I.Y.

Haciyeva

Hydrology
(Lecture Notes)

2023
 I. HYDROLOGY OF WATER OBJECTS.
1.1. General concepts
Water has a huge distribution on the globe - on its surface, in the soil
thicker than rocks, in the atmosphere. Water is a necessary condition for human
life, and also for the vast majority of animals and plants, it is an important factor in
the economic development of the territories.
The accumulation of natural waters on the earth's surface and in the upper
layers of the earth's crust form water objects. There are three groups of water
bodies:
1) watercourses - water objects on the earth's surface with translational motion of
water in channels (natural or artificial) in the direction of slope; these include
rivers and canals;
2) water bodies - water objects in depressions of the earth's surface with a slowed
water exchange - oceans, seas, lakes, reservoirs, marshes;
3) special water bodies - glaciers and groundwater.
The totality of water bodies forms a hydrosphere, which is a discontinuous
water shell of the globe.
Hydrological characteristics are used to describe water bodies and their
regime:
1) morphometric, i.e. associated with the size and shape of objects (area, length,
width, depth, etc.);
2) hydrological proper, characterizing the amount of water and its movement (level
and flow of water, flow velocity);
3) hydrophysical, characterized by physical properties of water (temperature,
thickness of ice, density, etc.);
4) hydrochemical (mineralization, concentration of individual ions);
5) hydrobiological (composition and abundance of living organisms, biomass, etc.)
6) chronological (dates of occurrence and duration, hydrological phenomena).
The hydrological state of a water body is the totality of its hydrological
characteristics at a given time. The hydrological regime is a regular change in the
state of a water body in time. Hydrological processes - a set of physical, chemical
and biological processes that determine the hydrological state and regime of water
bodies.
Hydrology is a science that studies the water cycle (together with the
substances contained in it), its distribution on the globe, the processes occurring in
water bodies, and the space-time changes in the characteristics of water bodies. On
the tasks and methods of research, hydrology is divided into a number of sections.
It:
- general hydrology, which studies the most general laws of hydrological processes
and phenomena;
- Regional hydrology (or hydrography) engaged in the study and description of
specific water bodies;
- applied (engineering) hydrology, developing methods of calculations and
forecasts of various hydrological characteristics;
- hydrometry, which develops methods of measurements and observations in the
study of natural waters.
Hydrology is a branch of geography. At the junction with other
fundamental sciences, special sections of hydrology emerged:
- hydrophysics, which studies physical processes in water objects (dynamic,
thermal) and formation of physical characteristics of water (ice, snow);
- hydrochemistry, which studies chemical processes in water bodies, the formation
of the chemical composition of natural waters and its change in time and space;
- hydrobiology, which studies living organisms in water bodies, their mutual
relations with each other and with living conditions. On the objects of research,
hydrology is divided into three main parts:
- oceanology (or hydrology of the seas); - hydrology of land, or more precisely the
hydrology of surface waters of land (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, glaciers);
- the hydrology of groundwater, which is also an integral part of geological science
- hydrogeology.
Some of the subject areas of land hydrology are simultaneously included in
the complex sciences: the hydrology of bogs in the composition of marshland, the
hydrology of glaciers in the composition of glaciology.
1.2. The structure of the water molecule and the chemical properties of
natural waters
The water molecule is an isosceles triangle with two hydrogen atoms at the
base and an oxygen atom at the apex. The oxygen atom in the water molecule adds
to itself two electrons, taken from hydrogen atoms, and thereby acquires a negative
charge. Hydrogen atoms deprived of electrons become positively charged protons.
Thus, the polarity of the water molecule arises; The negative charge from the
oxygen atom and the positive charge from the hydrogen atoms.
A positively charged nucleus of hydrogen of one molecule can be connected
to a negatively charged oxygen atom of another molecule. As a result, there are so-
called hydrogen bonds, which are much stronger in water (unlike other liquids)
than those due to intermolecular interactions. Overcoming these bonds during
melting, evaporation, heating of water requires much more energy than other
liquids. This determines a number of "anomalies" of the thermal properties of
water.
Water vapor consists mainly of single water molecules without an ordered
structure. Hydrogen bonds are not realized. In the solid state (ice), the water
structure is highly ordered. Molecules form a hexagonal structure with strong
hydrogen bonds. This structure is "delicate", i.e. a relatively large space is
occupied by voids. Water in the liquid state preserves the elements of the "ice-like"
skeleton, the voids of which are partially filled with single molecules, which
causes a greater density of water than ice.
Water is a weak electrolyte, i.e. its molecules are able to divide into ions
(dissociate) by the equation H2O↔H ++ OH- In the absence of impurities, the
concentrations of H and OH ions (in moles per 1 liter) are equal to each other. At
temperatures from 0 to 50 [H +] = [OH -] = 10-7. In the presence of impurities, this
equality may be violated. In the case of predominance of OH- ions, an alkaline
reaction of water takes place, with an excess of H + ions, an acid reaction. To
characterize the reaction, a hydrogen pH is used, equal to the logarithm of
hydrogen ion concentration, taken with the opposite sign: pH = -lg [H +].
In natural water, there are always dissolved substances. Their quantity per
unit of volume is mineralization (mg / l), in the unit of mass - salinity (g / kg, or%).
The bulk of the dissolved substances are macrocomponents, which include the
anions HCO3-, cations Ca2 +, Mg2 +, Na +, K +. The total content of Ca2 + Mg +
determines the hardness of the water.
Many substances contained in the natural water in a much smaller
amount, nevertheless, play an important role in the existence of aquatic
ecosystems, determine the consumer properties of water. Among them are the
following groups. Nutrients - compounds of sodium, phosphorus, silicon, iron,
most actively involved in the vital activity of plant and animal organisms.
Organic substances are complex compounds formed as a result of the
decomposition of plant and animal organisms. The carbon is about half their mass,
and together with oxygen and hydrogen, 95%. Microelements are substances that
are in water in very small amounts (less than 0.01 mg / l). These include, in
particular, heavy metals, radioactive substances.
1.3. Physical properties of water
Water is in nature in a liquid, solid and vapor state. Transitions of water
from one aggregate state to another are phase transitions:

- transition from a liquid state to a solid state (ice, snow, hail) - freezing of water
(crystallization of ice formation), vapor - evaporation; - from the vapor state to the
liquid - condensation (the formation of rain drops, rain, dew), in the solid -
sublimation (frost, ice, frost);
Under normal pressure, fresh water freezes at a temperature of 0 ° C, while
increasing mineralization (salinity) and pressure (atmosphere, water layer) it
decreases. Evaporation increases significantly with increasing temperature and
decreasing atmospheric pressure. Thermal "anomalies" of water:
1) Very large values
 - Specific heat (1 feces for heating 1 g of water at 1 ° C); this causes a slow,
in comparison with air, heating and cooling of water, hence the weathering effect
of the ocean in winter and cooling in the summer;
- Specific heat of melting and ice formation (accordingly, absorption and
isolation of 80 feces per 1 g of water); the latter slows down the growth of the ice
cover on rivers and water bodies;
- Specific heat of vaporization, or evaporation (597 calories are required per
conversion of 1 g of water to steam), this leads to cooling of the water surface
during evaporation and slowing down of the drying process of water bodies in arid
areas.
2) Low thermal conductivity of water and ice, which slows down the cooling of
water in rivers and reservoirs in winter.
Features of changes in water density (ρ):
1) The highest density of fresh water is observed at 4 ° C; when the temperature
rises above this value, the density of water (as well as of other liquids) decreases,
with a decrease in temperature below 4 ° C, the density of water also decreases;
This is the main feature of water, preventing the freezing of rivers and ponds to the
bottom.
2) The density of water, unlike other liquids, is less in the solid state (ice) than in
liquid (the density of distilled water at 4 ° C is 1000kg / m3 or 1kg / l, at 0 ° C
999.9kg / m3, the density of crystalline ice at 0 ° C 917 kg / m3); this prevents the
lowering of the ice formed on the water surface to the bottom. The density of
porous ice and, especially, of snow is much less than that of crystalline ice. With a
decrease in the temperature of the ice, its density increases slightly.
With an increase in salinity (S), the density of water increases, and the
temperature of the highest density (Tn.p.) and the freezing point (Tmp3) of water
decrease, Tn.pl .. from 4 ° C, Tmpls from 0 ° C at S = 0 ‰. Tn.pl. decreases more
intensively than Tmpls. At S = 24.7%, Tn.pl are compared: T n.pl. = Tmps. = -1.2
° C.
Important features of water include a very high surface tension (inferior in
magnitude only to mercury). It is caused by the forces of attraction between water
molecules at the water-air interface or water-solid. This property causes the rise of
water in the capillaries of soil and plants.
Relatively high fluidity of water is caused by a relatively small viscosity, i.e.
frictional force between adjacent layers of a moving fluid. The quantitative index
of this property is the dynamic coefficient of viscosity (μ). By dividing this
coefficient by the water density, a kinematic viscosity coefficient υ = μ / ρ is
obtained. Viscosity decreases significantly with increasing water temperature.
1.4. Forces acting on the water flow.
 If we select a volume in the water stream in the form of a cube, the upper
and lower faces of which are parallel to the water surface, then forces acting on it
will act: a) the bulk of the volume is the volume or mass forces, b) the faces of the
selected volume are surface forces. Surface forces are divided into normal, directed
perpendicular to the faces, and tangents acting along the faces.
К объемным (массовым) относятся следующие силы:
The following forces apply to volumetric (mass):
1. Gravity (Fg), directed vertically down (toward the center of the Earth) Fg
= mg, where m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity. The longitudinal
component of the force of gravity causing the movement of water, Fgnp = mg sinα
= mgI, where α is the angle between the water and horizontal surfaces, I = sinα is
the slope of the water surface.
2. Centrifugal force (Fc) is manifested at the turns of the flow. If you
represent a section of the river on a turn in the form of an arc of a circle, then the
distance from it to the center of the circle is called the radius of curvature (r). Then
Fv = mv2 / r, where v is the flow velocity. Hz is directed perpendicular to the arc
of the circle away from the center.
3. The Coriolis force (Fc), resulting from the rotation of the Earth and
directed perpendicular to the flow in the northern hemisphere to the right, south to
the left. Fk = 2 mv sinφ, where φ is the latitude. Fk increases from the equator,
where it is equal to zero, to the poles. The centrifugal force and the Coriolis force
are noticeable only for large flows (with a large mass of water).
The normal surface forces include hydrostatic pressure, i.e. impact on the
edges of the allocated volume of the overlying column of the resting liquid, and
hydrodynamic pressure, i.e. The impact of a moving fluid on these faces and the
solid bodies flowing around it.
Among the tangential surface forces, the friction force at the bottom is of
greatest importance for flows. For a turbulent flow, its value per unit area of the
bottom (specific friction, or shear stress) depends on the nature of the bottom (its
roughness), is proportional to the water density and flow velocity for the laminary
flow and to the square of the velocity for the turbulent flow.
1.5. Types of water movement:
These types of water movement differ in that, for a laminar flow, water
particles move along parallel trajectories without mixing, and in turbulent flow,
vortices appear in the flow, leading to the movement of water particles along the
depth and width of the flow.
As an indicator of the hydrodynamic nature of the flow, the Reynolds number
is used: Re = vh/υ,
where v is the flow velocity (in m / s), h is the flow depth (in m), and υ is the
kinematic viscosity coefficient (in m2 / s). At Re <2300, the motion is laminar, at
Re> 3000 - turbulent, between these values of Re the character of the flow is
transient.
Water objects also distinguish translational movement, in which water
moves in a certain direction, and oscillatory motion, in which such movement is
absent.

