See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/341344413

African Literature: A Tool for Societal Regeneration

Article in Imbizo · May 2020

DOI: 10.25159/2663-6565/6432

CITATIONS READS

3 3,974

1 author:

Funmilola Kemi Megbowon

Fort Hare University
17 PUBLICATIONS 12 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Funmilola Kemi Megbowon on 25 May 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Article

African Literature: A Tool for Societal Regeneration

Funmilola Kemi Megbowon Chijioke Uwah
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1008-1145 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1575-2099
University of Fort Hare, South Africa University of Fort Hare, South Africa
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract
Contemporary societies across the world are faced with the burden of prevalent
and diverse societal wrongdoings which have possible future implications that
are alarming and worrisome if not controlled. Therefore, the need for societal
regeneration for a better future becomes imperative, and this change can be
achieved by various means. This study argues that African Literature can be
considered a tool through which the desired change can be achieved. Thus, this
study aims to demonstrate how African Literature fulfils the criteria of being a
tool for societal regeneration by examining the paradigms and moral positions
in matters that affect the society using a textual and interpretative analysis of
selected literary works (Ayi Kwei Armah’s Fragments and The Beautyful Ones
Are Not Yet Born and Achebe’s A Man of the People). This study is premised
on the fact that African Literature provides an opportunity for a connection with
indigenous roots that made the traditional society a relatively non-perverted one
while the simultaneous all-round forward progress of the contemporary is not
jeopardised. Considering the potential in literature to achieve social change, a
reading culture must be revitalised and encouraged, especially among
millennials who are victims and promoters of these menaces, as it provides a
mechanism for corrective psychology and orientation.

Keywords: African Literature; culture; corruption; materialism; societal regeneration

Introduction
Diverse social, religious, economic and environmental challenges face the world today.
These have necessitated the pursuit of various developmental goals in the past and more
recently. The recently adopted 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) show the
commitment from various governments and/or countries to make the world a better
place for their citizens. While various components and indicators were captured as

Imbizo https://doi.org/10.25159/ 2663-6565/6432

https://upjournals.co.za/index.php/Imbizo ISSN 2663-6565 (Online)
Volume 11 | Number 1 | 2020 | #6432 | 17 pages © Unisa Press 2020
 Megbowon and Uwah
necessary in meeting these developmental goals and targets, the potential role of
indigenous components has not been given due recognition. Contemporary social
challenges which include, but are not limited to, violence, exploitation, abuse, human
trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children and women,
advanced fees, corruption and bribery, youth delinquencies, and divorce, among others,
call for social change. This social change includes the alteration of the social order of a
society which may consist of changes in contemporary social institutions, behaviours,
social relations or social philosophies and ideologies. This desired change can be
achieved through the utilisation of relevant means or tools that speak to societal ills, and
educate, train or create an awareness for social change. The said tools are imperative in
that they can be used to challenge contemporary belief systems and help in gaining a
deeper understanding of how to tackle these issues. Some of these tools include the
judiciary system, sports, music, cultural boycotts and literature, among others (Adkins
et al. 2012; Emma, Schulenkorf, and Chalip 2015; Ocheje 2018). This article, however,
considers literature as a significant tool that can be employed towards challenging
contemporary belief systems and other related sociocultural issues.

Literature is any piece of writing that expresses human experience and feelings through
the imagination (Johansen 2010). It is a composition that tells stories, dramatises
situations, analyses and advocates ideas and expresses emotions (Roberts 2010). It
comprises genres such as prose, poetry, and drama. African Literature, on the other
hand, can be defined as any material of artistic value produced by Africans about Africa
and for Africans regardless of the colour of the writer or the linguistic tool through
which it was produced. Such literature embodies and addresses aspects of African life,
society, philosophy and experience, regardless of the language in which it is written. It
can also depict the impact yielded by Africa’s (or Africans’) contact with the West and
the Arabs. Initially, that is, before the colonial era, the literature produced by Africans
was primarily oral, but with the advent of writing on the continent through formal
education, African Literature was conveyed in two forms: oral and written African
Literature.

Contemporary African Literature is classified into three categories which reflect the
movement through time of the socio-historical experiences of the African people. The
first category centres on the narratives of cultural nationalism which focus on the task
of educating African people that they have a culture which they should be proud of
(Kehinde 2004). This phenomenon, which dominated the writings of the 1960s, had
writers such as Camara Laye, Wole Soyinka, Ferdinand Oyono, Ousmane Sembene,
Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, and Chinua Achebe, among others. They wrote to correct and
restore the deformed image of Africa. The second category of African writing is centred
on national experience, neo-colonialism and postcolonial disillusionment. Writers in
this category include Kole Omotosho, Athol Fugard, Niyi Osundare, Maishe Maponya,
Femi Osofisan, and Joe de Graft, among others. They were characterised as social
realists, in that they use real life happenings to present their objective position regarding
irrationalities in their cultural environment. The third category of African Literature,
2
 Megbowon and Uwah
according to Kehinde (2004), expresses a thoughtful rejection of the modern-day
African continent as it is presently constituted, especially in terms of its human
dimension. Literary works in this category can be referred to as Literature of
Disillusionment in that they illuminate the postcolonialism or post-independence
betrayal and disappointments of the masses in various ways in African states.

