1

AS 102: INTRODUCTION TO
SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
METHODS I

Social Science Research as a Process

January, 2016 Dr. Mathew Senga

 RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Module 3

3.1 Why Study Research Methods

and Techniques?
 3.1 Why Study Research Methods and
Techniques?
¨ Research methods are scientific modes of inquiry,
which are logically used in pursuit of truth/facts.

¨ Focus of these methods is usually to collect empirical

evidence and facts that are relevant in accounting
for the research problem under study.

¨ Research methods and techniques include (but not

limited to);
① Data collection methods
② Measurements and scaling techniques
 3.1 Why Study Research Methods and
Techniques?
Data Collection
q Data are collected on basis of two categories;

i. Primary data (1st hand)

ii. Secondary data (published data that have

already been collected and analysed).
 3.1 Why Study Research Methods and
Techniques?
¨ Primary data collection methods include (but not
limited to);

i. Experiments
ii. Observation
iii. Participant observation
iv. Key Informant Interview (KII) and In-depth
Interview (IDI)
v. Focus Group Discussion
vi. Key-cultural Consultant
 3.1 Why Study Research Methods and
Techniques?
q It is important to note that research methods and
techniques are not randomly selected rather they
are logically chosen so as to collect relevant
information per the objectives of the study.

q We therefore study research methods and

techniques for the following reasons:
 3.1 Why Study Research Methods and
Techniques?
1. To understand different research methods and techniques
that a researcher in collection of data can apply in order to
gain familiarity with the methods (nature of the methods).

2. To understand the differences that prevail between these

methods and techniques and relevance of each specific
method and technique in data collection. Each specific
method and technique is useful in collection or measurement
of particular kind of data.

3. To be able to select an appropriate method and technique

for data collection. This will be done with regard to
numerous factors such as;
 3.1 Why Study Research Methods and
Techniques?
a. Nature, scope and object of inquiry (qualitative or
quantitative)

b. Availability of funds

c. Time

d. Precision required

e. Nature of respondents
 3.1 Why Study Research Methods and
Techniques?
4. To be aware of the issues of reliability, validity and
suitability and adequacy of data when selecting an
appropriate method to use in collection of data.

5. To be able to apply these methods with precision in

regard to the strength and weaknesses of each
particular method.

NB: In Triangulation you can apply more that one

method of inquiry to increase precision and validity as
well as reliability of data collected.
 RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Module 3

3.2 Experimental Method

Experimental Research

¨ Traditional type of research

¨ Purpose is to investigate cause-and-effect
relationships among variables
¤ Experimental groups vs. control groups
¤ Each group of participants receives a different
treatment
¤ Always involves manipulation of the independent
variable
¨ Answers the question “What will be?”
Experimental Research
q AnExperimental Method is a systematic and scientific
approach to research in which the researcher manipulates
one or more variables, and controls and measures any
change in other variables.

q Experimental Research is often used where:

1. There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes
effect)
2. There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always
lead to the same effect)
3. The magnitude of the correlation is great.
Systematic Procedures
¨ More than any other type of research, experimental
research should follow a definite, orderly procedure
¨ Specific steps follow . . .
Steps in Experimental Research
¨ State the research problem
¨ Determine if experimental methods apply
¨ Specify the independent variable(s)
¨ Specify the dependent variable(s)
¨ State the tentative hypotheses
¨ Determine measures to be used
¨ Pause to consider potential success
¨ Identify intervening (extraneous) variables
¨ Formal statement of research hypotheses
¨ Design the experiment
¨ Final estimate of potential success
¨ Conduct the study as planned
¨ Analyze the collected data
¨ Prepare a research report
Research Validity
¨ Internal Validity – the validity of findings with the
research study; the technical soundness of a study,
particularly concerned with the control of extraneous
influences that might effect the outcome
¨ External Validity – the degree to which the findings
can be inferred to the population of interest or to
other populations or settings; the generalizability of
the results
¨ Both are important in a study but they are frequently
at odds with one another in planning and designing a
study
¨ Internal validity is considered the basic minimum for
experimental research
Internal Validity
¨ . . . this is the basic minimum without which any study is not
interpretable
¨ Particularly important in experimental studies
¨ Did, in fact, the experimental treatment (X) produce a change
in the dependent variable (Y)