II. COURSE OF WATER AND SUBSTANCES THEREOF

2.1. The water cycle in nature.
The total volume of water on the globe is 1.39 · 109 km3.
Only 0.01% of the total volume of water accounts for surface water without
glaciers. Fresh water makes up 2.64%, 99% of which is concentrated in glaciers
and underground aquifers. The share of water in the river network is very small,
but it renews on average for 19 days, therefore, the volume of river water flowing
during the year will be 19 times (365: 19) more. The average period of renewal of
water in other water bodies is much greater.

The World Ocean area occupies 71% of the globe, the surface waters of the
land - 4%, or 15% of the land area. There is a tendency to reduce the stocks of
water on land and increase them in the World Ocean. For the years 1890-1990. the
level of the World Ocean has risen by 15 cm.
In the global water cycle, there are two links:
- oceanic link, which is a repeatedly repeating cycle: evaporation from the ocean
surface - transport of water vapor over the ocean - precipitation on the ocean
surface - ocean currents - evaporation, etc .;
- Mainland link, which is a repeatedly repeating cycle: evaporation from the
surface of the land - transport of water vapor - precipitation on the surface of the
land - surface and underground runoff - evaporation, etc.
Both links are interconnected by the transfer of water vapor from the ocean
to land and surface and underground runoff from land to the ocean.
On land, the regions of the outer (80% of the territory) and the internal
(20%) drain are identified. Stock into the ocean occurs only from the territory of
the first region. The second area includes vast inland areas, found on all continents
except Antarctica. In the water cycle, these territories are associated with the rest
of the land only by atmospheric transport of moisture.
From the ocean, 505,000 km3 of water evaporates annually. Returns to the
ocean in the form of precipitation of 458 thousand km3. The remaining 47
thousand km3 are transferred to the land in the form of steam. On the surface of the
land, 110,000 km3 of precipitation falls in the region of the outer runoff; of which
47 thousand km3 due to moisture brought from the ocean, and 63 thousand km3
due to moisture evaporating from the land. In evaporation from land, 42% is
transpiration of plants. 47 thousand km3 flows into the ocean from the land,
including 42 thousand km3 - river runoff, 3 thousand km 3 - ice flow and 2
thousand km3 - drainage of groundwater not drained by rivers.
On the surface of the inner runoff area, 9 thousand km3 of precipitation
falls and the same amount evaporates. The transfer of moisture from the outside
with air masses is equal to its removal. The ratio of all precipitation falling on this
territory to moisture brought from outside is called the coefficient of hydrologic
circulation (Кhc).
The greater the number of times the moisture that has entered from outside
the given land area in the air masses falls to its surface and evaporates again, the
greater the contribution of local precipitation to their total amount, and,
consequently, the higher will be. Hence the highest values of Клl are characteristic
of large areas with a high evaporation value, which is typical for the equatorial
belt. For the whole land, the coefficient of hydrologic circulation is КВ = 110/47 =
2.34. For individual continents, the Kval varies from 1.14 (Austria) to 1.68 (South
America).

2.2. Water balance

The relationship between different sources of water flow to a given surface
(either to a designated volume of land or a water body), sources of water removal
from this surface (from this volume) and changes in water reserves on the surface
(in the volume) is called the water balance of the selected surface (volume ).
Sources of income (arrival) and disposal (consumption) of water are called
compound, or elements of water balance.
Water balance can be compiled for the globe as a whole, for land,
individual continents, countries, administrative regions and regions, river basins,
individual water bodies and their parts. When compiling the water balance of the
land in whole or for its individual sections, a certain layer of lithosphere is usually
considered, for example, a layer from the earth's surface to the first water retainer
or to the lowest aquifer participating in the water cycle.

Water balance can be determined for the year, individual seasons, water
regime phases, individual days on average for a long-term period or for specific
time periods of specific years.
The water balance can be written in the form of an equation representing a
particular case of the equation of conservation of matter. The main natural
components of the water balance: atmospheric precipitation, evaporation, outflow
(runoff) and the inflow of water by surface and underground ways, change in water
reserves in the allocated volume (or area).
The water balance can be expressed in terms of volume (m3, km3) or as the
thickness of the water layer (in mm), obtained by dividing the volume by the area
of the territory under consideration.
 Average annual water balance of the Earth
Equation of water balance: for the whole world x = z, for the World ocean
xk + yp + yl + w = zok for the whole land xc = yp + ul + w + zc, for the outer flow
area x'c = yp + yl + w + zc ', for the region of internal flow xc "= z". Here x, xk,
xc, xc ', xc "are respectively the precipitations to the entire surface of the globe, the
ocean, the entire land, the region of the external and internal runoff, z, zoc, zc, zc',
zc" are the same evaporation, ul, w - drain into the ocean, respectively, rivers, ice,
groundwater.
Water balance of land plots, taking into account economic activities, in
addition to these components, may include irretrievable water abstraction from
water bodies, transfer of flow from other territories. Agriculture, deforestation, the
creation of reservoirs also affect the balance of the natural components of the water
balance.
2.3. Circulation of sediment.
Nanos are solids contained in water bodies and carried by water in a
suspended or withered state. The main source of sediment input into water bodies
is the washing away of soil from the surface of the catchments with melt and rain
streams (erosion) and to a lesser extent erosion of the bottom and shores of water
bodies under the influence of currents and waves. River sediment carried into the
ocean. Here, they are supplemented by products of erosion of the sea coasts and
the disturbing of the bottom by waves in shallow water, as well as by particles of
plant and animal organisms.
The annual runoff of suspended sediments of the world's rivers is 15.7
billion tons per year. The flow of sedimented sediments of the rivers of the world
is 5-10% of the total solid flow.
2.4. Circulation of salts.
Underground waters dissolve mountain streams at their movement and are
the main sources of formation of salt composition of rivers and water bodies of
land. With the river waters, 3.1 billion tons of salts are transported to the World
Ocean, 1.2 billion tons of salts are supplied directly to groundwater, 0.2 billion
tons are formed as a result of the dissolution of river suspensions.
From the surface of the ocean with evaporating particles of water, and also
with sprays, 5 billion tons of salts annually leave, of which 4.5 billion tons are
immediately returned, and 0.5 billion tons are carried to land. Thus, the stock of
salts in the ocean is replenished annually by 4 billion tons. about one ten millionth
of their total number in it.
2.5. The cycle of gases.
Of the gases involved in the cycle of substances in nature, the most
important are oxygen O2 and carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide) CO 2. The most
important factor in the cycle of these gases is the process of photosynthesis:
 6СО2 + 6Н2О → С6Н12О6 + 6O2,
as a result of which CO 2 is absorbed., an organic substance (production) is created
and O2 is released. Due to the life activity of the phytoplankton of the ocean, 154
billion tons are produced per year (approximately the same as the vegetation of the
land). The consumption of O2 occurs as a result of biochemical and chemical
decomposition (oxidation) of organic matter (destruction), accompanied by the
release of CO2.
With rain and river water, 3.6 billion tons of O 2 are supplied to the ocean.
On oxidation processes in the ocean, as well as consumption by living aquatic
organisms, 151 billion tons of O2 are consumed. The ocean gives up an excess of
6.6 billion tons annually to the atmosphere.
Sources of CO2 to the ocean, in addition to the process of decomposition of
organic substances are river and rainwater, the breathing of aquatic organisms, the
eruption of underwater volcanoes. In the ocean at high latitudes, CO 2, due to
increased solubility at low temperatures, is absorbed from the atmosphere. When
these waters move to low latitudes due to the rise in water temperature, the ocean
releases CO2 into the atmosphere. An appreciable factor of CO 2 entering the
atmosphere is economic activity.

III. THE GROUNDWATER

3.1. Types of groundwater
To groundwaters as an object of studying hydrology are the waters
contained in the earth's crust and actively participating in the water cycle on the
globe, i.e. interacting with the atmosphere and surface waters.
The main source of groundwater formation is atmospheric precipitation
(melting snow and rain), which enter the upper layer of the soil as a result of
infiltration (absorption). With abundant water intake, it fills all voids in the ground.
On the cracks, animal walkways, the holes from the rotted plant roots, relatively
large pores (ie, the spaces between the soil particles), the water moves downward
under the influence of gravity - this is gravitational water. It reaches the waterproof
layer (most often clay deposits), accumulating here, forms an aquifer, i.e. layer of
water-permeable layer saturated with water, which moves along the surface of the
water retainer in the direction of its slope under the influence of gravity. Where
negative forms of relief (river valleys, ravines, lake basins) open the aquifer,
groundwater flows to the surface in the form of springs or dispersed seepage on the
slope.
Under a certain geological structure, the ground waters before overlap are
overlapped by another water repellent, then the second one, etc. Waters,
overlapped on top of waterproof layers, are called interplastic underground waters.
The supply of these waters is carried out at sites where the corresponding aquifer is
not blocked from above by a water repellent. For interstitial waters, the formation
of a head is characteristic, as a result of which the water rises when the aquifer is
opened by a borehole or by natural cracks. The level to which water rises is called
the piezometric level. The excess of this level above the water level in the aquifer
is called the head height. The rise of water under the influence of pressure can
reach the earth's surface. Especially it is peculiar to artesian waters, timed to
geological structures of the synclinal type - artesian basins.
Between aquifers, there is usually a relationship due to the circulation of
water through cracks in the waterworks or by slow percolation through them
through the pores.
Underground waters, confined to aquifers, are called stratal waters. In
rocks, underground waters are more often moved along a system of cracks in rocks
(fractured waters), along isolated cracks or veins with increased fracturing (vein
water), along karst voids (karst waters).

