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IB Physics DP Your notes

1.2 Uncertainties & Errors

Contents
1.2.1 Random & Systematic Errors
1.2.2 Calculating Uncertainties
1.2.3 Determining Uncertainties from Graphs

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1.2.1 Random & Systematic Errors

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Random & Systematic Errors
Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of finding the true value of that quantity
In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity as there will always be a
degree of uncertainty
The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference between a measurement reading and the true
value
The two types of measurement errors that lead to uncertainty are:
Random errors
Systematic errors
Random Errors
Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrument’s readings as a result of
uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions
This affects the precision of the measurements taken, causing a wider spread of results about
the mean value
To reduce random error:
Repeat measurements several times and calculate an average from them
Systematic Errors
Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments used or from flaws in the experimental
method
This type of error is repeated consistently every time the instrument is used or the method is
followed, which affects the accuracy of all readings obtained
To reduce systematic errors:
Instruments should be recalibrated, or different instruments should be used
Corrections or adjustments should be made to the technique

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Systematic errors on graphs are shown by the offset of the line from the origin
Zero Errors
This is a type of systematic error which occurs when an instrument gives a reading when the true
reading is zero
For example, a top-ban balance that starts at 2 g instead of 0 g
To account for z ero errors
Take the difference of the offset from each value
For example, if a scale starts at 2 g instead of 0 g, a measurement of 50 g would actually be 50
– 2 = 48 g
The offset could be positive or negative
Reading Errors
When measuring a quantity using an analogue device such as a ruler, the uncertainty in that
measured quantity is ±0.5 the smallest measuring interval
When measuring a quantity using a digital device such as a digital scale or stopwatch, the
uncertainty in that measured quantity is ±1 the smallest measuring interval
To reduce reading errors:
Use a more precise device with smaller measuring intervals and therefore less uncertainty

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Both rulers measure the same candy cane, yet Ruler B is more precise than Ruler A due to smaller interval
size

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1.2.2 Calculating Uncertainties

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Uncertainties
Precision
Precise measurements are ones in which there is very little spread about the mean value, in other
words, how close the measured values are to each other
If a measurement is repeated several times, it can be described as precise when the values are
very similar to, or the same as, each other
Another way to describe this concept is if the random uncertainty of a measurement is small,
then that measurement can be said to be precise
The precision of a measurement is reflected in the values recorded – measurements to a greater
number of decimal places are said to be more precise than those to a whole number
Accuracy
A measurement is considered accurate if it is close to the true value
Another way to describe this concept is if the systematic error of a measurement is small,
then that measurement can be said to be accurate
The accuracy can be increased by repeating measurements and finding a mean of the results
Repeating measurements also helps to identify anomalies that can be omitted from the final
results

The difference between precise and accurate results

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Representing precision and accuracy on a graph

Types of Uncertainty
There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the uncertainty can be
thought of as the difference between the actual reading taken (caused by the equipment or
techniques used) and the true value
Uncertainties are not the same as errors
Errors can be thought of as issues with equipment or methodology that cause a reading to be
different from the true value
The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true value is
expected to lie, and is an estimate
For example, if the true value of the mass of a box is 950 g, but a systematic error with a balance
gives an actual reading of 952 g, the uncertainty is ±2 g
These uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:
Absolute Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fixed quantity
Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the measurement
Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the measurement

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To find uncertainties in different situations:

The uncertainty in a reading: ± half the smallest division
The uncertainty in repeated data: half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest - smallest value) Your notes
The uncertainty in digital readings: ± the last significant digit unless otherwise quoted

How to calculate absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainty

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Always make sure your absolute or percentage uncertainty is to the same number of significant
figures as the reading
Your notes

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Propagating Uncertainties
Combining Uncertainties Your notes
When combining uncertainties, the rules are as follows:
Adding / Subtracting Data
Add together the absolute uncertainties

Multiplying / Dividing Data

Add the percentage or fractional uncertainties

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Raising to a Power
Multiply the percentage uncertainty by the power

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Worked example
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Consider two lengths:
A = 5.0 ± 0.1 cm and B = 2.5 ± 0.1 cm
Which of the following has the smallest percentage uncertainty
A. A + B
B. A – B
C. A × B
D. A

Step 1: List the known quantities

A = 5.0 cm
Uncertainty in A, ΔA = 0.1 cm
B = 2.5 cm
Uncertainty in B, ΔB = 0.1 cm
Step 2: Check the percentage uncertainty of option A
A + B = 5.0 + 2.5 = 7.5 cm
The rule for propagating uncertainties for adding data (A + B) is ΔA + ΔB
The combined uncertainties are:
0.1 + 0.1 = ± 0.2 cm
Therefore, the percentage uncertainty is:
(0.2 ÷ 7.5) × 100 ≈ 2.7%
Step 3: Check the percentage uncertainty of option B
A − B = 5.0 − 2.5 = 2.5 cm
The rule for propagating uncertainties for subtracting data (A – B) is ΔA + ΔB
The combined uncertainties are:
0.1 + 0.1 = ± 0.2 cm
Therefore the percentage uncertainty is:

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(0.2 ÷ 2.5) × 100 = 8%

Step 4: Check the percentage uncertainty of option C Your notes
A × B = 5.0 × 2.5 = 12.5 cm
The rule for propagating uncertainties for multiplying data (A × B) is ΔA/A + ΔB/B
The combined uncertainties are:
(0.1 ÷ 5.0) + (0.1 ÷ 2.5) = 0.02 + 0.04 = 0.06
Therefore the percentage uncertainty is:
0.06 × 100 = 6%
Step 5: Check the percentage uncertainty of option D
A = 5.0 cm and the uncertainty is 0.1 cm
Therefore the percentage uncertainty is:
(0.1 ÷ 5.0) × 100 = 2%
Step 6: Compare and select the answer with the smallest percentage uncertainty
Comparing the four options, option D is the correct answer as it has a value of 2% which is the
smallest percentage uncertainty

Worked example
For the value B = 3.0 ± 0.1, if B is square rooted (√B) what is the answer along with the absolute
uncertainty?

Step 1: Find what the value of the quantity will be

√ B = √ 3.0 ≈ 1.73

Step 2: Find the percentage uncertainty of the original

(0.1 ÷ 3.0) × 100 ≈ 3.33%
Step 3: The percentage uncertainty needs to be multiplied by the power of the operation
3.33 × (1 ÷ 2) ≈ 1.67%
Step 4: Apply the percentage uncertainty to the absolute answer
1.67% in decimal form is 0.0167. Therefore: 0.0167 × 1.73 ≈ 0.03

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Step 5: State the complete answer

√ B = 1.73 ± 0.03 Your notes

Exam Tip
Remember:
Absolute uncertainties (denoted by Δ) have the same units as the quantity
Percentage uncertainties have no units
The uncertainty in constants, such as π, is taken to be z ero

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1.2.3 Determining Uncertainties from Graphs

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Error Bars
The uncertainty in a measurement can be shown on a graph as an error bar
This bar is drawn above and below the point (or from side to side) and shows the uncertainty in
that measurement
Error bars are plotted on graphs to show the absolute uncertainty of values plotted

Representing error bars on a graph

Exam Tip
A common misconception is that error bars need to all be the same siz e. In physics, this is not the
case and each data point can have different error bar siz es as they have different uncertainties.

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Determining Uncertainties from Graphs

To calculate the uncertainty in a gradient, two lines of best fit should be drawn on the graph: Your notes
The ‘best’ line of best fit, which passes as close to the points as possible
The ‘worst’ line of best fit, either the steepest possible or the shallowest possible line
which fits within all the error bars

The line of best fit passes as close as possible to all the points. The steepest and shallowest lines are
known as the worst fit
The percentage uncertainty in the gradient can be found using the magnitude of the 'best' and
'worst' gradients:
best gradient − worst gradient
percentage uncertainty = × 100%
best gradient
Either the steepest or shallowest line of best fit may have the 'worst' gradient on a case-by-case
basis.

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The 'worst' gradient will be the one with the greatest difference in magnitude from the 'best'
line of best fit.
The equation above is for the case where the 'worst' gradient is the shallowest. Your notes
If the 'worst' gradient is the steepest, then the 'worst' gradient should be subtracted from
the 'best' gradient and then divided by the best gradient and multiplied by 100
Alternatively, the average of the two maximum and minimum lines can be used to calculate the
percentage uncertainty:
max . gradient − min . gradient
percentage uncertainty = × 100%
2
The percentage uncertainty in the y-intercept can be found using:
best y intercept − worst y intercept
percentage uncertainty = × 100%
best y intercept
max . y intercept − min . y intercept
percentage uncertainty = × 100%
2
Percentage Difference
The percentage difference gives an indication of how close the experimental value achieved
from an experiment is to the accepted value
It is not a percentage uncertainty
The percentage difference is defined by the equation:
experimental value − accepted value
percentage difference = × 100%
accepted value
The experimental value is sometimes referred to as the 'measured' value
The accepted value is sometimes referred to as the 'true' value
This may be labelled on a component such as the capacitance of a capacitor or the
resistance of a resistor
Or, from a reputable source such as a peer-reviewed data booklet
For example, the acceleration due to gravity g is known to be 9.81 m s –2 . This is its accepted value
From an experiment, the value of g may be found to be 10.35 m s –2
Its percentage difference would therefore be 5.5 %
The smaller the percentage difference, the more accurate the results of the experiment

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Worked example
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On the axes provided, plot the graph for the following data and draw error bars and lines of best
and worst fit.

Find the percentage uncertainty in the gradient from your graph.

Step 1: Draw sensible scales on the axes and plot the data

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Step 2: Draw the errors bars for each point

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Step 3: Draw the line of best fit

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Step 4: Draw the line of worst fit

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Step 5: Work out the gradient of each line and calculate the percentage uncertainty

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