¤ To answer yes, one must be able to rule out the possibility of other
factors producing the change

¨ To gain internal validity, the researcher attempts to control

everything and eliminate possible extraneous influences
¨ Lends itself to highly controlled, laboratory settings
Threats to Internal Validity
¨ History – events occurring during the experiment that are not
part of the treatment
¨ Maturation – biological or psychological processes within
participants that may change due to the passing of time, e.g.,
aging, fatigue, hunger
¨ Testing – the effects of one test upon subsequent
administrations of the same test
¨ Instrumentation – changes in testing instruments, raters, or
interviewers including lack of agreement within and between
observers
Threats cont.…

¨ Statistical regression – the fact that groups selected on the

basis of extreme scores are not as extreme on subsequent
testing
¨ Selection bias – identification of comparison groups in other
than a random manner
¨ Experimental mortality – loss of participants from comparison
groups due to nonrandom reasons
¨ Interaction among factors – factors can operate together to
influence experimental results
External Validity
¨ Generalizability of results . . . to what populations, settings, or
treatment variables can the results be generalized?
¨ Concerned with real-world applications
¨ What relevance do the findings have beyond the confines of
the experiment?
¨ External validity is generally controlled by selecting subjects,
treatments, experimental situations, and tests to be
representative of some larger population
¨ Random selection is the key to controlling most threats to
external validity
Types of External Validity
¨ Population Validity –
¤ refers
to the extent to which the results can be
generalized from the experimental sample to a defined
population
¨ Ecological Validity –
¤ refers
to the extent to which the results of an
experiment can be generalized from the set of
environmental conditions in the experiment to other
environmental conditions
Threats to External Validity
¨ Interaction effects of testing – the fact that the pretest may
make the participants more aware of or sensitive to the
upcoming treatment

¨ Selection bias – when participants are selected in a manner so

they are not representative of any particular population

¨ Reactive effects of experimental setting – the fact that

treatments in constrained laboratory settings may not be
effective in less constrained, real-world settings

¨ Multiple-treatment interference – when participants receive

more than one treatment, the effects of previous treatments
may influence subsequent ones
Types of Experimental Designs
¨ The basic structure of a research study . . .
particularly relevant to experimental research
¨ Types of designs (Campbell & Stanley, 1963)
¤ Pre-experimental

¤ Trueexperimental
¤ Quasi-experimental
Pre-experimental designs
¨ Weak experimental designs in terms of control
¨ No random sampling
¨ Threats to internal and external validity are
significant problems
¨ Many definite weaknesses
¨ Example: One-group pretest/posttest design
True Experimental Designs
¨ Best type of research design because of their
ability to control threats to internal validity
¨ Utilizes random selection of participants and
random assignment to groups
¨ Example: Pretest/posttest control group design
Quasi-experimental designs
¨ These designs lack either random selection of
participants or random assignment to groups
¨ They lack some of the control of true experimental
designs, but are generally considered to be fine
¨ Example: Nonequivalent group design
Methods of Control
¨ Physical manipulation
¨ Selective manipulation
¤ Matched pairs and block designs
¤ Counterbalanced designs

¨ Statistical techniques
Physical Manipulation
¨ Best way to control extraneous variables
¨ Researcher attempts to control all aspects of the
research, except the experimental treatment
¨ Difficult to control all variables
¤ Some variables cannot be physically controlled
Selective Manipulation

¨ Intent is to increase likelihood that treatment

groups are similar at the beginning of study
¨ Matched pairs design
¤ Participantsare matched according to some key
variable and then randomly assigned to
treatment group
¤ Block design – extension of matched pairs to 3
or more groups
¨ Counterbalanced design
¤ Allparticipants receive all treatments, but in
different orders
Statistical Techniques
¨ Applied when physical manipulation or selective
manipulation is not possible
¨ Differences among treatment groups are known to
exist at beginning of study
¤ Groups may differ on initial ability
¨ Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
¤ Adjustsscores at the end of the study based upon initial
differences
Common Sources of Error
¨ Many possible sources of error can cause the
results of a research study to be incorrectly
interpreted. The following sources of error
are more specific threats to the validity of a
study than those described previously
¨ Selected examples:
¤ Hawthorne Effect
¤ Placebo Effect
¤ John Henry Effect
¤ Rating Effect
¤ Experimenter Bias Effect
Hawthorne Effect
¨ A specific type of reactive effect in which merely
being a research participant in an investigation may
affect behavior
¨ Suggests that, as much as possible, participants
should be unaware they are in an experiment and
unaware of the hypothesized outcome
Placebo Effect
¨ Participants may believe that the experimental
treatment is supposed to change them, so they
respond to the treatment with a change in
performance
John Henry Effect
¨ A threat to internal validity wherein research
participants in the control group try harder just
because they are in the control group
Rating Effect
¨ Variety of errors associated with ratings of a
participant or group
¤ Halo effect
¤ Overrater error
¤ Underrater error