In the permafrost zone, permafrost waters are distinguished, lying under the
permafrost, inter-frozen waters within the permafrost and over-frozen waters, for
which frozen rocks serve as a water repellent.
Soil and, especially, interplastic waters exist, as a rule, throughout the whole
year and provide permanent feeding of rivers. In the permafrost zone this applies
only to submerve waters.
The ratio of the volume of all the voids to the volume of the soil sample is
called the wellbore, and the pore volume (V pore) to the volume of the soil (V soil) is
called the porosity (p): p = Vpor / Vsoil They are usually expressed in%. The porosity
of sand is on average 40%, clay - about 50%.
The top layer of soil after the termination of thawing of a snow or a rain is
gradually released from gravitational water. The air circulates through the
emptiness. A layer of soil (the upper part of which is the soil) to the level of
groundwater is called the zone of aeration. In this zone there are the following
types of waters:
- Capillary water filling the pores and being under the influence of
capillary forces; in the lower part of the aeration zone, water, rising along
the pores above the ground water layer, forms a capillary rise zone
(capillary rim) from 0 (gravel, pebble) to 6-12 m (clay);
- film water, forming a thin film around the soil particles and relatively
weakly bound to them by molecular forces; Moves from places with a greater
thickness of the film to places with a smaller thickness;
- hygroscopic water, firmly bound to the soil particles by molecular forces.
3.2. Water capacity of the soil.
The ability of the ground to contain and retain a certain amount of water is
called the moisture capacity of the soil.
 Full moisture capacity - the total content in the ground of all types of water
with full filling of all pores, expressed as a percentage of the mass of the soil
sample.

The lowest (or field) moisture capacity is water remaining in the ground
after the flow of gravity water (for sand 3-5%, loams and clays 12-22%).
Soil moisture is the actual water content in the soil, expressed as the layer
thickness (in mm) or as a percentage of the dry ground weight.
The waters of the aeration zone that remain in the pores of the soil are
gradually consumed by evaporation, mainly by transpiration (Transpiration is the
process of movement of water through the plant and its evaporation through the
external organs of the plant, such as leaves, stems and flowers) of plants.
Temporary accumulations of gravitational waters in the aeration zone can
occur over individual lenses of water-resistant rocks (perchage) and over relative
water rest, for example over the illuvial horizon of podzolic soils, whose water
permeability is much lower than the overlying layers. The movement of water
along the relative water support towards its slope forms a soil, or intrasoil runoff.
Underground waters can form as a result of infiltration into the ground not
only of atmospheric precipitation, but also of water from surface water bodies.
Both these types of water are called infiltration underground waters. Underground
waters can also form as a result of the condensation of water vapor in the pores of
the soil. These are condensation waters, which play a significant role in the deserts.
All listed types of groundwater are exogenous. Endogenous water includes water
formed from magma vapor - dehydration water.
The depth of distribution of interplastic groundwaters participating in the
water cycle on the earth reaches, as a rule, several hundred meters. The depth of
occurrence of groundwater, greatly changing in territory, depending on local
conditions as a whole, is subject to the law of geographical zoning, increasing from
fractions of a meter in the tundra zone to tens of meters in the steppe zone.
The movement of groundwater through the pores in the saturation zone,
called filtration, is usually laminar. The rate of filtration (vf) is expressed by
Darcy's law:
v f = К f ·I
Here I is the hydraulic slope equal to either the slope of the surface of the
level of non-pressure water, or the slope of the piezometric level for pressure
water; Kf is the filtration coefficient equal to the filtration rate through a given soil
at I = 1 (i.e., vertically down); its dimension m / s or m / day. Kf for pebbles is 100-
200 m / day, for sand 1-50, for sandy loam (sandy loam is sandy loamy soil, loose
soil with predominance of sand above the clay. In sandy loam usually 7-10 parts of
sand are found on sandy loam) 0,1-0,5, for clay 0,001-0,0001 m / day.
3.3 Classification of types of water regimes
 Types of water regime of the aeration zone (aeration - air ventilation, air
exchange, and air saturation):
1) flushing - хинф >> z з . а excess water is spent on Пгр and yпочв;
2) compensated - xинф ≈ zз.а;
3) evaporation (effusive) - хинф << z з . а , the lack of water is partly compensated
by zгр.
Types of water regime of groundwater:
1) seasonal (mainly spring and autumn) nutrition; the maximum level of
groundwater in spring, a smaller increase in autumn, a low level in late summer
and especially in late winter; is observed in most of the territory of the UNS
СНГcountries;
2) short-term summer meals; the maximum level in June-July (sometimes August-
September); is observed in the zone of permafrost;
3) year-round, mainly winter-spring food; the maximum level in February-April,
the minimum - in summer-autumn time (south and west of the territory of the
former USSR with a non-freezing zone of aeration).
3.4 Types of interaction between groundwater and surface water
1) Two-way hydraulic communication. With a low water level in the river,
the groundwater table is higher, the river receives groundwater. With a high water
level in the river, the groundwater table is lower. There is infiltration of speech
water into the ground. This type is typical for medium and large plain rivers.

2) One-way hydraulic communication. The water level in the river is

constantly higher than the water table. Throughout the year, river water feeds
groundwater. It is characteristic of some arid and karst areas.

3) Lack of hydraulic communication. The waterproof is located above the

maximum water level in the river. There is a constant feeding of the river by
ground waters, unloading on the slopes of the valley in the form of keys or
dispersed seepage. The most typical for mountainous areas.
IV. Hydrology of rivers
4.1 Characteristics of the river and its basin.
A river is a watercourse that has a current for most of the year, receiving
food from its catchment area and having a clearly defined channel formed by the
watercourse itself. The spring that gives rise to the river, or the outlet of the river
stream from the lake, swamp, glacier - the source of the river; place (point) of the
confluence of the river in another river or a receiving pond (sea, lake) - the mouth
of the river.
The main morphometric characteristics of the river as a whole are its
length and catchment area (basin). The catchment area of the river is a part of the
earth's surface and a series of soils and soils, from where this river receives its
food. The river basin is a part of the land along which this river flows with all its
tributaries, including temporary watercourses, and bounded by a watershed. Non-
empty territories inside the basin are not included in the catchment area. In areas of
sufficient moisture, the catchment and the basin are generally the same.
Surface and underground watersheds may not coincide. For large and
medium-sized, and also for most small rivers, this discrepancy can be neglected,
except for the karst regions. The main morphometric characteristics of a river basin
(catchment area): area, length, maximum and average width, mean height, average
slope of the surface, coefficient of asymmetry.
Quantitative physical and geographical characteristics: density of the river
network, lacustrine, waterlogged, glaciated, wooded, spread of soil with a certain
degree of water permeability.

4.2 Classification of rivers

In terms of area of the basin (F), there are rivers:
Large - F> 50000 km2,
the average is F = 2000-50000 km2,
Small - F <2000 km2.
A large river usually crosses two or more natural zones, the hydrological
regime of the middle river reflects the conditions of one zone or subzone, the
regime of small rivers is largely determined by local conditions.
Long (L) to small rivers usually include rivers with L from 10 to 100 km
(sometimes up to 200 km), rivers with L <10 km are often called streams. The
largest rivers in the world in terms of area of the basin (million km2): Amazon
(South America, 6.92), Congo (Zaire, Central Africa, 3.82), Mississippi (USA,
3.22), La Plata (USA, 3, 1), the Ob (Western Siberia 2.99). The rivers with the
longest length are the Nile (with Kagera L = 6670 km), the Amazon (with Ucayali
the river in Peru, the right tributary of the Amazon 6280), Mississippi (with
Missouri 5985), Yangtze (5520). The largest river in Europe is the Volga (F = 1.36
million km2, L = 3350 km).

4.3 Elements of the river valley

River valleys are longitudinal depressions on the earth's surface, formed as a

result of the erosion-accumulative activity of the river.
Elements of the river valley are: river bed, floodplain, terrace above the
floodplain, root banks.
 The riverbed is the lowest part of the valley occupied by the river in the
shallow periods of the year.
The floodplain is part of the valley, flooded at the highest water level. The
terraces above the floodplain are relatively flat areas of the valley, representing the
remains of the floodplains in the previous stages of the development of the valley.
Aboriginal banks are the slopes of the valley above the highest terrace. The
riverbed and floodplain form the bottom of the valley, the terraces and the
indigenous banks are the slopes of the valley. The height of floodplains, terraces,
and indigenous banks is the excess of their brooks above the water level in the
low-water period of the year.
Types of valleys by genesis: tectonic, glacial, erosion;
In the shape of the transverse profile: canyons, gorges, V-shaped, co-rift
(trots), trapezoidal, box-shaped.
The longitudinal profile of the river is a graph of changes in the marks of
the water surface and the bottom along the length of the river.
The fall of the river is the difference between the marks of the water
surface or the bottom (ΔH) on any part of the river. The total drop is ΔH between
the source and the mouth of the river. The slope of the river (I) - the ratio of the
river's fall on the site to its length, is expressed in fractions of a unit or in millet
(%). For medium-sized flat rivers, as a rule, I <1 %, for mountain rivers up to
several tens of %.
Types of longitudinal profile: concave, rectilinear, convex, stepped. The
main basis of erosion of the river is the level of the reservoir or watercourse.

4.4 Main hydrological characteristics of the river

The main hydrological characteristics of the river are the level and flow of
water.
Water flow rate (Q m3 / s) is the amount of water passing through the cross
sections of the river in 1 second. The water flow is equal to the product of the area
of the river's water section by the average flow velocity for this section.
The amount of water carried by the river through its cross section over a
longer period of time (day, month, season, year) is the volume of flow (V m 3 or
km3). V = Q m3 · t, where Q is the average water flow over the considered time
interval, t is the number of seconds in this interval (for the year t = 31.54 · 106 s).

For comparison of river runoff with atmospheric precipitation or

evaporation, the runoff is characterized by the height of the water layer. The
drainage layer (mm) is a layer that is obtained if the flow volume is distributed
evenly over the entire area of the river basin (F): y = 106 · V / F.
 To compare the conditions for the formation of runoff in various basins, the
amount of water flow attributed to the basin area is often used, i.e. the amount of
water flowing from each square kilometer is the drainage modulus M=10 3·Q/F,l/s ·
km2.
The ratio of the runoff layer to the layer of precipitation (x) precipitated on
the area of the basin, which account for the appearance of a given runoff, is called
the runoff coefficient (η). It shows how much of the precipitation is spent on runoff
formation: η = y / x.
Regular measurements of water level and flow, as well as water
temperature and ice thickness, fixing the dates of the onset of various ice
phenomena are conducted at hydrological posts. The most common device for
measuring water level is the pile water meter station.
When determining the flow rate, flow velocities at hydrological stations are
measured by a hydrometric turntable, under expeditionary conditions - often by
surface floats. Depth measurement (for calculating the area of the water section) is
carried out with the aid of a marking - the depth meter marked on the decimeters of
the pole, a lot - of the load lowered on the marked cable, which determines the
depth of the return of the sound signal reflected from the bottom, applied to the
surface of the water.

4.5 Nutrition, water regime of rivers, water balance of the river basin
The sources of supply of rivers are rain, snow, glacial and groundwater.
Rainwater prevails in the warm belt and in temperate regions with a
monsoon climate. The proportion of precipitating rainfall increases when deposited
on moist soil.
Snow eating prevails in the cold and temperate zones. The rising snowmelt
intensity, winter freezing of the soil and especially the presence of ice crust on the
soil contribute to the flow of snowy waters.
Ice food occurs as a result of the melting of glaciers. The main factors are
the catchment area occupied by glaciers and the air temperature.
Underground feeding - the entry into the river of groundwater and interstitial
water (runoff to rivers of soil water and perchovodki conditionally refers to
surface nutrition). Depends on the geological structure and distribution in the
basin of water-permeable soils, fissured rocks, from forest cover.