Most of the post-independence writings have been involved in affirming, preserving and
teaching African culture and identity, because, after centuries of oppression, there was
much to gain from producing a new narrative and voice for Africa that corrects the
distorted image of Africa. Culture, which is one of the narrative components of African
history, occupies a crucial position in African societies, and it is one of the two main
fibres sustaining the continued existence of any community. Biggs and Moore (1993)
define culture as the sum total of the ways of life of a people, which are learned or
informally transmitted from one generation to another. Culture is important because
apart from distinguishing a group of people from another, it also performs a social
function in that it helps people to understand how to behave in the society and fosters
cooperation, unity and progress. It comprises the shared values, attitudes, beliefs,
behaviours, and language use within a group of people (Guy 1999). According to Mafela
(2012), culture can be grouped into material (tangible) aspects, e.g. food, clothing, and
technology, and nonmaterial (intangible) aspects of life, e.g. beliefs, norms and values;
it is not static, and it evolves over time.

Principles of Morality in African Culture

Like every other society where moral values constitute a very important aspect of life,
in African cultures moral value is embedded in strong moral consideration. According
to Gyekye (2011), moral values are those forms or patterns of conduct that are
considered worthwhile and thus cherished by society. They constitute not only
principles of behaviour, but also goals of social and individual action (Gyekye 2011).
Morality, which centres on character, is premised on the need to ensure human well-
being. The importance of morality in the African space is reflected in some African
languages, as highlighted in Gyekye (2011): in Akan, a language used in Ghana, one
says onni suban (he has no morals/character); similarly in Ewe, also spoken in Ghana,
one says nonomo mele si (he has no morals); in Yoruba, spoken in Nigeria, iwa
omoluabi refers to “virtuous character”; in Igbo, another language used in Nigeria, onwe
ghi ezi agwa means “he has no morals”; in Shona, a Zimbabwean language, haana
hunhu has a similar meaning (he has no morals); and in South Sotho, spoken in Lesotho,
maemo a mabe indicates “he has a bad character.” Drawing from the Yoruba concept
of iwa (character), the types of approved character include iwa rere (good character),
iwa pele or iwa tutu (gentleness), and iwa irele or iteriba (respect) (Olanipekun 2017).
The character of an omoluabi is also reflected in oro siso (the spoken word), inu rere
(having a good mind towards others), otito (truth), iwa (character or behaviour),
akinkanju (bravery), ise asekara (hard work), opolo pipe (intelligence), iwa rere (good
character or behaviour) and aso wi wo (good dress presentation). Contemporarily, these

3
 Megbowon and Uwah
good characteristics and values are fading away in the African setting. Several forms of
immoral and inhumane characteristics are exhibited by people without any sense of
shame, caution or remorse. Immoral behaviour like corruption, internet fraud, inordinate
pursuit of wealth and materialism, impatience, premarital sexual relationships, indecent
dress, and laziness, amongst others, are against the ethics of many African cultures.
Hence the urgent and indispensable need for the restoration of these good characteristics
which are needed for societal restoration.

The Relationship between Culture and African Literature

African Literature and culture are in one way or the other linked together; they are
mutually inclusive. African Literature is a repository of the cultural life of the
indigenous people. It also serves as a vehicle for cultural transmission from one
generation to another. This cultural life, as mentioned earlier, is expressed in language
(proverbs and idioms), dress, religion, and value systems. Proverbs, as one of the means
of cultural expression, serve to express a moral position or worldview of African people
in such a manner that makes one feels that no better words could have been used to
describe that particular situation (Guma 1977). Moreover, Ojaide (1992) notes that
indigenous culture has functioned effectively in modern African Literature by giving it
solid roots, concrete and relevant backgrounds and settings. The culture provides the
literature with allusions, images and symbols, aesthetic direction and a moral and ethical
imperative. African Literature has distinguished itself in spite of colonial and neo-
colonial onslaughts on the native culture. Similarly, material aspects of African culture
have been used in African literature to straighten minds about colonialism and its
justification.

The dramatic aspect of African Literature serves as a veritable means by which culture
is either reflected or refracted. When an African drama expressly shows concern about
dislocated social values or cultural decadence, it does so through a cultural lens of
morality. Similarly, when an African play is concerned with the political struggle of an
ideological persuasion, the basic and informing vision is nationalism. In either cultural
or nationalist plays, there is a possibility of an overlap, of both cultural and nationalist
topicality (Dasylva 2006). Nevertheless, most African plays with a cultural motif
constantly probe the newly acquired Western values which emanated as a result of
colonialism. It can thus be inferred that literature in Africa serves a purpose beyond
entertainment: it is a depository of the cultural life of the people and according to Ojaide
(1992) it is a major source of education for the young and those who have lost touch
with their roots. It is noted that indigenous culture is relevant in making the indigenous
African society a relatively habitable and humane one.

Considering the above, this study aims to demonstrate how African Literature could be
a tool for societal change. It does this by considering the paradigms and moral positions
in matters that affect the contemporary society that are portrayed in African Literature
which make it fulfil the criteria of being a tool for societal regeneration. Underpinned

4
 Megbowon and Uwah
by Ayi Kwei Armah’s Fragments and The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born and
Achebe’s A Man of the People, the study highlights and discusses identifiable social
issues of materialism and corruption and further deduces how African Literature can be
used as a tool for societal regeneration.