¤ Central tendency error

Experimenter Bias Effect
¨ The intentional or unintentional influence that an
experimenter (researcher) may exert on a study
 RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Module 3

3.2.1 Hypothetical Deductive

Research
Hypothetical Deductive Research
n Deductive reasoning: application of a general
theory to a specific case.
n Hypothesis testing

q The hypothetico-deductive research is an approach

to research that begins with a theory about how
things work and derives testable hypotheses from it.
Hypothetical Deductive Research
q It is a form of deductive reasoning in that it
begins with general principles, assumptions,
and ideas, and works from them to more
particular statements about what world
actually looks like and how it works.

q The hypotheses are then tested by gathering

and analyzing data and the theory is then
either supported or refuted by the results.
 Example 1.1
39

¨ A sales manager might observe that customers are

perhaps not pleased as they used to be. The
manager may not be certain that this is really the
case but may experience anxiety and some
uneasiness that customer satisfaction is on the decline.
¨ This process of observation or sensing of the
phenomena around us is what gets most of the
research- whether applied or basic- started.
 Example 1.1 (cont.)
40

¨ The next step is to determine whether there is a real

problem, and if so, how serious it is. This problem
identification calls for some preliminary data
gathering.
¨ The manager might talk to a few customers to find
out how they feel about the products and customer
service. The manager might find that the customers
like the products but are upset because many of the
times the product is out of stock, and they perceive
the salesperson as not being helpful.
 Example 1.1 (cont.)
41

¨ From discussions with some of the salespersons,

the manager might discover that the factory does
not supply the goods on time. Salespersons might
also indicate that they try to please the customers
by communicating the delivery dates given to them
by the factory.
 Example 1.1 (cont.)
42

¨ Integration of the information obtained through the

informal and formal interviewing process has
helped the manager to determine that the problem
does exist.
¨ It also helps the manager to formulate a
conceptual model or theoretical framework of all
the factors contributing to the problem.
 Example 1.1 (cont.)
43

¨ Thus, the following factors contribute to the

problem:
ü Delays by the factory in delivering goods
ü The notification of later delivery dates that are not
kept
ü The promises of the salespersons to the customers that
cannot be fulfilled
All of these factors contribute to customer
dissatisfaction
 Steps of the Hypothetico-Deductive
Method
44

¨ The seven steps involved in the hypothetico-deductive

method of research stem from the building blocks discussed
above and listed below:

1. Identify a broad problem area

2. Define the problem statement
3. Develop hypotheses
4. Determine measures
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Interpretation of data
 Identify a broad problem area
45

¨ If the manager notice a drop in sales, incorrect

accounting results, low-yielding investment,
disinterestedness of employees in their work, and
the like, could attract the attention of the manager
to do a research project.
 Define the problem statement
46

• Scientific research starts with a definite aim or

purpose.
• A problem statement states the general objective
of the research.
 Develop hypotheses
47

¨ The network of associations between the problem

and the variables that affect it is identified.
¨ A scientific hypothesis must meet two requirements:
1. The hypothesis must be testable
2. The hypothesis must be falsifiable (we can only prove
our hypotheses until they are disproved).
 Determine measures
48

¨ The variables in the theoretical framework should be

measurable in some way.
¨ Some variables can not be measure quantitatively,
such as unresponsive employees, we need to
operationalize this variable.
 Data collection
49

¨ Data with respect to each variable in the hypothesis

need to be obtained.
¨ There are two types of data:
- Quantitatative data
- Qualitative data
 Data Analysis
50