The main negative factor of runoff formation is evaporation from the surface
of the basin, including transpiration, physical evaporation from the soil surface and
voids inside the soil, from the surface of water bodies. Evaporation depends on the
temperature of the air and the evaporating surface (water, ice, snow), air humidity,
wind speed, depth of groundwater.
 For transpiration, in addition to these factors, the type of vegetation is
important, for evaporation from glaciers, their altitude and, consequently,
atmospheric pressure. These factors determine the potential for evaporation, called
volatility. The actual evaporation is limited by the presence of evaporating
moisture. For the water surface of rivers, lakes and glaciers, evaporation is
practically equal to the volatility. In the deserts of the tropical belt, evaporation is
greatest, and evaporation is the least. In polar countries, evaporation is the lowest;
Evaporation is almost equal to volatility.
The natural water balance of the river basin:
x + w1 = z + у + w2 ± ∆U,
where x is the precipitation on the surface of the basin, z is the total evaporation
from its surface, y is the river runoff, w1 is the inflow of groundwaters receiving
food outside this basin, w2 is the outflow of groundwater generated in this basin,
not in the river flow, ± ΔU - change in water reserves in the basin, containing in
underground aquifers, in soil, in reservoirs and channel network, in snow cover and
glaciers.
In the presence of anthropogenic influence, appropriate components are
introduced into the equation of the water balance. On average, for a long period of
a year as a whole ΔU = 0, the values of w1 and w2 have a value, as a rule, only for a
part of small rivers, so the equation of water balance can be written in a simple
form:
х = z + у.
4.6 Phases of water regime of rivers
The phases of the water regime of rivers are flood, floods, and low water
(Meadow) .
Flood is the phase that repeats annually in these climatic conditions in the
same season and is characterized by the highest water content, high and prolonged
rise in water level.

Flooding is the phase of the water regime, which can be repeated many
times in different seasons of the year and is characterized by an intensive, usually
short-term increase in costs and water levels and is caused by rain or snowmelt
during thaws. Sometimes flooding is superimposed on a wave of flood.
Meadow is the phase of the water regime, which is repeated yearly in the
same season, characterized by low water content, a long standing low level and
resulting from a decrease in the supply of the river. The main source of food, as a
rule, is underground water.
Classification of rivers by water regime:
- rivers with spring high water;
 - rivers with high water in the warm part of the year; types:
- rivers with a flood regime;

4.7 Factors forming the average multi-year runoff:

a) climatic - the amount of precipitation and the amount of evaporation
associated with planetary conditions - the total transfer of moisture, the trajectory
of cyclones, the influence of the ocean and the seas.
b) underlying surface - relief, geology, soil, vegetation, economic activity.
General patterns of the change in runoff over the territory can be traced to
the example of the distribution of runoff in the European part of the former USSR.
At latitudes 60-65 ° there is a "climatic runoff" with values of 350-400 mm. Hence
the reduction of runoff to the north to 300-350 mm due to a decrease in
precipitation with a slower decrease in evaporation. In the north of the Kola
Peninsula, an increase in runoff under the influence of the relatively warm Barents
Sea.
Lowering the drainage to the south to 50-100 mm in the steppe zone, up to 20 mm
on the coast of the Sea of Azov and 5 mm in the Caspian lowland, associated with
a decrease in precipitation and an increase in volatility. Some increase in runoff at
the elevations (Valdai, Donetsk Ridge, etc.) and significant in the mountains - in
the Crimea from 20 to 150 mm, in the Caucasus to 2000-3000 mm.
4.8 Movement of water in rivers.
The average flow velocity for a cross section is determined by the Chezy formula
v ср=C √ R⋅I≈C √ h ср⋅I

where I is the longitudinal slope, R is the hydraulic radius, had is the average depth
1/6
in the section, C is the Chezy coefficient: C=h ср /n (n is the roughness coefficient,
depending on the unevenness of the bottom, the aquatic vegetation, the tortuosity
of the channel).
The transverse circulation of water occurs when there is a level skew in the
width of the river, which is usually associated with centrifugal force at the turn of
the river. There is an increase in water and hydrostatic pressure at the concave
shore. As a result, a current appears in the bottom layers, directed toward the
convex shore. In the surface layers, the transverse flow is directed from the convex
shore to the concave one. Cross currents, forming with the main longitudinal
transfer of water, create a spiraling movement.
If on the rectilinear part of the river the flow velocity usually decreases from
the middle to the shores, then at the turn of the river, the streams with the
maximum flow velocity are shifted to the concave bank.
With a normal distribution of the flow velocities in depth, their maximum
values are observed in the layer from the surface of the water to a depth of 0.2 h.
At a depth of 0.2 h, it is approximately equal to the average velocity on the
vertical, the minimum value (not equal to zero) is observed at the bottom. With an
ice cover, the maximum velocity shifts approximately to a depth of 0.6 h. Under
the influence of wind, unevenness of the bottom, aquatic vegetation, the normal
distribution of flow velocities is violated.
The lines connecting the points in the cross section of the river with the
same flow velocity are called isotachi.
4.9 River sediment and channel processes.
Characteristics of river sediment:
- water turbidity (s g / m3) - number of suspended solids (t) per unit volume
of water (V), s = m / V ; ,
- geometric size of sediment (D mm) - size of suspended or drawn particles
(nominal diameter);
- the hydraulic size of the sediment (ω mm / s) is the rate of sedimentation of
the particles in the immobile water. Suspended sediments are carried under the
condition vv.v. > ω, where vв.в. - vertical component of the turbulent flow,
directed upward.
The displacement of attracted sediments occurs under the condition vbottom>
vbottom.0, where - vbottom is the flow velocity at the bottom, vbottom.0 - the initial velocity
at which the particle at the bottom loses its stability, depending on the size and
density of the sediment particles, the bottom roughness, etc. According to Erie's
law, the weight of the particle (Fg) moving along the bottom under the influence of
the water flow is proportional to the sixth degree of flow velocity at the bottom:
Fg = Avдно6,
where A is the coefficient of proportionality.
Sediment consumption (R kg / s) - the amount of solids (in kg), carried
through the cross section of the river for 1 s.
Sediment flow is the amount of solids carried through a cross section over a
certain time interval (Δt). Weighted sediment flow Ws.f. = Raverage · Δt · 10-3 tons,
where Raverage is the average sediment discharge. For the year Ws.f. = Raverage31,54 ·
103 tons. The flow of sediment is usually 5-10% of the total sediment runoff.
Channel processes are constantly occurring changes in size and position in
the space of individual channel formations as a result of the interaction of river
flow and riverbed.
Channel formation - accumulations of sediment deposited, creating specific
forms of the relief of the channel and floodplain. There are micro-, meso- and
macroforms.
4.10 Forms of rivers
 Microforms include ridges, whose height is much less than the depth of the
river; the smallest ridges a few centimeters high are riffles.
Mesoforms: roll - a large channel bed along the entire width of the
channel, located perpendicular to it (normal roll) or at an angle (oblique roll);
Relatively deep sections of the channel between the rifts are called stretches;
The belt ridge is a large ridge that occupies the entire width of the channel or
a considerable part of it, usually arc-shaped with a bulge downstream;
side - shoal (relatively shallow space), adjacent to the shore and drying into
the low water;
osredok (Oserodok is an alluvial deposit in the river bed that does not have
vegetation and does not adjoin the shore, which is flooded during high water level,
forming stranded, and at low water it dries up, turning into a low island) - detached
from the coast mobile shoal of usually elongated form, drying in the low water;
The spit is a ridge adjoining the upper (downstream) part to the shore and
extending along the river bed at an angle to the shore;

Anger - a detached shoal of normally elongated form separated from the shores,
drying out at low water;осерёдок - отделенная от берегов подвижная отмель
обычно вытянутой формы, обсыхающая в межень;
The spit is a ridge adjoining the upper (downstream) part to the shore and
extending along the river bed at an angle to the shore;коса - гряда, примыкающая
в верхней (по течению) части к берегу и вытянутая вдоль русла под углом к
берегу;
Beach - accumulation of river sediments on the convex side of the bend;
the island is a relatively stable formation fixed by vegetation, part of it is
flooded at a high water level.
Macroforms: river bend, duct system, system of osredki.Макроформы:
речная излучина, система протоков, система осередков.
Radiation (meander) - bend of the river bed in the plan. Radiation is typical
for the type of meandering channel. In the process of development, the curvature
of the bend increases, as a result, a breakthrough of its isthmus and the formation
of an old man occurs, i.e. separated from the bend of the bend.

The system of ducts (sleeves) between islands, typical of the type of multi-arm
channel. A system of osredki, typical of the type of the scattered channel.
4.11. Water temperature and ice phenomena.
The temperature under the ice is 0.1-0.3 ° above zero, it does not exceed 1 °
in the spring during the ice drift. In periods without ice phenomena, the
temperature of the water depends mainly on the air temperature. The average daily
water temperature until mid-summer is usually lower than air, at the end of
summer and in autumn - higher.
Below the reservoirs, the temperature of river water in the summer is much
lower than usual, in winter it is higher, which leads to the appearance of many
kilometers of non-freezing sections of the river. The abundant underground
feeding of the river cools its water in the summer, in winter it leads to a decrease in
the ice cover, and sometimes to the formation of polynia.
Daily water temperature maxima lag for 1-2 hours compared to the air
temperature.
In small and medium-sized rivers, the water temperature in depth does not
practically change, on large rivers it is possible to reduce it by 1-2 ° in summer in
the lower layers.
Heat flow (Wm in J or kcal) is the amount of heat transported through the set
stream of the river over the time interval (Δt):
Wm = Lтпл·ρ·T·V,
where V is the volume of water flow over the same time interval, T is the average
water temperature, ρ is its density, and Lheat is the specific heat of water.
Large rivers flowing in the meridional direction - trans-zonal rivers - have a
water temperature that is not characteristic of the rivers of the given terrain.
The rivers by the nature of the ice regime are divided into three groups:
freezing, with unstable freeze-up and unfrozen.
On freezing rivers, three periods are distinguished with characteristic ice
phenomena: 1) freezing, or autumn ice phenomena, 2) freezing, 3) autopsy, or
spring ice phenomena.
Freezing of rivers. When the temperature of the water drops to zero, the
autumn ice phenomena begin in the river.
Salo - floating spots of the ice film, consisting of ice crystals in the form of
thin needles. Approximately at the same time, the banks of fixed ice near the
coasts are formed. When the water is undercooled (to fractions of a degree below
zero), interstitial ice can form in its thickness and at the bottom - an opaque
spongy, ice mass from chaotically intergrown ice crystals. The accumulation of
intra-ice ice on the surface or in the thickness of the stream forms a sludge. Its
movement is called a walker. At the same time, ice sheets consisting of crystalline
ice form on the surface. Their movement is an autumn ice drift. The blockage of
the riverbed is called slush, called glutton, and ice is a jam.
The accumulation of intra-ice ice on the surface or in the thickness of the
stream forms a sludge. Its movement is called a walker. At the same time, ice
sheets consisting of crystalline ice form on the surface. Their movement is an
autumn ice drift. The blockage of the riverbed is called slush, called glutton, and
ice is a jam.
Opening of rivers. With the onset of positive air temperatures in the spring
melting of snow begins, and then of ice. On the river near the coast, strips of clean
water are formed - flanges. The clutch of the ice cover with the shore stops, cracks
appear. Sometimes after this, there are small (several meters) displacement of ice
fields - ice movements. Then the ice cover is divided into individual ice floes, the
motion of which forms a spring ice drift. More often than in the autumn,
congestion occurs, especially on large rivers flowing from south to north. On small
rivers, the ice cover often melts in place without an ice drift.