Methodology
The research design adopted for this study is exploratory and qualitative in nature and
it is underpinned by a textual and interpretative analysis of the selected texts.
Furthermore, the theoretical framework used in this study is Afrocentric theory.
Afrocentricity is a theoretical framework that simply advocates for an African-centred
worldview concerning everything African. According to Asante (2003), Afrocentricity
is a school of thought and action in which the centrality of African interests, values, and
perspectives predominate. The theory emphasises that all aspects of African life—
spiritual, social, political and economic—be viewed from the African cultural
perspective. Mkabela (2005) corroborates this view by emphasising that an examination
of the African reality from the perspective of the African, one that places the African
experience at the core, recognises the African voice and reaffirms the centrality of
cultural experience as the place to begin to create a dynamic multicultural approach to
research. In essence, it can be deduced that the theory condemns anything un-African
in the process of finding solutions to many of the economic and social challenges
amongst Africans (Chawane 2016). This theory is no doubt the basis of the concept of
promoting indigenous African knowledge systems for Africa’s socioeconomic
development. In this study, the theory of Afrocentricity is adopted because of its
relevance to the issue of indigenous culture in providing solutions to contemporary
challenges. It endorses the indigenous knowledge system towards the restoration of
morality in all African societies. The study posits that African Literature is one of the
repositories of African indigenous knowledge systems, thereby making African
Literature a considerable tool for the desired social change.

Analysis and Discussion

How Have African Literary Writers Portrayed Social Issues in Their Writing?
Materialism is one of the main social nuisances of contemporary society. While it is a
social problem itself, it is also a cause of many other social problems. It is defined by
Ward and Wackman (1971) as the possession of worldly things or a dominating sense
of desire to pursue wealth and other tangible things that are assumed to be the source or
an indication of happiness, comfort, success and satisfaction in the life of an individual.
Materialism arouses many other undesirable feelings and acts such as lust, jealousy,
selfishness, a sense of hopelessness, corruption, greed, robbery, murder, divorce and a
loss of moral values. In contemporary African society, the motto of many people is
money, which is an element of materialism, such that it precedes morality. The subject
of the social menace materialism presents is deduced from Ayi Kwei Armah’s
Fragments.

5
 Megbowon and Uwah
Fragments is a postcolonial novel and the second novel written by Ayi Kwei Armah
from Ghana, published in 1970. It is an exposition of the problems of postcolonial
Africa. The novel revolves around Baako, referred to as a “been-to” (that is anyone who
has travelled outside his or her own country), who is a young graduate and has just
returned home after five years of study in the United State of America. In the novel,
materialism is depicted by characters such as Baako’s uncle, Foli, Baako’s mother, and
his sister. Materialism is clearly reflected by Brempong and his family members. In
essence, the five cases of materialism from the text are scrutinised in this study. Firstly,
in the tradition of the people portrayed in the novel, there is a need to perform the elders’
prayer, also known as the ritual of libation, to ask the ancestors to protect a child before
embarking on a journey to ensure its success. Traditionally, the prayer is said with the
pouring of libation wine because it is a sincere and sacred ceremony between the living
and the ancestors. Baako did this when he requested his uncle to pray for him before his
departure from his country. Surprisingly, his uncle only poured some portion of the wine
after his prayer and kept the remainder for himself, contrary to tradition (Armah 1970,
11–12). The fact that Foli turns an assumed sacred and solemn ceremony that is intended
to establish a solid relationship between the ancestors and the living into a material
banquet is no doubt a statement about the deep-seated materialism that characterises the
spiritual decadence in the Ghanaian society of the time.

Koomson is another character that reflects the ostentatious and materialistic life of many
African people. This is deduced from his conversation with Baako: “there are important
things you can’t get to buy at home. Every time I go out I arrange to buy all I need, suits
and so on. It’s quite simple. I got two good cars on this trip. German cars, from the
factory, all fresh. They are following me. ‘Shipped.’ […] [O]therwise you come back
empty-handed like a fool, and all the time you spent is a waste, useless” (Armah 1970,
45). It is a norm in Africa that every “been-to” has the prestige of a “big man” and
respect accorded to him or her. It is also expected that a “been-to” must come back with
several foreign goods as a means to show that s/he has class and superiority among
his/her peers and fellow community members. It is rightly put that contemporary urban
Africa is lustful for foreign goods and status, and is inundated by the aggressive beauty
of that which is superficial, especially in terms of fashion, empty titles, pompous-
sounding sinecures, and the gaudy trinkets of Western technology. However, not only
does the mentality destroy the development of the continent, it also shows the
inconspicuous mental slavery of the Africans to their various colonial masters.
Likewise, the reaction from Brempong’s relatives and the expectation of Baako’s family
members resonate the deep-seated materialism in Ghana and across the African
continent. Brempong was given a grand welcome at the airport, thus denoting that the
society adulates and worships him for the material prosperity which he acquired.
“Come, my been-to walk on the best … Yes it’s kente … tread on. Big man, come!”
(Armah 1970, 59; original emphasis). Also, the first question Efua asks her son, Baako,
on his return is when will his car be coming so that her “old bones can also rest” (Armah
1970, 71). Unfortunately, his family’s high expectations are ruined. Their “been-to”

6
 Megbowon and Uwah
fails to bring several gifts and materialistic things from the United States of America. It
is further deduced that the premature outdoor celebration of the birth of Baako’s sister’s
child five days after the birth, contrary to tradition and culture, is premised on a
materialistic lifestyle which has an element of personal gain. Efua and Araba
deliberately moved the ceremony three days back so as to make it coincide with payday
so that the proposed guests would have money to give (Armah 1970, 88). To them,
having the ceremony after payday would be of no use because it would not yield the
desired financial gains. Here, the deliberate commercialisation of such an occasion for
personal gain and material growth is revealed by Baako. He asks of them, are you “so
pressed you have to make money out of the child?” (Armah 1970, 88), which is a direct
remark on Efua and Araba’s materialistic life. From their action, it is seen that a
desperate desire for worldly materials blindfolds an individual from considering their
ideals, cultural norms and value systems. This contemporary material culture of urban
Africa, which is further expressed in the accumulation of several cars, houses, and
clothing, among other things, is alien to the indigenous African culture and values of
their society. This type of culture and ideology must be corrected for a better change in
the contemporary society.