¨ In this step, the data gathered are statistically

analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were
generated have been supported.
¨ Analyses of both quantitative and qualitative data
can be done to determine if certain relations are
important.
 Data Analysis
51

¨ Qualitative data refer to information gathered

through interviews and observations. These data
usually for objects than can not be physically
measured, like feelings and attitudes.
¨ Quantitative data refer to information gathered
about objects that can be physically measured. The
researcher could obtain these data through the
company records, government statistics, or any formal
records.
 Interpretation of data
52

¨ Now we must decide whether our hypotheses are

supported or not by interpreting the meaning of the
results or the data analysis.
¨ Based on these results, the researcher would make
recommendations in order to solve the problem in
hand.
 Example 1.2 of the Application of the
Hypothetico-Deductive Method
53

¨ Observation of the CIO Dilemma

The Chief Information Officer (CIO) of a firm
observes that the newly installed Management
Information System (MIS) is not being used by
middle managers as much as was originally
expected.
“There is surely a problem here,” the CIO exclaims.
 Example 1.2 (cont.)
54

¨ Information Gathering through Informal Interviews

- Talking to some of the middle-level managers, the
CIO finds that many of them have very little idea as
to what MIS is all about, what kinds of information it
could provide, and how to access it and utilize the
information.
 Example 1.2 (cont.)
55

¨ Obtaining More Information through Literature

Survey
- The CIO immediately uses the Internet to explore further
information on the lack of use of MIS in organizations.
- The search indicates that many middle-level managers are not
familiar with operating personal computers.
- Lack of knowledge about what MIS offers is also found to be
another main reason why some managers do not use it.
 Example 1.2 (cont.)
56

¨ Formulating a Theory
- based on all this information, the CIO develops a
theory incorporating all the relevant factors
contributing to the lack of access to the MIS by
managers in the organization.
 Example 1.2 (cont.)
57

¨ Hypothesizing
From such a theory, the CIO generates various
hypotheses for testing, one among them being:
- Knowledge of the usefulness of MIS would help
managers to put it to greater use.
 Example 1.2 (cont.)
58

¨ Data Collection
The CIO then develops a short questionnaire on the various
factors theorized to influence the use of the MIS by managers,
such as:
- The extent of knowledge of what MIS is
- What kinds of information MIS provides
- How to gain access to the information
- The level of comfort felt by managers in using computers in
general
- How often managers have used the MIS in the preceding 3
months.
 Example 1.2 (cont.)
59

¨ Data Analysis
The CIO then analyzes the data obtained through
the questionnaire to see what factors prevent the
managers from using the system.
 Example 1.2 (cont.)
60

¨Interpretation of data
Based on the results, the manager deduces or
concludes that managers do not use MIS owing to
certain factors.
• These deductions help the CIO to take necessary
actions to solve the problem, which might include,
among other things:
- Organizing seminars for training managers on the
use of computers, and
- MIS and its usefulness.
 RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Module 3

3.2.2 Field Experiment

 3.2.2 Field Experiment
62

q A field experiment is taking place in a natural setting,

in which the experimenter manipulates independent
variables while exerting as much control as the
situation permits, and measures dependent variables.

q It is the scientific method conducted in a realistic

situation to experimentally examine an intervention in
the real world (naturally occurring environments)
rather than in the laboratory.
 Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Experiments

¨ As compensation for dilution of control, the field

experiment has two or three unique virtues:

v The effects of field experiments are often strong enough

to penetrate the distractions of experimental situations.
The principle is: The more realistic the research situation,
the stronger the variables.

v Realism simply increases the strength of the variables. It

also contributes to external validity, since the more
realistic the situation, the more valid are generalizations
to other situations likely to be.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Experiments

v Another virtue of field experiments is their

appropriateness for studying complex social and
psychological influences, process, and changes in
lifelike.

v Laboratory experiments are studied mainly for

testing aspects of theories, whereas field
experiments are suited both to testing hypotheses
derived from theories and to finding answers to
practical problems.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Experiments

v Flexibility and applicability to a wide variety of

problems are important characteristics of field
experiments.

v The only two limitations are whether one or more

independent variables can be manipulated, and
whether the practical exigencies of the research
situation are such that a field experiment can be
done on the particular problem under study.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Experiments

v As indicated earlier, the main weaknesses of field

experiments are practical. Manipulation of
independent variables and randomization are
perhaps the two most important problems.

v One other weakness in field experimental situations is

lack of precision. In other words, the dependent
variable measures are often so inadequate they
cannot pick up all the variance that has been
engendered by the independent variables.
 RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Module 3

3.3 Social Surveys

3.3 Social Surveys
q Survey research involves the collection of information
from a sample of individuals through their responses to
questions.

q Surveys are the most popular form of social research

because of their versatility, efficiency, and
generalizability.

q Many survey datasets, like the General Social Survey,

are available for social scientists to use in teaching
and research.
What is a survey?