4.12 Chemical composition and hydrochemical regime of rivers.

Small rivers (<200 mg / l), medium (200-500 mg / l), high (500-1000 mg / l)

and high (> 1000 mg / l) mineralization are distinguished by the value of
mineralization (M) during the low-season period. The first group is characteristic
of the majority of the rivers of Siberia, the Far East, the north of the European part
of the Russian Federation. The average mineralization is typical for the rivers of
the Baltic, Belorussia, Western Ukraine, the middle belt of the European part of
the Russian Federation. High mineralization is observed on the rivers of the central
and northern part of Ukraine, the Southern Urals, and high - semi-deserts and dry
steppes.
По величине минерализации (М) в меженный период выделяют реки с
малой (< 200 мг/л), средней (200-500мг/л), повышенной (500-1000мг/л) и
высокой (>1000мг/л) минерализацией. Первая группа свойственна большинству
рек Сибири, Дальнего Востока, севера европейской части РФ. Средняя
минерализация характерна для рек Прибалтики, Белоруссии, Западной
Украины, средней полосы европейской части РФ. Повышенная
минерализация наблюдается на реках центральной и северной части Украи-
ны, Южного Урала, а высокая - полупустынь и сухих степей.
The intra-annual change in mineralization is opposite to the change in the
flow of water - a minimum in high water, a maximum in low water.
The main ions in fresh river waters: НСО3- and Ca2 +, in brackish (M>
1000mg / l) - SO42-, Cl- to Na +. Organic matter is usually rich in rivers with marshy
basins. In such rivers, during the winter period, oxygen deficiency often occurs.
The flow of dissolved substances (ionic run-off Wn) is the amount of
dissolved substances carried through the cross section of the river for a certain time
interval (Δt). Wn = Qcp Mcp Δt 103. Ionic flow for the year Wn = Qcp Msr 31.5 103
tons. Here Qcp in m3 / s, Msr in mg / l, Δt in s.

4.13 Estuary area of rivers.

The estuary region includes a section of the river, where the influence of the
receiving reservoir (tides, surges) is manifested, and the sea area where
hydrological processes occur under the influence of the river (runoff flow, mixing
of river and sea water, sedimentation of river sediments). The first section is called
the coastal part of the river, the second is called the pre-estuary fog. Areas of the
estuary area with the presence of a large number of branches, ducts, islands is
called the delta.

Types of estuaries (estuary areas):

1) simple without delta, with an open estuarial fog (mainly small rivers);

2) estuarine - without deltas, with a semi-closed mouth mouth (Mezen, Southern

Bug);

3) estuarine - delta - with a delta of execution on the semi-closed mouthhead of the

river (Ob, Yenisei, Dnepr, Amazon); 4) delta - with delta extensions on open
estuarine seashore (Volga, Lena, Mekong, Yellow River, Mississippi).

V. HYDROLOGY OF LAKES
5.1 Morphometric characteristics and morphology of lakes
The lake is a natural reservoir on the surface of the land that does not have
direct water exchange with the World Ocean.
The volume of the lake (Vlake) is the volume of water contained in the lake.
The area of the lake (Slake) is the area of its surface along with the islands.
The area of the water mirror is the area of the water surface of the lake
(water area).
The length of the lake (Llake) is the shortest distance along the water surface
between the most remote points of the coastline.
The maximum width of the lake is the greatest distance between the
opposite banks along the perpendicular to the line for measuring the length of the
lake. The average width of the lake is Blake = Slake / Llake.
The maximum depth of the lake is the largest of the measured depths. The
average depth is haverage = Vlake / Slake.
The plot of the increase in the areas of isobaths (lines connecting points with
the same depth) from the greatest depth is called the area curve, or the bathymetric
curve. The plot of the increase in the volume of the lake from the greatest depth to
each isobath (including its zero value) is the volume curve.
The watershed of the lake (Flake) is part of the earth's surface and the
thickness of the ground, from where the lake receives food. The basin of the lake
also includes inactive waters within the watershed. Pools of all watercourses
flowing into the lake, enter its pool. Specific catchment area ф = Flake / Slake.
 The size of the lake area is subdivided into very large (S lake> 1000 km2),
large (Slake from 100 to 1000 km2), medium (Slake from 10 to 100 km2), small
(Slake<10 km2). The total volume of lakes on the globe is 176,000 km 3, an area of
2.1 million km2.
A large number of lakes are confined to wetlands of ancient glaciation
(Canada, Scandinavia, Karelia and Kola Peninsula), as well as to wetlands
(Western Siberia). Numerous drainless lakes are located in some arid regions with
a flat relief (south of Western Siberia, Northern Kazakhstan).
The lake basin is a natural depression of the earth's surface in which the lake
is located. Part of the lake basin, filled with water up to the height of the maximum
level rise is called a lake bed, or a lake bowl. The shore area of the lake includes
the following elements.
Coast (abrasion) ledge - steep or steep slope, formed as a result of the
damaging effects of waves (abrasion).
The shoreline (littoral) is a shallow part of the lake, composed mainly of
products from the destruction of the shore.
Underwater slope - relatively steep slope of the bottom from the edge of the
littoral to the deepwater part of the lake. Distribution of higher aquatic vegetation,
as a rule, is limited to littoral.
5.2 Types of lakes by the origin of the basins
1. Tectonic, confined to major tectonic depressions and depressions (the
Caspian Sea, Verkhnee Lake, Ladoga, Onega, Issyk-Kul, Balkhash) or to grabens
(Baikal, Tanganyika, Nyasa).

2. Glacial:
a) trough (Geneva, many lakes of Scandinavia, Karelia), b) moraine, formed
among the ancient moraine deposits (Imandra, Seliegger), c) Carous, d) glacial and
periglacial, associated with modern glaciation.
3. Karst, confined to karst subsidence, as well as underground cavities.
Thermokarst (permafrost); Suffasion (as a result of erosion and removal of
particles).
4. Volcanic, located in the craters of volcanoes (Titicaca in the Andes, Kronotsky
in Kamchatka).
5. River origin - the old people (старицы, deltas, zavalnye.
6. Marine origin - segregated from the sea by sandy or pebble scythes in the
estuaries of rivers (liman lakes) or small water areas of the sea (lagoon lakes).
7. Marsh (organogenic), located in the marshy massifs.
8. Dense - formed as a result of overlapping valleys.
 9. Mixed.
5.3 Water balance and external water exchange of lakes
Equation of water balance of the lake (in m or mm of layer):
xоз + yпр.пов + yпр.подз + yсбр = yст.пов + yст.подз + zоз + yзаб ±∆Vоз
where Хlake is the atmospheric precipitation on the surface of the lake, the pressure
and the yinflow
.podz are, respectively, the surface and subterranean inflow into the lake, and the
artificial discharge of water into the lake, yst.pov and yst.podz - respectively,
surface runoff and underground outflow from the lake, zoz - evaporation from the
lake surface, uzab - water intake from the lake for household needs, ± ΔVoz -
change in the volume (or level) of water in the lake.
где хоз — атмосферные осадки на поверхность озера, упр.пов и yпр.подз —
соответственно поверхностный и подземный приток в озеро, усбр —
искусственный сброс воды в озеро, yст.пов и yст.подз - соответственно
поверхностный сток и подземный отток из озера, zоз - испарение с
поверхности озера, узаб - забор воды из озера на хозяйственные нужды, ±∆Vоз -
изменение объема (или уровня) воды в озере.
On lakes with a stable water level, on an average for a many-year period,
ΔVoz = 0. Lakes for which the installation is set. - 0, are called drainless. For lakes
in zones of excessive and sufficient moisture, the total runoff, including the set of
t.t. in and ycm.nofa, exceeds rm, for the lakes in the zone of insufficient moisture,
the inverse ratio is characteristic; in lakes with a small specific catchment area
(cp), the total inflow (y = p = rpp + cppp), as a rule, exceeds x03, and for small cp,
vice versa.
External water exchange in the lake determines the conditions for renewal of
water in it. The quantitative indicator of these conditions is the coefficient of water
exchange KB = (ypr + xoz) / Vos = (yst + zoz) / Vos. The reciprocal value tоз = 1 /
Кв is numerically equal to the period of conditional water renewal, expressed in
years. The ratio KB * = yst / VOS is called the lake's flow coefficient. Kv for small
flowing lakes of the Kola Peninsula reaches 1000 (tOz = 0.001 years). For the lake.
Baikal is K = 0.0032, t = 312 years.
The smaller the Kv, the greater the regulatory impact of the lake on the
runoff of water and the sediment of the river flowing from it.
5.4 Water level fluctuations in lakes.
There are centuries-old, perennial, seasonal and short-term changes in the
level of lakes.
The secular and perennial fluctuations of the level have the form of cycles
with periods (phases) of its increase and decrease and are associated with climate
change. The duration of secular cycles is more than 100 years, perennial - tens of
years.
 In recent decades, economic activity has become an important factor in the
many-year change in the level of lakes.
Seasonal fluctuations in the level of lakes basically repeat the water regime,
the rivers flow into them, but with some delay in the onset of individual phases of
the water regime.
The range of seasonal fluctuations increases with the increase in the specific
catchment, but on the whole it is less than on rivers. Short-term fluctuations in the
level of lakes are associated with overtaking and surging phenomena, changes in
atmospheric pressure, seiches.
Driving-surging (Сгонно-нагонные) phenomena are expressed in the
fact that under the influence of the wind, the level of water near the windward
shore rises (overtaking), and at the lee shore it is pushed (overtaking). The greater
the speed and duration of the wind, the length of the acceleration (the distance
within the water area along the line coinciding with the direction of the wind) and
the smaller the depth of the lake, the greater the difference in the levels of both
banks. On large lakes, the height of the wagon reaches tens of centimeters
(sometimes> 1 m); The decrease in the level on the opposite bank is usually less.
The difference in the magnitude of atmospheric pressure in different parts of
the lake also causes the surface to skew. A pressure change of 1 mbar results in a
reversal of the water level by approximately 1 cm.
After stopping the effect of wind or equalizing the atmospheric pressure in
the water area of the lake, the water surface tends to occupy a horizontal position.
There are variously directed changes in the water level on different parts of
the lake. They have the form of gradually damped oscillatory movements. This
phenomenon is a seiche.
The greatest deviation of the level from the average position-the amplitude
of the seiche-is usually observed near the coast. Such places are called antinodes.
In the central part of the lake there are points where the level does not change;
these are the nodes of the seiche. Sometimes there are two-node and three-node
seiches. The amplitude of the seiche can reach 1 m.