Corruption is another common social ill in contemporary African societies and the
world in general. It is a form of dishonesty or a criminal act to acquire or provide an
unlawful benefit which is undertaken by individuals or organisations assigned with a
position of authority either in religious, private or public sector environments. It is a
negation of ethical standards that govern a society. Corruption comprises both financial
and non-financial forms which include, among others, nepotism, graft and
embezzlement, bribery, extortion, and fraud. According to Zamahani (2016), corruption
is a symptom of deep-seated and fundamental economic, political and institutional
weakness and shortcomings in a country. It has fierce and costly impacts on economic
and societal development by hindering investment and provision of infrastructure,
undermining political stability, proceedings and the efficiency of the justice system,
among others. In light of this, it is noted that literary writers have not been indifferent
to the pervading dynamics of corruption in the African society. Hence various writers
such as Chinua Achebe, Femi Osofisan, Wole Soyinka and Ayi Kwei Armah have
spoken out and presented anti-corruption messages through their writings. Their
writings reflect their disgust for such anomalies while concurrently calling for a change.
The issue of corruption as a social menace is presented in Chinua Achebe’s A Man of
the People (1966) and Ayi Kwei Armah’s The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1988).

Achebe’s A Man of the People depicts his commitment to inspiring his society to make
real socio-economic and political change. The text centres on the dynamics of corrupt
practices among Nigerian leaders and African leaders in general after gaining
independence. The novel shows how these leaders become traitors and betrayers of their
countries by sacrificing their countries’ development for self-aggrandisement after
attaining power. These corrupt behaviours are portrayed in the characters of Chief
Nanga and his colleague, the Minister for Public Construction, and the Minister of
7
 Megbowon and Uwah
Foreign Trade (Alhaji Chief Senator Suleiman Wagada). An element of corruption is
depicted in the interaction between Chief Nanga and the Minister of Public
Construction. While the Minister of Public Construction wishes to delay the tarring of
the damaged Giligili and Anata roads because of the need to conduct a soil test and
because his village is not part of the road to be tarred, Chief Nanga, on the other hand,
insists that the road should be tarred without testing the soil because the road leads to
his own constituency (Achebe 1966, 47). In continuation of his corrupt acts, Chief
Nanga joyfully receives 10 luxury buses on an instalment payment plan from a foreign
firm but could not pay the agreed fee of £60,000, which consequently implies that undue
favour would be given to the expatriate firm. It is obvious that Chief Nanga’s decision
to have the buses and modernise the road between Giligili and Anata is not because of
concern for his malcontent villagers who have not enjoyed the benefits of modernisation
since independence, but mainly because of his own personal political ends, probably to
lure the villagers into voting for him in the forthcoming election (Achebe 1966, 48).
Chief Nanga is also clearly seen as an embodiment of corruption following his receipt
of a four-storey house and a gift from one European firm which he awards a £500,000
contract to build a government academy and a 10% commission on contracts relating to
his ministry. The appalling propensity of these two public officials to corruption are
examples of self-interest at the expense of the governed or public interest, and this is
considered to be one of the banes of public leadership in Africa. This is also confirmed
by Ebegbulem (2012) who submits that Nigeria, from its first democratic experiment in
1960 to military regimes and back to democracy as practised today, has been managed
by leaders who are selfish and corrupt. Tarimo (2011) buttresses this claim by arguing
that African politics have been organised in such a way that leaders’ interests serve their
ethnic groups and the interests of political elites. Similarly, Okoli (2014) posits that it is
such selfishness displayed by leaders of most African countries that has seen the
allocation of public resources to non-performing sectors that they use to siphon public
funds. Hence, according to Azeez (2009), every facet of the polity has been ceded to
selfishness, greed and acts of irresponsibility on the parts of the leaders. Achebe shows
another instance of corruption in the novel where the Minister of Foreign Trade, Alhaji
Chief Senator Suleiman Wagada, declares an increase in import duty of 20% on certain
textile goods. The Cabinet members are faced with the evidence that someone has given
the same foreign company with which Nanga is involved advance information on the
import duty increase (Achebe 1966, 112). Meanwhile, additional stocks have been
brought in before the deadline and considerable profits have been made to the detriment
of the national economy. Chief Nanga himself had been involved in a similar deal when
he was the Minister of Foreign Trade. He used part of the profits to build three blocks
of flats at £300,000 each (Achebe 1966, 112). These were then rented to the same
expatriate company at £1,400 a month per flat. These dynamics of corruption as
presented in Achebe’s work are still very much discernible in several parts of Africa.
Such corrupt acts are no doubt the reason for the continual suffering of the masses and
the almost irredeemably low development level of the African continent.

8
 Megbowon and Uwah
Like Achebe, Armah in The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born captures the stench of
corruption and post-independence disillusionment in Ghana. The text focuses on an
anonymous character who is disillusioned by his country’s decline into national moral
decadence. He is a high school-educated civil servant who is faced with two
contradictory desires: first to give a feeling of comfort, warmth and the good life to his
wife and children and second, to become wealthy in Ghana, which warrants him to
participate in acts of corruption and bribery that accompany almost every public
transaction. The anonymous man refuses to participate in fraudulent transactions and
corruption, but because this decision hurts his family, he is not proud of his decision to
embrace honesty. At home, the hero faces his wife Oyo’s harassment. Though they love
each other, their marriage is stressed to the breaking point because Oyo wants safety
and comfort, and cannot understand her husband’s desire for honesty. She interprets his
integrity as cowardice and stupidity. They quarrel because the man does not participate
in corruption, and hence does not take bribes from the timber contractor. Oyo wants to
live a comfortable and convenient life as necessitated by modernity. At the most
elemental level, she wants a clean life like Estella, the wife of the hero’s counterpart,
Koomson. Oyo says about her husband’s uprightness, “[s]ome of that kind of cleanness
has more rottenness in it than the slime at the bottom of the garbage dump” (Armah
1988, 44).