¨ A "survey" can be anything from a short paper-

and-pencil feedback form to an intensive one-on-
one in-depth interview.
Why conduct survey research?

¨ Gather information not available from other

sources

¨ Unbiased representation of population interest

(depending on sampling)

¨ Consistency of measurement
Purpose

¨ The aim of survey research is to measure

certain attitudes and/or behaviors of a
population or a sample.

¨ The purpose of survey is to collect information

from many individuals, hoping to understand
them as a whole.
Focus

¨ Survey research focuses on naturally occurring

phenomena. Rather than manipulating
phenomena, survey research attempts to
influence the attitudes and behaviors it measures
as little as possible. Most often, respondents are
asked for information.
Types of Data

¨ Survey research is primarily quantitative, but

qualitative methods can be used too.
Sampling

¨ A researcher may be able to gather data from

all members of a population. Most of the time,
the population is so large that researchers must
sample only a part of the population and make
conclusions about the population based on the
sample.

¤ Because of this, gaining a representative sample is

crucial in survey research.
Possible Sources of Bias
¨ Demand characteristics

¨ Reactivity

¨ Response Bias
Survey

¨ The survey is a non-experimental, descriptive

research method. Surveys can be useful when a
researcher wants to collect data on phenomena
that cannot be directly observed.

¨ The major issues related to survey research are

sampling issues and questionnaire design. These
a f f e c t t h e a c c u r a c y, r e l i a b i l i t y, a n d
representativeness of the research findings.
Survey Research Classifications

¨ Classified according to PURPOSES

¤ Exploratory survey: to form general ideas about the
research questions

¤ Descriptive survey: to collect more specific

descriptions of the variables of interest

¤ Explanatory survey: to develop understanding of

relationships among variables of interest
 Classification

¨ Classified according to TIME

¤ Cross-sectional survey: Data are collected at one point in time
from a sample selected to represent a larger population.

¤ Longitudinal surveys: to collect data over time.

n Trend Studies: Surveys of sample population at different points in time
n Cohort Studies: Study of same population each time data are collected,
although samples studied may be different
n Panel Studies: Collection of data at various time points with the same
sample of respondents.
Classification
¨ Classified according to DATA COLLECTION
APPROACHES

¤ Face-to-Face Survey

¤ Mail Survey

¤ Telephone Survey

¤ Web Survey
Survey Research Process

¨ Survey research (like all research) begins with

identifying a problem and posing it as a
research question.

¨ In higher education,
¤ Problem: "Freshman enrollments are down."
¤ Question: "What do college-bound high school
students think of us?"
Survey Research Process

¨ The survey research process includes the

design of a survey, the acquisition of a
sample, the fielding of the survey, and
analysis and presentation of results.
Conducting a Survey
¨ The steps and tasks in conducting survey
¤ planning
¤ sampling
¤ construction of questionnaire
¤ data collection
¤ translation of data
¤ analysis
¤ conclusions
¤ reporting
Issues to consider in Survey Research

¨ What is your RESEARCH QUESTION?

¨ Population: accessibility, literacy, and language issues?

¨ Sampling: available data and participation of respondents?

¨ Questions: type, length, and complexity? existing questionnaire?

¨ Content: knowledge of?

¨ Bias: honest responses and social desirability?

¨ Administrative: cost, time, and equipment?

 Writing Questions: Basic Principles
q Questions are the centerpiece of survey research, so
selecting good questions is the single most important
concern for survey researchers.

q All hope for achieving measurement validity is lost

unless the questions in a survey are clear and convey
the intended meaning to respondents.

q Adherence to the following basic principles will go a

long way toward ensuring clear and meaningful
questions:
 Writing Questions: Basic Principles
1. Avoid confusing phrasing. A simple direct
approach to asking a question minimizes confusion.