Seiche period is the time between adjacent highs or lows of the level.
Wind turbulence in lakes, currents, water mixing.
Wind turbulence - the vibrational motion of water under the action of the
wind of the translational motion of the mass of water, unlike that of surges and
surges, does not occur. The excitement on the lakes develops and decays faster
than in large marine areas, the steepness of the waves is greater, the waves are
usually three-dimensional. The height and length of the waves increases with
increasing wind speed and acceleration time. On large lakes, the height of waves
can reach 3-4 m (Lake Michigan, Ladoga).

5.5 Types of currents in lakes

Wind currents caused by long winds of the same direction; they are the cause
of the surge-surging phenomena.
Compensatory currents arising in the lower layers of water during the
transfer of the surface of the lake due to overtaking phenomena or the uneven
distribution of atmospheric pressure across the water area. The flow is directed
from a site with an elevated level in the direction of a lower one.
Current flows arise under the influence of rivers flowing into the lake.
Especially they are noticeable on lakes, characterized by a large coefficient of
flow.
Density flows are formed as a result of uneven distribution of the water
density in the water area, which depends on water temperature and mineralization.
Direction of currents from places with lower density to places with greater density.
Wind and compensatory currents are usually the least stable. Density flows
associated with water temperature are often seasonal in nature. Stock flows are
most stable.
There are convective and dynamic vertical mixing of water in lakes.
Convective mixing occurs when, under the influence of temperature or
other causes, a layer of water with a higher density appears to be above the layers
with a lower density.
Dynamic mixing occurs under the influence of wind waves, seiches,
currents. The effect of wind waves extends to the surface layer over a depth
several times higher than the wave height.

5.6 Temperature regime and ice phenomena on lakes.

Equation of the thermal balance of the lake:
Θс + Θлед + Θконд + Θпр ± Θатм ±Θгр = I + Θисп + Θпл + Θст ±∆Θ

where Θс - solar radiation (direct and scattered), ice and Θcond - heat release
during ice formation and condensation, respectively, Θpr - heat input from
incoming surface and groundwater, Θмм иΘ and Θgr - the arrival or consumption
of heat as a result of heat exchange with the atmosphere and bottom soils , I -
effective radiation from the water surface, Θisp and Θpl - heat consumption,
respectively, for evaporation and melting (melting) of ice, Θst - heat consumption
with river and groundwater flowing out of the lake, ΔΘ - change in heat in the lake.
A0 = cr · ρ · Voz · ΔT, where cp is the specific heat of water, ρ is the water
density, Vos is the lake volume, · ΔToz is the change in the average lake
temperature.
The components of the heat balance are expressed in joules or calories.
For most lakes, the main components of the heat balance - Θс, Θисп and
Θатм. They cause a change in temperature on the surface of the lake. Transfer of
heat along the vertical occurs as a result of mixing of water.
In the temperature regime of the lake in temperate climate, four periods are
distinguished.
The period of spring heating comes when the temperature under the
influence of solar radiation begins to rise. At the beginning of the period, an
inverse temperature stratification is observed, which is characterized by an
increase in temperature with depth. Near the surface its values are close to 0 ° C, in
the bottom layer 2-3 °, and in the deepest lakes 4°, i.e. A stable state is observed
when the density increases from the upper layers to the lower ones. After clearing
the lake of ice, the temperature of the water in the surface layer begins to grow.
When it becomes higher than in the underlying layers, convective mixing occurs.
As a result, at all depths, the temperature becomes equal and equal to its bottom
values at the beginning of the period. There comes a state of spring homothermy,
which continues to a value of T = 4 ° C.
From this moment the period of summer heating begins. When the surface
layers are heated above 4 ° C, convective mixing occurs only during their night
cooling. Dynamic mixing in shallow lakes at the beginning of the period, when the
difference in temperature, and consequently the density of water in the surface and
near-bottom layers is small, covers the entire thickness of the water. With an
increase in the difference in density due to a faster increase in the water
temperature at the surface, the effect of dynamic mixing is limited only by the
upper layer. Direct thermal stratification is observed, i.e. decrease in water
temperature in depth. In this case, three characteristic layers are formed: 1)
epilimnion with the highest temperature, which varies little in depth; 2)
metalimnion (or layer of temperature jump) with a sharp decrease in temperature
with depth; 3) hypolimnion - a layer with a relatively low temperature, slightly
varying in depth. In the deepest lakes, the temperature in the hypolimnion is close
to 4 ° C.
From the moment when the arrival of heat to the surface of the lake becomes
less than its consumption, the period of autumn cooling begins. The temperature of
the surface layer becomes smaller than in the underlying layers, and the density is
greater. There is a convective mixing of water. The temperature gradually becomes
equal throughout the depth and the temperature close to the value in the
hypolipnion in the summer. There is a state of autumn homothermy, which
continues until T = 4 ° C.
 After this, there comes a period of winter cooling. With a decrease in
temperature in the surface layer below 4 ° C, convective mixing ceases, but under
the influence of dynamic mixing the temperature of the lower layers usually drops
below 4 ° C. Wind mixing stops with the start of freeze-up.
In other climatic zones, there is a different temperature regime of lakes.
According to the temperature regime, three types of lakes are distinguished: 1)
polar (cold) - the temperature does not rise above 4°C, direct thermal stratification
does not occur; 2) tropical (warm) - the temperature does not fall below 4 ° C,
there is no reverse temperature stratification; 3) moderate climate - there are
periods with both direct and reverse stratification.
Most of the ice phenomena that occur in rivers are also observed on lakes,
but freezing on them due to excitement and a larger heat reserve comes later, the
opening is also later due to the lack of dynamic flow impact on the ice. The
movement of the ice floes during the ice break occurs mainly under the influence
of the wind.
5.7 Hydrochemical regime of lakes.
Lakes are characterized by all types of natural waters by salinity - from
fresh to brine. In the lakes of the zone of excess and sufficient moisture, HCO 3- and
Ca2+ ions predominate. In dry areas, sulphate and chloride lakes with increased
salinity are common, soda lakes are less common.
Sulfate lakes are the most common type of salt lakes. The predominant
anion is SO42-, among cations - Na + and Mg2 +. The water is bitter-salty taste.
The chloride lakes are dominated by Cl -, Na+ and Mg2+ ions. This type
includes the Dead Sea in Israel, Lake. Baskunchak in the Caspian lowland. Their
salinity reaches 200-300 %.
Soda lakes are characterized by the presence of soda (NaHCO 3, Na2CO3),
which is absent in other types of lakes. Such lakes are found in the south of
Western and Eastern Siberia, in Kazakhstan.
In highly saline lakes, the salt content may exceed the saturating
concentration. Then their precipitation occurs. Such lakes are called self-draining.
In lake water in smaller quantities contain a variety of substances, as well as
gases. For the existence of living organisms is especially important mode of
oxygen. The enrichment of the entire water column with oxygen occurs during
intense vertical convective and dynamic mixing, usually during spring and autumn
homothermia.
In summer, as a result of photosynthesis, mainly through phytoplankton, the
upper layers of the lake are supersaturated with oxygen. In the lower layers,
photosynthesis does not occur because of the absence of light, oxygen does not
flow from the upper layers due to very weak mixing. At the same time, here it is
spent on the oxidation of organic deposits and the respiration of animal organisms,
which inhabit the largest part in the bottom layer. As a result, an O 2 deficiency is
created in the lower layer.
An even greater deficit is observed in the case of freeze-up, which prevents
O2 from entering the atmosphere. In the upper layer 0 2 much less is consumed than
in the bottom layer, so in most lakes its content is sufficient for the normal
existence of fish. With a large content of organic matter in water, an acute O 2
deficiency can cover the entire thickness of it. In some cases, due to a lack of O 2 in
the lake water, hydrogen sulphide appears, which is particularly adversely
affecting the ichthyofauna.

5.8 Hydrobiological characteristics of lakes.

Plant organisms create organic matter, animal organisms feed on ready
organic matter. By the ability to move and the zones of distribution among living
organisms are divided into the following types: 1) plankton - plant and animal
organisms incapable of active movement; 2) nekton - animal organisms, actively
moving throughout the thickness of the water; 3) benthos - aquatic (animal and
vegetable) organisms living on the bottom and in bottom sediments; 4) pofiton -
aquatic organisms covering rocks, piles, concrete structures, etc.
Types of lakes in terms of nutrition of aquatic organisms:
1. Oligotrophic - with a small amount of nutrients and small products of
organic matter; usually deep, cold, transparent, with a significant content
of 02 throughout the depth (Baikal, Teletskoye, Issyk-Kul).
2. Mesotrophic - occupying an intermediate position between oligotrophic
and eutrophic lakes.
3. Eutrophic - with a large intake of nutrients, the intensive development
of plant organisms that cause supersaturation of the surface layer with
oxygen during the growing season, and with their dying and
decomposition - its deficiency, most often in the hypolimnion.

4. Dystrophic - with an excessive amount of organic matter, the products of

incomplete decomposition of which become harmful for the life of aquatic
organisms.
The process of eutrophication of lakes is an increase in their biological
productivity as a result of accumulation of biogenic elements.
5.9 Scatter and sediment in lakes.
The nanos come to the lake with river runoff, as a result of the destruction of
the banks, the death of living organisms, eolian feeding. In flowing lakes, part of
the sediment leaves with river runoff, the rest is deposited, forming bottom
sediments. The characteristic of the suspended sediment content is the turbidity (in
g/m3), as well as the transparency - the depth of disappearance from the visual
field of the standard white disk (Secchi disk). In oligotrophic lakes, it reaches tens
of meters, and in shallow-water lakes with muddy soils, which are agitated during
excitement, sometimes decreases to 10 cm.
Bottom sediments in the origin of the constituent particles are divided into
terrigenous ones, coming from the catchment and the shores of the lake; biogenic
and chemogenic, formed as a result of biological and chemical processes.
In composition, the bottom sediments are divided into mineral (sand, salt),
sapropels (organic silt), peaty.
On the littoral, large mineral particles are deposited. Towards the deep
parts of the lake the particle size decreases, and the proportion of organic
substances increases.
VI. HYDROLOGY OF WATER RESERVOIRS.
6.1. Purpose of reservoirs

The reservoir is an artificial reservoir created for the accumulation and

subsequent use of water and flow regulation. Small reservoirs with an area of <1
km2 are called ponds.
A complex of hydraulic structures at the reservoir - a dam, hydropower
plants, floodgates, spillways - form a hydrounit.
Types of reservoir use:
1) water supply - flow regulation;
2) energy - regulation of the flow and creation of a water level difference;
3) irrigation - regulation of the flow and increase of the water level for its
diversion by gravity channels;

