the development of the petrochemical industry? We could even compare
the current petrochemical industry to the "Stone Age", and even further to the "Bronze Age". Similar to the Stone Age, the
petrochemical industry is still based on the original structure of fossil molecules, however future petrochemical processes can
be reconstructed similar to bronze metallurgy in which the core component-copper atoms are enriched and then cast as
required. Admittedly, the development of green hydrogen in the world is still nascent, and the competitive advantage has not
yet manifested. In C1 chemistry, problems such as high energy consumption and ultra-high CO2 emissions exist; furthermore,
many scientific challenges such as low conversion efficiency and insufficient selectivity exist in the
electrocatalytic/photocatalytic reduction of CO2, which are the key factors restricting the development of the petrochemical
process to simplicity.

At this moment, it is important to systemically scrutinize and interpret the history and evolution of petrochemical processes
from the perspective of the future; the innate nature of energy, carbon resources, and CO2 emissions must be analyzed from
the past to the future, because they might differ from contemporary perceptions. Although it is commonly acknowledged that
technology is an engine to both solve old and create new problems— we perversely turn to even newer technologies for
potential solutions [12]. As for energy transformation, only by continuously addressing these problems can we accomplish
technological leaps or breakthroughs. Only by going beyond mental constraints can we reconstruct the modern industrial
system to truly accomplish the simplified and green development of petrochemical engineering.

Overall, the perspective here does not discuss the overhaul of the current petrochemical industry, instead supplementing
and optimizing the current industry via the introduction of simplified engineering is advocated. In other words, by integrating

20
local reconstruction into the current highly matured petrochemical industry, the CO2 emission issue imposed by the
implementation of the net zero emission goal might be partially settled. Gradual accumulation of quantitative changes results
in the breakthrough of a qualitative change with the petrochemical industry as one of the examples. In the longer term, it is
not difficult to predict that the petrochemical industry will gradually evolve through continuous local reconstruction and
eventually achieve qualitative changes. This viewpoint should cause people to re-think the past and future of the
petrochemical industry in a systematic and comprehensive manner, and also inspire the future research work of science and
engineering.

Compliance with ethics guidelines

Yao Zhang, Enhui Xing, Wei Han, Panfeng Yang, Song Zhang, Su Liu, Dongxue Cao, and Mingfeng Li declare that they
have no interests or financial conflicts to disclose.

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All authors disclosed no relevant relationships

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