Specifically, Armah presents corruption using the character of Koomson, who is the
classmate of the nameless protagonist. Koomson, who is the antithesis of the hero, has
risen through the Convention People’s Party (CPP) to a position of prominence.
Koomson, the emblem of corruption, is always seen in his luxury car, buying fruit and
bread from a street vendor who gives him the honorific nickname of “white man”
(Armah 1988, 44). He has achieved great success through his willingness to do anything
to acquire wealth, and thus he symbolises the corrupt leadership of post-independence
Ghana who have wholly thrown their conscience to the wind to attain prosperous
fortune. Ethical considerations have little or no part to play in his life and he does not
attach any interest to national issues.

Armah depicts corruption from the first chapter with a description of a bus conductor
who methodically steals from his passengers by giving them too little change. In the
second chapter, the anonymous narrator chats with a messenger who has just won the
lottery, and who will have to bribe someone before he can claim his prize. In the third
chapter, the protagonist sees corruption face-to-face when working alone in the railway
office. He receives a visit from a timber contractor, Amankwa, who wants to bribe
someone to ensure that his cut timber finds a place on the trains and is carried to the
port. Amankwa, who does not conduct his business honestly, has just been told that
there is no space on the trains, even though he sees empty trains leaving for the port
every day. The protagonist consistently refuses to accept the bribe offered by Amankwa,
thus incurring the latter’s wrath. Though he has done nothing more than behave
honestly, the protagonist feels like a criminal: “Everyone said there was something
miserable, something unspeakably dishonest about a man who refused to take and to
9
 Megbowon and Uwah
give what everyone around was busy taking and giving” (Armah 1988, 31). The
protagonist is able to foresee a beautiful period in the future when a new generation of
beautiful ones shall be born in Ghana (Armah 1988, 159–60). The theme of corruption
runs rampant amongst the leadership and ordinary people alike. For instance, on the way
to his office, the man walks nearby a box with the following words barely decipherable
on it: “K.C.C. RECEPTACLE FOR DISPOSAL OF WASTE. KEEP YOUR
COUNTRY CLEAN BY KEEPING YOUR CITY CLEAN” (Armah 1988, 7). Armah
makes the reader understand that a lot of money was used to install this box, but the
words printed on it are no longer readable because of the heap of rubbish poured nearby.
As the man reaches the receptacle, he takes out the debris of old tickets from his pocket
and throws them on the same heap (Armah 1988, 8). The failure to implement this anti-
litter campaign not only shows the ineptitude of the governing class to manage public
affairs, but also the rottenness of corruption and moral decadence in the country. Here,
Armah uses the image of the constant overflowing state of the “receptacle of waste” and
the omnipresence of filth and rubbish on the streets to expose and attack the corrupt
system.

Another instance of corruption Armah portrays in the novel is the situation where
individuals have to give bribes to government officials before their requested services
are rendered. For example, this is seen when the messenger of the protagonist wins a
100 cedi in the lottery, but he is not sure if he will get the money because of the
bureaucracy and corruption in the government. He opts to part ways with some of the
amount as a bribe in order to fast track the payment of his prize. He says, “I know people
who won more than five hundred cedis last year they still haven’t got their money … I
hope some officials at the lottery place will take some of my hundred cedis as a bribe
and allow me to have the rest” (Armah 1988, 19). Similarly, the extent of corruption
can be seen from the actions of Amankwa (the timber contractor) who offered a bribe
to the anonymous man without his request and the subsequent reaction of his colleague
when he rejects Amankwa’s offer. Amankwa offers bribes to the anonymous man so
that he can receive immediate assistance because his timber is rotting in the station yard
due to lack of transportation, but the anonymous man refuses his attempt at bribery. As
seen from their conversation, Amankwa takes two notes to bribe the man: “Take that
one for yourself and give the other one to your friend” (Armah 1988, 30). The
protagonist reponds, “I am sorry, but I have nothing to do with allocations, I have my
job: the booking clerk has his job. I don’t interfere with him” (Armah 1988, 29).

Lastly, Armah reveals a corrupt government official, Joe Koomson, the minister who
uses his position to his own advantage by accumulating wealth and property for himself.
When the anonymous man and his wife, Oyo, visited his house, he was surprised to find
Koomson living above his means. The quality of his possessions tells it all, and the man
begins to wonder: “There were things here for a human being to spend a lifetime
desiring. There were things here to attract the beholding eye and make it accept the
power of the owner to initiate things and obviously expensive design” (Armah 1988,
144). Also, Koomson’s embezzlement of government funds is depicted in his physical
10
 Megbowon and Uwah
appearance. He represents the leaders who are fattened by the fruits of betraying their
own people. As the man ironically observes, “these were the socialists of Africa, fat,
perfumed, soft with ancestral softness of chiefs who sold their people and are celestially
happy with the fruit of the trade” (Armah 1988, 131). Contemporary African leaders are
seen to have acquired several mansions and cars and are living a flashy lifestyle and
even sending their children to study abroad, which all together are beyond their
earnings. Without doubt, corruption is destructive and hinders development.
Unfortunately, the wicked enriching themselves through corruption discourages the
millennials from pursing an honourable and ethical path in acquiring wealth, and as
such, honesty and integrity are degenerating among them. This act of corruption is
contrary to the indigenous African worldview of communalism where the interest of
everyone is important in everybody’s actions. Likewise, it is contrary to the cultural
value of integrity, which is a characteristic that is upheld by indigenous African
societies.