4) navigation - providing the necessary depths within the reservoir by

creating a backwater on the river, and below the reservoir by discharging
accumulated water from it;
5) fisheries - the creation of reservoirs with favorable conditions for the
development of fish;
6) recreation - the creation of reservoirs for swimming, recreation, water
sports.
6.2. Classification of reservoirs.
Types of reservoirs.
1) according to the morphology of the bed: valleys, the bed of which is a
part of the river valley (bed, floodplain, areas of terraces above floodplain); The
basin, occupying parts of the lake basins (along with the lake), isolated relief
depressions, artificial depressions,
2) by the method of filling with water: dams, which are created by
partitioning the river bed (part of the valley) and are filled with its waters; Liquid,
which are created by dumping a piece of land or digging up depressions filled with
water from a nearby watercourse or water body;
3) on the height of the head (the difference in the water levels directly above
and below the dam), Npl-high-pressure (Npl> 100 m), medium (Npl from 10 to
100 m), low-pressure (Npl <10 m);
4) on the degree of regulation of river flow – perennial (long-term), seasonal,
weekly and daily regulation.
6.3. Basic morphometric characteristics of the reservoir
Same as the lakes - volume, area, length, maximum and average depth and
width, catchment area (basin). Specific is the allocation of technical levels of the
reservoir and the corresponding volumes:
The normal retaining level (NPA) is the largest level of the reservoir, which
is safe for long standing for the existence of the hydroelectric complex.
Forced backup level (FPU) - the level of permissible excess of the NCP
(usually by 0.5-1 m) for a short time.
The normal retaining level (NPA) is the largest level of the reservoir, which
is safe for long standing for the existence of the hydroelectric complex.
Forced backup level (FPU) - the level of permissible excess of the NCP
(usually by 0.5-1 m) for a short time.
The level of dead volume (OMS) is the lowest level envisaged by the
project.
The volume of water between the NGO and the UMA is the useful volume
of the reservoir (Vpls), and below the UMO is the dead volume (Vmert). The total
volume of the reservoir is Vddxp = Vn + Vm.
The upper (along the river) boundary of the reservoir is the place where the
influence of the dam from the dam at the NPU begins to affect the natural course
of the river. When the reservoir level is reduced (lowered) to the UMO, the
boundary of the impact of the backup is shifted downstream of the river. The
section between these boundaries is called the zone of variable backup.

All the water area of the reservoir is called the upper dam of the dam, and
the section of the river below the dam, where its influence on the temperature
regime and riverbed processes in the river shows up, is called the lower dam dam.
The largest (by volume) reservoirs of the world:
 Volume, km3 Pressur
Area, Year of
e,
Reservoirs A country River full useful thousand, filling
2 m
km

Uganda,
Victoria Tanzania, Victoria- 205 68,0 7000 31 1954
Kenya Nile

Bratskoe Rossiya Anqara 169 48,2 5470 106 1967

Zambia,
Cariba 160 46 4450 100 1963
Zimbabwe Zambezi
Egypt, Nile 157 74 5120 95 1970
Nasser
Sudan
Volta Ghana Volta 148 90 8480 70 1967
Reservoir Victoria basin. It includes the Lake Victoria, the level of which
increased as a result of the dam. The indicated volume and area of the reservoir
does not take into account the natural volume and area of the lake. All other
reservoirs listed in the table are valley. The largest reservoir in Europe is
Kuibyshevskoye on the Volga river (V = 58 km 2, S = 5900 km2). All listed
reservoirs are designed for long-term flow regulation.
6.4. Features of water balance and reservoir regime.
The equation of the water balance of the reservoir has the same form as for
the lake. Stack water from the reservoir, or discharge water, unlike the lake,
managed. It is carried out through hydroelectric power station turbines and through
special spillway structures ("unloading").
The peculiarity of the water balance of reservoirs is a significant
predominance over the other components of the inflow in the incoming part and
drain - in the expenditure one. The coefficients of water exchange (Ke) and flow
(K ") are usually greater than for lakes.
There are periods of filling the reservoirs (raising the water level) and
operating it (lowering the level). The filling of the seasonal regulation reservoir
occurs in the high-water phases of the river's water regime (in the middle band,
usually during high water), and during periods of inter-ripening. The filling periods
in most cases are much shorter than the periods of activation. The amplitude of
level fluctuations in reservoirs is usually larger than in lakes, and in comparison
with a river it can be as large (with a large difference between NPP and ULV for
reservoirs with high dams) or less.
At reservoirs with a high flow coefficient, sewage flows are well marked
during periods of intensive water discharge from them.
6.5. Siltation of reservoirs and reformation of their shores
 Siltation of reservoirs - sedimentation in them. The time (the number of
years) of total siltation of the reservoir is tza = Vvdxp / Vn (1-δ). Here Vddxp is
the volume of the reservoir in m3, Vn is the annual volume of river sediment
(suspended and attracted) in m3, δ is the fraction of the river sediment runoff that
passes through the reservoir; Vн = Wн / ρomл, where Wн - sediment mass in kg,
ρomл - density of bottom sediments (kg / m3). The value of 5 increases as the
reservoir is filled. When it is completely silted, δ = 1. Small reservoirs on rivers
with more turbidity (for example, in Dagestan) can be filled with sediments for
several years. The scale of large reservoirs created on rivers with a small amount of
sediment is measured for centuries.

6.5. Siltation of reservoirs and reformation of their shores

Siltation of reservoirs - sedimentation in them. The time (the number of
years) of total siltation of the reservoir is tзаил = Vвдхр/Vн(1-δ). tza = Vvdxp / Vn (1-
δ). Here Vreservoirs is the volume of the reservoir in m3, Vs is the annual volume of
river sediment (suspended and attracted) in m 3, δ is the fraction of the river
sediment runoff that passes through the reservoir; Vн = Wн/ρomл, where Wн Vн = Wн
/ ρomл, where Wн - sediment mass in kg, ρomл - density of bottom sediments
(kg / m3). The value of 5 increases as the reservoir is filled.
When it is completely silted, δ = 1. Small reservoirs on rivers with more
turbidity (for example, in Dagestan) can be filled with sediments for several years.
The scale of large reservoirs created on rivers with a small amount of sediment is
measured for centuries.

In some reservoirs, an important problem is the destruction of their shores

(abrasion), which occurs most intensively in the first years after the filling of the
reservoirs. Over the first ten years, the retreat of the coasts can reach hundreds of
meters. Factors contributing to this process - a steep bank, folded with easily
eroded rocks (for example, loesses) and strong excitement (depending on the wind
speed and the length of acceleration). As the accumulative part of the shoals forms,
the process of demolition fades.
6.6. Influence of reservoirs on rivers and surrounding nature
Influence of reservoirs on river runoff: 1) reduction of water costs in many-water
phases and increase in low-water phases; 2) reduction of annual water flow,
especially significant in arid regions, due to increased evaporation from the surface
of reservoirs as compared to evaporation from land; 3) reduction of the turbidity of
the river and an increase in the associated channel erosion in the lower tail of the
reservoir; 4) weakening the mixing of water in the reservoir compared to the river
and the emergence of stratification in the water column by temperature, gas content
and other characteristics; 5) lowering the water temperature in the warm part of the
year and increasing it in the late autumn and winter seasons; 6) occurrence of a
polynya in the downstream, contributing to the formation of sludge; 7) stronger
dilution of wastewater in the reservoir as compared with the river during the
interrupted period, at the same time a decrease in self-cleaning capacity due to
weakening of water mixing and reduction of their contact with the bottom and
shores;8) "flowering of water", i.e. intensive development of plankton in reservoirs
with subsequent decomposition after death and the appearance of oxygen
deficiency; 9) unfavorable gas regime in the reservoir in the first years of its
existence, with poor preparation of the flooded area; 10) the difficulty or total
impossibility of natural migration of fish along the river system due to the
construction of dams.
6.7. Influence of reservoirs on the environment:
1) flooding of lands, often the most fertile,
2) flooding of the adjacent territory, i.е. increase in the level of groundwater, which
entails waterlogging of lands, destruction of forest, appearance of water in
basements of economic and residential buildings;
3) loss of agricultural land and destruction of buildings as a result of destruction of
the banks of reservoirs;
4) an increase in fogs in the autumn time, and in the lower tailings and in the
winter, in the presence of a considerable amount of polynia.

VII. HYDROLOGY of swamps

Marsh - excessively moistened with a stagnant regime of land on which

there is an accumulation of organic matter in the form of undecomposed remnants
of vegetation. In a narrower sense, the concept of a swamp is associated with the
presence of a layer of peat> 30 cm thick and specific vegetation.
Marshes mostly arise by swamping land, and also by the growth of lakes.
Types of land swamping: flooding and flooding of the territory. Flooding
can be caused by: 1) the prevalence of precipitation over evaporation in the
absence of sufficient drainage, 2) the flow of surface water into the relief
depressions. Underflooding is associated with an increase in groundwater table by
artificial measures. Marshes on the globe occupy about 2% of the land, and in
some areas, for example in the northern half of Western Siberia - up to 50-60% of
the territory. Significant distribution of mires in the north-west of the Russian
Federation, in Polesie (Ukraine, Belarus) and in a number of other areas.
Peat bogs are divided into three types.
Lowland bogs - are formed in the lowering of the relief, usually confined to
river valleys and lake basins, have a flat or concave surface, feed on surface and
groundwater with a sufficient content of biogenic substances. The peat layer is
small. The characteristic vegetation is alder, birch, other spruce, sedges, reed,
cattail, green mosses.
Mounted bogs - are formed in watershed spaces, as well as in the result of
the evolution of lowland bogs, have a convex surface, feed on atmospheric
precipitation with a low content of nutrients. They are distinguished by a powerful
layer of peat. Vegetation is sphagnum mosses, cotton grass, heather, pine.
Transitional marshes occupy an intermediate position between lowland and
upland. The entire thickness of peat is called a peat deposit. Its thickness is up to
20 cm. In the hall there is an inert and active layer.
The inert layer is the main part of the deposit, waterproof, saturated with
water, there is practically no access of oxygen, water exchange with the overlying
layers is very weak.
The active layer, 0.4-1 m thick, is above the inert, has some water exchange
with the atmosphere and adjacent to the swamp territory, higher water permeability
and water loss; for some time it appears above the level of groundwater and then
oxygen enters into the pores of the peat, which together with aerobic bacteria
causes a partial decomposition of dying plants; In the upper part of the layer, a
living vegetation cover develops.
Elements of the mire topography: ridges are elongated elevated areas of
the river, mochezhinas are heavily flooded depressions between the ridges, hillocks
are higher up to several meters due to frost bulging, hummocks are small increases
caused by uneven distribution of the vegetation cover.
The hydrographic network in the marshes includes lakes up to 10 km2 and
depths up to 10 m, small lakes, rivers and streams with peat banks, swamps, i.e.
heavily overburdened areas with a liquefied peat deposit.
Due to the increased evaporation of the marsh, the mean runoff is reduced
and the more than the droughty climate. On the other hand, the lowering of the
groundwater table when draining swamps can lead to the drying out of small
rivers. On larger rivers with a greater depth of the cut, a decrease in the runoff does
not usually occur.
The difference between the water balance of the swamp and the lake:
1) surface and underground run-off are equal to zero for the upper bogs;
2) in the expenditure part, the role of evaporation is in most cases greater than for
lakes.
VIII HYDROLOGY OF GLACIERS
Glaciers are moving accumulations of firn and ice on the land surface,
formed as a result of the transformation of solid atmospheric precipitation. The
glacier's ability to move (flow) under the influence of gravity is due to the
plasticity of the ice.
The condition for the formation of glaciers is the excess of accumulation of
snow over its melting and evaporation.
 The boundary between the territory covered with snow and free from it is
called a snow line. Its average position - the climatic snow line - is determined by
the temperature conditions and the amount of solid precipitation. The height of the
climatic snow line above sea level: 0 m in Antarctica, 50-100 m on the Franz Josef
Land, 2700-3800 m in the Caucasus, 4,500-5,200 m in the equatorial region, and>
6,000 in the tropeic range m.
There are two main types of glaciers - cover and mountain. Cover ice
sheets occupy a continuous cover of vast areas on continents and large islands.
Their continuation into the sea is the ice shelves. The ice fields or individual
blocks that detach from them form icebergs. The share of cover glaciers is the
overwhelming part of the Earth glaciation. 97% of the area of the ice cover is in
Antarctica and Greenland.