• Use shorter rather than longer words and sentences.

• Breaking up complex issues into simple parts also

reduces confusion.
 Writing Questions: Basic Principles
• A sure way to muddy the meaning of a question is to
use double negatives.

• So-called double-barreled questions are also

guaranteed to produce uninterpretable results
because they actually ask two questions but allow only
one answer.
 Writing Questions: Basic Principles
2. Minimize the risk of bias. Specific words in survey
questions should not trigger biases, unless that is the
researcher’s conscious intent.

• Biased or loaded words and phrases tend to produce

misleading answers.
• Answers can also be biased by more subtle problems
in phrasing that make certain responses more or less
attractive to particular groups.
• Responses can also be biased when response
alternatives do not reflect the full range of possible
sentiment on an issue.
 Writing Questions: Basic Principles
3. Avoid making either disagreement or agreement
disagreeable. People often tend to“agree”with a
statement just to avoid seeming disagreeable.

• This is ter med“agreement bias,”“social

desirability bias”, or an“acquiescence effect.”

• The response choices themselves should be phrased to

make each one seem as socially approved,
as“agreeable,”as the others.
 Writing Questions: Basic Principles
¨ 4. Don’t ask questions they can’t answer.
Respondents should be competent to answer questions.
Too many surveys expect accurate answers from
people who couldn‘t reasonably know the answers.

• Sometimes your survey itself can sort people by

competence, so they answer the appropriate questions.

• These filter questions create skip patterns.

 Writing Questions: Basic Principles
¨ 5. Allow for uncertainty. Some respondents just don’t know-
about your topic, about their own feelings, about what they
think. Or they like to be neutral and won’t take a stand on
anything. Or they don’t have any information. All of these
choices are OK, but you should recognize and allow for them.

• Many people, for instance, are floaters: respondents who

choose a substantive answer even when they really don’t know.

• Others are Fence-sitters, people who see themselves as being

neutral, may skew the results if you force them to choose
between opposites.
 Writing Questions: Basic Principles
¨ 6. Make response categories exhaustive and mutually
exclusive. Questions with fixed response choices must provide
one and only one possible response for everyone who is asked
the question.

• First, all of the possibilities should be offered (choices are

“exhaustive”).

• Second, response choices shouldn’t overlap—they should be

mutually exclusive, so that picking one rules out picking another.
 Designing Questionnaires
• Questionnaire. The survey instrument containing the
questions in a self-administered survey.

• Interview schedule. The survey instrument containing

the questions asked by the interviewer in an in-person
or phone survey.

• Survey researchers must give very careful attention to

the design of the questionnaire as well as to the
individual questions that it includes.
Designing Questionnaires
 Designing Questionnaires
1. Manner of administration. The five survey designs differ in the manner
in which the questionnaire is administered.

2. Questionnaire structure. Survey designs also differ in the extent to

which the content and order of questions are structured in advance by
the researcher.

3. Setting. Most surveys are conducted in settings where only one

respondent completes the survey at a time, but some are administered
to groups.

4. Cost. The expense of different types of surveys can vary greatly, with
phone surveys being the least expensive.
Insert exhibit 7.7
 RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Module 3

3.4 Observation Method

Observation
¨ The systematic process of recording the
behavioral patterns of people, objects, and
occurrences as they are witnessed.
¤ No questioning or communicating with people
typically occurs.

q ‘ O b s e r va t i o n i n vo l ve s t h e s y s t e m a t i c
observation , recording, description analysis and
interpretation of people’s behaviour’
Saunders et al. (2009)
 Types of Observation

The two main types

¨ Participant observation – emphasises the discovery

of meaning attached to actions (qualitative)

¨ Structured observation – is concerned with

frequency of actions
(quantitative)
Participant Observation

Definition

‘Where the researcher attempts to participate

fully in the lives and actions of subjects, enabling
them to not merely observe what is happening
but also feeling it’
Gill and Johnson (2002)
Choice of Participant Observer Role