In addition to the portrayal of social issues in their writings, these writers further reveal
the consequences of these un-cultural and un-African behaviours. Predominantly, due
to the diversity in perspectives on what ought to be and otherwise, the quest for
materialism promotes the breakdown of unity in the family, which is contrary to loyalty
and the unity that is expected to be exhibited in African families. This is deduced from
Baako’s family members’ neglect of Baako because of his stand against their inordinate
quest for materialism in Armah’s Fragments. Also, Efua’s desire for the glittering things
of Westernisation, for example, not only makes her spiritually bankrupt, but blinds her
to her son’s needs and artistic talent. It also blinds her from giving Baako much-needed
motherly love and affection. Materialistic tendencies lead to disregard of culturally
acceptable rites or things considered sacred in the society and the end result is usually
disastrous. This is displayed in Efua and Araba’s disregard for a proper naming
ceremony for Araba’s son in order to make instant money as this act eventually
contributes to the child’s death. Similarly, the consequences of corruption are exposed
in Armha’s The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born. With regard to the corruption in
novel, Armah reveals through the character of Koomson, who is the major face of
corruption, that the fear of being consumed by their wicked acts, shame and disgrace is
what awaits corrupt individuals. The excerpt below illustrates this:

The disgust left Koomson’s face, and the resignation returned. With a small shudder he
lowered his head till it was just above the hole, then in a rapid sinking action he thrust
it through ... Quietly now, he climbed onto the seat, held Koomson’s legs and rammed
them down. He could hear Koomson strain like a man excreting, then there was a long
sound as if he were vomiting down there. But the man pushed some more, and in a
moment a rush of foul air coming up told him the Party man’s head was out. (Armah
1988, 197–98)

Koomson’s life ends up covered in shit and this is not only a metaphor for corruption,
but also his humiliating downfall and the end of his fame (Awitor 2014). Armah uses

11
 Megbowon and Uwah
Fragments to convey a salient fact which is that the fight for social change by a single
person (Baako) in a materialistic and perverse environment will only lead to frustration.
This suggests that the fight for social change is a communal effort rather than a one-
man business. This assertion is also deduced from the character of the man in The
Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born. In this narrative the protagonist initially did not find
any form of support even from his own family, in this case his wife who makes life
miserable for him in the process of his stand against corruption, though she later
supports him when she sees the disgraceful end of Koomson whom she initially envied.

How Has African Literature Been Used as a Tool for Societal

Regeneration?
It was earlier posited in this paper that any desired social change can be achieved
through the utilisation of relevant means or tools, which include African Literature, that
speak to and against societal ills, and educate, train or create an awareness for social
change. The said tools are imperative in that they can be used to challenge contemporary
belief systems and help in gaining a deeper understanding of how to tackle these issues.
Premchand (2011) also notes that one of the responsibilities of literature is to arouse a
sense of beauty in individuals and societies. Premchand (2011) further argues that
literature which does not arouse in us a critical spirit, or satisfy our spiritual and
intellectual needs, or awaken our sense of beauty, and does not face the grim realities
of life in a spirit of determination, and stimulate positive change, is of no use to
contemporary society and cannot be termed literature. In essence, African literary texts
which could promote the above as pointed out by Premchand (2011) are indeed
examples of literature that can be used as tools for societal regeneration.

The texts examined reflect a dichotomous world of narratives and characters which have
contrasting ideologies and attitudes, as revealed through the various characters. For
example, in Fragments, two contrasting worlds are inferred through Baako. These
consist of Juana, Naana, and Ocran on one hand and Bempong, Akousa and Efua on the
other hand. One is set in a milieu where money and material possessions are the real
indications of social heroism, whereas the other is not. In several instances, Armah
condemns materialistic ideas and ideals through the character of Baako. Baako, the hero
in the text, is a reference point for change in peoples’ ideologies, and reveals through
his actions and reactions his protest against the selfish and negative drive of materialism.
Baako’s perceived unpreparedness to face the uncertainty of the already evolved
Ghanaian environment by not coming back to Ghana with several Western goods like
cars is a reflection of his stand against materialism. Baako’s stand is also inferred from
his reaction to Efua and his sister’s actions regarding the naming ceremony. He
questions if they are “so pressed [that they] have to make money out of the child?”
(Armah 1970, 88). He thus condemns the lust for financial gain of both women. He was
equally surprised at “the sight of a crowd of guests at Araba’s outdoor ceremony, some
of whom are wearing woollen suits, flashy shoes, bright rings and sundry cold climate
overcoats from Europe or America, held straight traveller-fashion over an arm” (Armah
12
 Megbowon and Uwah
1970, 88) which shows that the lust for foreign goods is elevated to an uncanny act of
worship. He laments the following: “I was powerless before the knowledge that I had
come upon strangers worshipping something new and powerful beyond my
understanding, which had made all the old wisdom small in people’s minds and twisted
all things natural to the service of some newly created god” (Armah 1970, 199).
Armah’s role as a teacher and a restorative artist is well articulated in Fragments through
Baako Onipa. His name is symbolic. Onipa means a human being and Baako means
one. So Onipa Baako means one person. In the novel, his name signifies the way he is
alienated. Although Baako finds himself in a society that is immersed in materialism,
he still has a voice that refuses to be muffled while articulating his strongly held views.
Like a one-man soldier, he is involved in a selfless and corrective crusade for social
redirection and leads a vanguard that warns the society and offers unsolicited advice to
those in power to restore sanity in the post-independence society thriving on wrong
values.