The formation of mountain glaciers is associated with mountain uplifts. Among

them, glaciers of peaks are selected; glaciers of the slopes occupying separate
valleys, crates; preglacial glaciers, located in mountain valleys, often having a
complex form. The last group includes the largest mountain glacier Bering in
Alaska (length 170 km), as well as Fedchenko glaciers in the Pamirs (77 km),
South Inylchek in Tien Shan (60 km). Individual mountain glaciers, connecting,
form glacial systems. Mountain uplifts with the largest area of glaciation (in
thousand km2): Himalayas (33), Tien Shan (17.9), Karakorum (16.3), Coastal
ridges Cordiller North. Of America (15.4).
Types of ice in the glacier:
Firn is a conglomerate of formless ice grains 0.5-5 mm in size. It is formed as
a result of compacting and changing the crystalline structure (recrystallization) of
snow. Density ρ = 450-800 kg / m3.
Glacier ice — the result of the recrystallization of firn at high pressure from
the overlying layers of firn and snow; density of 800-925 kg / m3.
Ice, formed by freezing of thawed and rainwater, leaked into the firn, is
called infiltration, and on the glacier's surface - congelation, or superimposed.
In the process of ice formation, the phenomenon of regelation plays a role
- melting of ice under the influence of high pressure at a temperature close to 0 °,
and pouring of water into pores and cracks. With the subsequent freezing, there is a
soldering of individual ice crystals, pieces of ice and frozen interglacial water
currents.
The area of the glacier where the glacier mass is accumulated is called the
food region. Excess ice under the influence of gravity and pressure gradients shifts
into an area where the consumption of ice for melting and evaporation exceeds its
accumulation. This is the area of ablation; at mountain glaciers it is often called the
tongue of the glacier.
On the folds of the glacier bed, cracks are formed, sometimes icefalls. In the
body of large glaciers, there is usually a system of interconnected cavities, partially
or completely filled with water.
 Clusters of detrital material - moraine - are often found on the surface and in
the thickness of the glacier or near its edges. It is subdivided into a vague one,
which is in the process of moving it by a glacier, and deferred, i.e. previously
brought by the glacier. Among the removed moraines, the surface (lateral and
median) is distinguished, the inland and the bottom, and among the moraine
deferred, the coastal and the terminal moraines.
Equation of balance for the solid phase of a mountain glacier:
Хтв + Yзмрз + Yмет + Yлав = Yтал +Zл ± ∆Uл,

where Xtw, - solid precipitation, Ymrz - freezing of thawed (re) and rainwater
(formation of infiltration and congelation ice), Ymet and Ylav - the arrival of snow
on the glacier area as a result of its wind transfer (snowmelt transfer) and in the
form of avalanches, Ytal - melting of ice, Zl - evaporation of ice (sublimation),
ΔUл - change of ice mass.(где Хтв, - твердые осадки, Yзмрз - замерзание талых
(повторное) и дождевых вод (образование инфильтрационного и
конжеляционного льда), Yмет и Yлав - поступление на площадь ледника снега в
результате его переноса ветром (метелевый перенос) и в виде лавин, Yтал -
таяние льда, Zл - испарение льда (возгонка), ∆Uл - изменение массы льда).
The main element in the revenue side of the balance sheet is Xtw, in the
expenditure part Fm <M. For small glaciers, the main element of the parish may be
Ymet. (Основной элемент в приходной части баланса - Хтв, в расходной Fm<M.
Для малых ледников главным элементом прихода может оказаться Yмет.)
Equation of balance for the liquid phase of the glacier:
Хж + Yтал + Zконд = Yст +Zл + Zв ± ∆Uв,

where Xg - liquid precipitation on the area of the glacier, Ycm - water flow outside
the glacier, Zb and Zcond - respectively evaporation of water and condensation,
ΔUv - change in the reserve of liquid water in the body of the glacier.(где Хж -
жидкие осадки на площадь ледника, Ycm - сток воды за пределы ледника, Zв и
Zконд - соответственно испарение воды и конденсация, ∆Uв - изменение запаса
жидкой воды в теле ледника).
Summarizing both of the above equations, we obtain the general equation of
the mass of the glacier:
X + Yмет + Yлав + Zсубл + Zконд = Yст + Zл + Zв ± ∆U,
where X = XmB + XJ, ± ΔU is the change in the total mass of the glacier.
(где X = Хтв+ Хж, ± ∆U - изменение общей массы ледника).

For cover glaciers washed by the seas, the main type of ice consumption
(up to 80%) is the formation of icebergs.
 Under the regime of the glacier is understood the nature of the change in
its volume (mass) and shape, manifested in the onset and retreat of the glacier.
These fluctuations have a different duration of geological, age-old, multi-year,
intra-annual scales. The approach of glaciers is usually observed in cold and humid
climatic periods, retreat - in warm and dry. In the intra-annual section, this is
winter and summer, respectively.
The movement of the glacier is the movement (always in one direction) of
the ice masses themselves. The movement is laminar. Its velocity (v g) is
determined by the formula:
vg = k · hg2·Ig, where h, is the thickness (thickness) of the glacier, I g is the
slope of the glacier surface. For most mountain glaciers and the central part of the
cover glaciers, v, = 100-200 m / year, in the edge parts of the ice cover, vl can
reach 10-20 km / year and more.
The proportion of glacier feeding in the river flow is the greater, the
greater the glaciation of the basin:

glaciation of the basin 15 30 50 70

(%)
share of glacial feeding 30 45 55 60
of the river
The influence of glaciers on the water regime of rivers:
- long-term regulation of flow - in hot, dry years, the reduction in precipitation
is compensated by increased glacier feeding and vice versa;
- seasonal redistribution of flow - the movement of high water from spring to
summer;
- the emergence of intra-day flow fluctuations (on sections of rivers near
glaciers).
 IX. USE AND PROTECTION OF WATER OBJECTS

9.1 Water resources

Reserves of water - the volume of natural water contained in all water bodies.
Water resources - annually renewable water reserves in the course of their
circulation on the globe. In practice, they are estimated by the amount of river flow
per year. In general for the globe this is 41.7 thousand km3. Proceeding from the
definition, here it is necessary to add a drain into the sea of underground waters 2,2
thousand km and 3 thousand km of water with glaciers (in the form of icebergs).
For individual territories (states, administrative areas) distinguish local water
resources, i.e. the drain formed on their area, and the general water resources
including also a drain of the rivers flowing on their area from adjacent territories.
The index of water supply for territories is the specific water resources, i.e.
water resources per 1 km of area or per person.
Reserves of groundwater include both fresh (45%) and saline waters of the
upper part of the lithosphere.
Operational resources of groundwater - the amount of groundwater, which
can be obtained (rationally in terms of technical and economic aspects) by water
intake facilities. They include annually renewable reserves and part of non-
renewable (static) groundwater resources. Renewable underground water is usually
estimated by the amount of groundwater runoff into surface water bodies.
Potential hydropower resources of the river are determined by its
individual sections ei = aQi ΔHi, where Q is the average water flow in the area,
ΔHi is the river drop in the section, and a is the coefficient of dimensionality. For
the whole river, the potential energy resources are e = Σei.
In the use of water, water use and water use are distinguished. Water
consumption - withdrawal of water from natural water bodies with a further partial
return after use. Unreturned part - irretrievable water consumption. Water use is
the use of water without withdrawal from water bodies.
Water management balance - the ratio between various sources of water
resources and types of water consumption for a given territory, as well as for
individual enterprises or economic complexes. Deficiency of water balance is a
lack of water resources to ensure the development of the economy and household
needs of the population, taking into account the provision of environmental well-
being in general for the year or in certain periods of the year. Ways of overcoming
it-regulating the flow, transferring water from other areas, saving water resources
by changing economic technology (rational methods of irrigation, the introduction
of closed systems of industrial water supply, etc.).
 9.2 Ecological condition of water bodies
The most important factor in the ecological state of water bodies is the
quality of water in them. To evaluate it, use hydrobiological, hydrochemical,
sanitary and hygienic, medical indicators.
The most common hydrobiological indicators include estimates of the
proportion of organisms that are resistant to water pollution from "indicator
organisms", for example, oligochaetes (the inhabitants of the soil: the larger ones
are well known to all as earth or earthworms).
Assessment of water quality by hydrochemical indicators is carried out by
comparing the concentration of pollutants in a water body with their maximum
permissible concentrations (MPC). K. Contaminants include substances that have
harmful effects on humans and aquatic organisms, or limiting the possibility of
using water for household needs. Often a small amount of the same substances is
necessary for the normal development of aquatic organisms. For different uses,
their MPCs are set.
The main health indicator is the coli-index, i.e. the number of E. coli in 1
cm3 of water. Medical indicators are based on statistical data on the violation of
health of the population using water of a water body.
Sources of pollution of natural waters:
- sewage of housing and utilities and industrial enterprises, livestock farms;
- washing away with melt and rainwater pollution from the territory of industrial
zones and residential buildings, from agricultural fields, from the territory of
livestock farms;
- shipping and timber trade;
- recreational use of rivers and reservoirs;
- fish farming;
- accidental pollution caused by breakthrough of pipelines, dams of sewage sludge;
destruction of treatment facilities, etc .;
- household pollution - discharge into the river of garbage, car washing, etc
Measures to improve water quality: - Creation of new and improved work of
existing, water treatment facilities; - transition to recycled industrial water supply;
- introduction of new less water-intensive technologies in industrial production; -
introduction of the most rational methods of irrigation; - improvement of fertilizer
application techniques, pesticides, herbicides; replacement of existing drugs less
harmful to humans.