Determining factors

¨ Purpose of the research and time available

¨ Degree of suitability felt by the researcher

¨ Organisational access

¨ Ethical considerations
 Data Collection and Analysis

Points to consider

¨ Threats to validity

¨ The perspective of the subject - not the researcher

Saunders et al. (2009)
 Advantages of Participant
Observation
¨ It is good at explaining “what is going on” in particular
social situation.
¨ It heightens the researcher’s awareness of significant
social process.
¨ It is particularly useful for researchers working within
their own organization.
¨ Some participant observation affords the opportunity
for the researcher to the experience ‘for real’ the
emotions of those who are being researched.
¨ Virtually all data collected are useful.
 Disadvantages of Participant
Observation
¨ It can be very time consuming.
¨ It can pose difficult ethical dilemmas for the
researchers.
¨ They can be high levels of role conflict for the
researcher.
¨ The closeness of the researcher to the situation being
observed can lead to significant observer bias .
¨ The participant observer role is a very demanding one,
to which not all researchers will be suited
¨ Access to organizations may be difficult.
¨ Data recording is often very difficult for the researcher.
 Structured Observation
Points to consider

¨ Structured observation is systematic and aims to

establish straightforward facts

¨ Proliferation of the Internet potentially widens

the scope of participant observation
Saunders et al. (2009)
 Data Collection and Analysis

¨ Choosing an ‘off the shelf’ coding schedule

¨ Designing your own coding schedule

¨ Combining both types of schedule

¨ Use of simple (manual) or complex (computer)

methods of analysis
 Structured Observation

Threats to validity and reliability

¨ Subject error

¨ Time error

¨ Observer effects and strategies to overcome this –

habituation and minimal interaction Robson (2002)
 Summary: Observation

¨ Participant observation is used in a wide range

of social settings

¨ Participant observation means adopting a

number of potential roles

¨ Roles are differentiated according to the degree

of concealed identity and participation in events
adopted by the researcher
 Summary: Observation

¨ The aim of participant observation is to develop

theory and avoid mere story telling

¨ Structured observation is concerned with the

frequency of events. It is characterised by high
levels of predetermined structure and
quantitative analysis

¨ The main threats to reliability and validity are

subject error, time error and observer effects
 RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Module 3

3.5 Documents and Visual Data

Documents and Visual Data

Was the word …

… or was it?
Research and the visual
¨ The visual nature of the world
¨ Making understandings of the world through images
¨ Listening only to words is to turn a blind eye to much of
the world.
¨ Breaking the hegemony of the word as a means of
understanding.
¨ The materiality of the world
¨ The creative tension between the word and the image :
questioning established patterns and breaking the
taken-for-granted.
¨ The ‘intrusive presence of the researcher’
Epistemology
¨ The visual and
the real – naive
triangulation
¨ Objectivity /
subjectivity
¨ The hidden hand
 Doubled meaning
¨ Internal narrative: what is? What
is in it?
¨ External narrative: “… the social
context that produced the image,
and the social relations within
which the image is embedded at
any moment of viewing” (Banks
2001:11 my emphasis)
Visual data
¨ Photographs
¨ Videos
¨ Drawings
¨ Diagrams
¨ Movements, signs
¨ Representations of the material world
Modes and methods

1. Researcher-recorded data
2. Objects of the subjects
3. Active participation
4. Stimulated response and data
chains
Researcher-recorded data
¨ Researcher is recording a social interaction by
producing a visual representation – e.g. filming the
meeting; photographs of the class in progress
¨ Fixing the complex
¨ Recollection in tranquility
¨ ‘Naturalistic’
The (visual) objects of the subjects
¨ Participants are producing visual representations for
purposes other than the (self conscious) production
of research.
¨ Who is the author of the image?
¨ Who is the audience? What are they trying to
communicate through their representation?
¨ Content and discourse: semiotic analysis
Active Participation
¨ Participants are interpreting social situations, events,
worlds through actively producing or collecting visual
representations
¨ Giving a camera to participants to record their day,
video diaries, drawings, mental maps, artefact
narrative …
¤ Phenomenological
¤ ‘Empowering’ - voice,
¤ spontaneous/ reflective,
¤ The researcher ‘as witness giving testimony to the lives of
others’ (Lather 2007:41)
¤ opens up the external narrative
Stimulated response and data chains
¨ Researcher is collaborating with participants by
asking them to interpret visual representations of
social interactions, events, people, objects
¨ Sorting, visual (usually photo) elicitation, ‘forensic’
interviews, stimulated video recall,
¨ Responses: cognitive, affective, aesthetic, physical
¨ Intertextuality
¨ Polyvocality
Playing with photos
¨ How can you use these photos across the three / four
modes and methods:
¤ Internal content (1/2): Who are these people? What are they
doing? Why? When? Where? In whose interest?
¤ External narrative (3): what are the processes of selection and
composition that lie behind the photos? What were their
intentions?
¤ Response (4): How could you use these photos for gaining a
response with their authors, subjects or others?
¨ How would it be different, if using other media (e.g.
video)
¨ What methodological issues does the discussion
provoke?
 Stimulated video recall
¨ Video-based observation of events and activities
provides visual data which may be analysed directly.
¨ After event view with participants generates interview
data focusing on:
¤ recall of practices
¤ thought processes