A Man of the People mirrors the corrupt government and the rottenness that has
overtaken the Nigerian socio-political scene after independence. The novel centres on
the theme of disillusionment in post-independent Nigeria wherein native African
politicians resort to all kinds of corrupt means for their selfish gains. A critical overview
of the novel shows that there is no outstanding character from whom one could draw
inspiration for the desired social change as almost all the key characters were involved
in corrupt activities. Through the novel, Achebe takes upon himself the task of creating
an awareness of the deplorable state of the economy and renewing the African
consciousness for desirable developments.

In The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born, the hero of the text, the anonymous man,
appears to be a reference point for the behaviour needed for the desired fight and social
change against corruption. The man’s refusal to accept bribes reflects the kind of attitude
needed for the change that is desired in contemporary African society. He responded to
Amankwa’s attempt at bribery, “take that one for yourself and give the other one to your
friend” (Armah 1988, 30), by saying “I am sorry, but I have nothing to do with
allocations … I have my job: the booking clerk has his job. I don’t interfere with him”
(29). Though he is abused and mocked for his integrity and told “you are a very wicked
man, you will never prosper” (107), he maintains his stand. Similarly, the anonymous
man constantly questions Koomson’s wealth and is perturbed about it. It is seen from
his words, “these were the socialists of Africa, fat, perfumed, soft with ancestral softness
of chiefs who sold their people and are celestially happy with the fruit of the trade”
(131), that he totally condemns Koomson’s actions and those of other politicians who
live their lives at the expense of those they vowed to lead.

It can be seen from the analysis of the texts that African literary writers and social
thinkers have used literature to create awareness of the pathetic trends in the African
space, critique and condemn the status quo with respect to materialism and corruption
using various characters, and have also used literature to call for a positive societal
13
 Megbowon and Uwah
transformation. This view of the role of African Literature in social change is also held
by several authors (Awitor 2014; Chukwueloka 2011; Ogundokun 2013; 2014) who
have posited in their studies that literature without doubt creates an awakening and a
platform for socio-political debates on practical realities, and hence concluded that
literature remains an instrument for positive social change. Besides, literature is an
effective tool for social change because it creates better expectations for individuals’
behaviour and also reminds one of the consequences of immoral behaviour in society.
This is, for instance, reflected in the life of Koomson which ends in shame. Furthermore,
it should be noted that these writers do not write in isolation of their culture; they
witnessed the indigenous African society and their ways of life before and after
colonisation, and hence their writing is saturated with the need to reawaken culturally
acceptable and good characteristics such as integrity, communalism, contentment,
honesty, and a culture of shame among others that could promote the desired social
change. This, moreover, is what the theory of Afrocentricity promotes.

Conclusion
It is generally believed that literary works do not exist in isolation; there is no art for
art’s sake. According to Ojaide (1992), every literary work has a social function.
Further, Premchand (2011) argues that literature is connected with the realities of life,
as it interests itself with the society or human as a social unit and its various problems
such as social values. African writers and their literary works, from the precolonial to
colonial and postcolonial period, have become a tool for social advocacy, and a
vanguard that projects African culture, drawing their subject matter and themes from
their environment. They reflect the desires and wishes of the society to which they
belong. According to Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (1982, 47), the African writer is like a
“sensible needle who records with varying degrees of accuracy and success, the
conflicts and tensions in his changing society.” This means that African writers see
themselves as custodians of the people’s culture, history, aspirations and development.
The literary writers cannot remain silent in the midst of various contemporary social
ills, hence the exhortations and corrective messages in their literature. Okoli (2014)
notes that the writers have metamorphosed into visionaries, soldiers, agents of social
change, using their writing as a weapon. Great writers therefore work for progress by
transforming their societies, arousing men and women from their apathy and servile
attitudes, and delivering them from the shackles of enslaving traditions, religions,
dogmatism and political dictatorship. They oftentimes launch into militant literature,
raising their ideas like a banner, like a light for the people, and pull off a revolutionary
change that leaves society wiser and more progressive. Such literature further serves
both social and political causes that could be used to access and realise revolutions.
Literature thus could be said to be a catalyst for social reform. From the various texts
examined in this paper, it is clear that through literature an awareness is created of the
dynamics of materialism and corruption, and the consequences of such were also
portrayed. African Literature serves as a medium through which good behaviour,
attitudes and ideologies imperative for societal renewal can be exhibited. There is also

14
 Megbowon and Uwah
the possibility of making a difference against all odds, though it comes at a cost as seen
in the character of Baako and the anonymous man in Fragments and The Beautyful Ones
Are Not Yet Born respectively. In essence, considering the potential in literature to
achieve social transformation, a reading culture of such literature must be revitalised
and encouraged, especially among the millennials who are victims and promoters of
these menaces, as it provides a mechanism for corrective psychology and orientation.

References
Achebe, Chinua. 1966. A Man of the People. London: Heinemann.

Adkins, Barbara, Brydie-Leigh Bartleet, Andrew R. Brown, Ande Foster, Kathy Hirche, Brian
Procopis, Alex Ruthmann, and Naomi Sunderland. 2012. “Music as a Tool for Social
Transformation: A Dedication to the Life and Work of Steve Dillon (20 March 1953–1
April 2012).” International Journal of Community Music 5 (2): 189–208.
https://doi.org/10.1386/ijcm.5.2.189_1.

Armah, Ayi Kwei. 1970. Fragments: A Novel. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Armah, Ayi Kwei. 1988. The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born. London: Heinemann.

Asante, Molefi Kete. 2003. Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change. Chicago: African
American Images.

Awitor, Etsè Francis. 2014. “The Aesthetic of Decay in Ayi Kwei Armah’s The Beautyful Ones
Are Not Yet Born and Meja Mwangi’s Kill Me Quick.” Acta Iassyensia Comparationis 14
(2): 47–54. Accessed February 27, 2020. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01171026/document.

Azeez, Ademola. 2009. “Contesting ‘Good Governance’ in Nigeria: Legitimacy and

Accountability Perspectives.” Journal of Social Sciences 21 (3): 217–24.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2009.11892774.

Biggs, John, and Philip J. Moore. 1993. The Process of Learning. 3rd. ed. New York, NY:
Prentice Hall.

Chawane, Midas. 2016. “The Development of Afrocentricity: A Historical Survey.” Yesterday

and Today 16 (1): 78–99. https://doi.org/10.17159/2223-0386/2016/n16a5.

Chukwueloka, Christian Chukwuloo. 2011. “‘Words as Bullets’, Poetry as a Veritable Tool for
Social Criticism and Reformation: A Study of Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo’s Heart Songs
and Waiting for Dawn.” African Research Review 5 (4): 354–68.
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/afrrev/article/view/69289/57318.

Dasylva, Ademola. 2006. “‘Culture Education’ and the Challenge of Globalization in Modern
Nigeria.” Oral Tradition 21 (2): 325–41. https://doi.org/10.1353/ort.2007.0001.

15
 Megbowon and Uwah
Ebegbulem, Joseph C. 2012. “Corruption and Leadership Crisis in Africa: Nigeria in
Focus.” International Journal of Business and Social Science 3 (11): 221–27. Accessed
February 28, 2020. http://ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_11_June_2012/24.pdf.

Emma, Sherry, Nico Schulenkorf, and Laurence Chalip. 2015. “Managing Sport for Social
Change: The State of Play.” Sport Management Review 18 (1): 1–5.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.12.001.

Guma, Samson Mbizo. 1977. The Form, Content and Technique of Traditional Literature in
Southern Sotho. Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Guy, Talmadge C. 1999. “Culture as Context for Adult Education: The Need for Culturally
Relevant Adult Education.” New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education 82: 5–18.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.8201.

Gyekye, Kwame. 2011. “African Ethics.” In The Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited
by E. N. Zalta. Accessed February 27, 2020.
https://plato.standford.edu/archives/fall2011/entries/african-ethics/.

Johansen, Jørgen Dines. 2010. “Feelings in Literature.” Integrative Psychological and

Behavioural Science 44: 185–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-009-9112-0.

Kehinde, Ayo. 2004. “Post-Independence Disillusionment in Contemporary African Fiction:

The Example of Meja Mwangi’s Kill Me Quick.” Nordic Journal of African Studies 13 (2):
228–41.

Mafela, Munzhedzi James. 2012. “Literature: A Vehicle for Cultural Transmission.” South
African Journal of African Languages 32 (2): 189–94.
https://doi.org/10.2989/SAJAL.2012.32.2.11.1148.

Mkabela, Queeneth. 2005. “Using the Afrocentric Method in Researching Indigenous African
Culture.” The Qualitative Report 10 (1): 178–89.

Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. 1982. Homecoming: Essays on African and Caribbean Literature, Culture
and Politics. London: Heinemann.

Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. 1992. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African
Literature. Nairobi: Heinemann.

Ocheje, Paul D. 2018. “Norms, Law and Social Change: Nigeria’s Anti-Corruption Struggle,
1999–2017.” Crime, Law and Social Change 70 (3): 363–81.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-017-9736-9.

Ogundokun, Sikiru Adeyemi. 2013. “A Literature as Instrument for Development: A Survey of

Sembène Ousmane’s Guelwaar.” International Journal of English Language and
Linguistics Research 1 (1): 1–9.

16
 Megbowon and Uwah
Ogundokun, Sikiru Adeyemi. 2014. “Literature as a Reflection on Socio-Political Realities: An
Examination of Three Nigerian Writers.” Journal of Arts and Humanities 3 (1): 167–72.

Ojaide, Tanure. 1992. “Modern African Literature and Cultural Identity.” African Studies
Review 35 (3): 43–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/525127.

Okoli, Al Chukamba. 2014. “Statecraft, Good Governance and the Imperative for Value-Based
Leadership in Nigeria.” International Journal of Management, Policy and Administrative
Studies 1 (1): 123–33.

Olanipekun, Olusola Victor. 2017. “Omoluabi: Re-thinking the Concept of Virtue in Yoruba
Culture and Moral System.” Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies 10 (9): 217–
31. Accessed February 27, 2020. https://www.jpanafrican.org/docs/vol10no9/10.9-12-
Olanipekun.pdf.

Premchand, Munshi. 2011. “The Nature and Purpose of Literature.” Social Scientist 39 (11/12):
82–90.

Roberts, Edgar V. 2010. Writing about Literature. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Tarimo, Aquiline. 2011. Ethnicity, Citizenship and State in Eastern Africa. Bamenda: African
Books Collective.

Ward, Scott, and Daniel Wackman. 1971. “Family and Media Influences on Adolescent
Consumer Learning.” American Behavioural Scientist 3 (14): 415–27.
https://doi.org/10.1177/000276427101400315.

Zamahani, Majid. 2016. “Corruption Case Study of Iran.” International Business Management
7 (10): 1263–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_3363-1.

17

View publication stats