¤ interpretation of practices

¤ status of practices compared with a norm

¤ resonance with other events.

Ethics and Visual data

¨ Anonymity
¨ Sensitivity with
participants
¨ Sensitivity with ethics committees

¨ Re-use – requires forethought and

persistence
¨ Public data?
Reporting with visual data
¨ Directness
¨ Academic restrictions
(theses, journals)
¨ Different strokes …
‘impact’
 RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Module 3

3.6 Focus Group Discussion

 Focus Group Discussion

¨ Unstructured, free-flowing interviews with small groups

of people.
¨ Consists of
¤ Moderator or interviewer
¤ 6 to 10 participants

¤ Note taker

¨ Moderator introduces topic and encourages group

members to discuss the subject amongst themselves.
¨ Allow people to discuss their true feelings in their own
words
 Advantages of Focus Group
Discussion
¨ Relatively fast
¨ Easy to execute
¨ Inexpensive
¨ Numerous topics can be discussed (unlike surveys)
¨ Multiple insights can be gained
Drawbacks of Focus Group Discussion
¨ Require sensitive and effective moderators
¤ Without such, self-appointed participants may dominate a
session
¤ Halo effect on attitudes toward the concept or topic of
discussion may occur, if group reacts negatively to a
dominant member
¨ Participants may not be representative of the
population of interest.
 Requirements for Effective Focus
Groups
¨ Six to ten participants
¨ Carefully screen participants
¤ Want people who have knowledge about the topic at hand
¨ Homogeneous participants in terms of some
characteristic under study
¨ Relaxed atmosphere
¨ If possible, room with one-way mirror and audio- and
video-recording capabilities
¨ Session duration around one hour
¨ Trained moderator
¨ Compensate for participation
 7 Habits of Effective Moderators
1. Establish personal contact with each respondent early
2. Help respondents feel relaxed early on
3. Win respondents to your side
4. Deal with loud respondents; but don’t intimidate other respondents
• Don’t look at them when you ask questions
• Don’t acknowledge their raised hands
5. Deal with inconsistent, unclear answers by mobilizing the group to
help
6. Create an environment where anything a respondent wants to say is
acceptable
7. Don’t assume you know what a respondent means by an ambiguous
answer
When NOT to use Focus Groups
¨ Emotionally charged environment
¨ Researcher has lost control over critical aspects of the
study
¨ Statistical projections are needed
¨ Other methodologies can produce better quality
information
¨ Other methodologies can produce more economical
information of the same quality
¨ Researcher cannot ensure the confidentiality of
sensitive information
 Types of Focus Group Questions
¨ Opening Question
¤ Round robin question
¤ Designed to be answered rather quickly
¤ Designed to identify characteristics participants have in common
¤ Preferably factual (rather than attitude or opinions)

¨ Introductory Question
¤ Introduce general topic of discussion
¨ Key Questions
¤ 2 to 5 max
¤ The questions you really want answers to

¨ Ending Questions
¤ Bring closure to the discussion. Most common is the summary question
 Some Things to Consider

¨ Avoid Dichotomous Questions

¤ Questions answerable with a “yes” or “no”
¨ Avoid asking “Why”
¤ Has a sharpness or pointedness that reminds one of
interrogations
¨ Asked Uncued Questions first; Cued Questions second
¤ Uncued: Open-ended; usually based on recent experiences or
impressions
¤ Cued: Questions that specify some topic or aspect of a topic