The beginning of

GRAMMAR.
You are required to study grammar to
acquire accuracy.
Past simple
We use the past simple to talk about past events in chronological order; i.e.
the main events of a story.

 When she opened the door, she pretended that we weren’t there and
she went to her room.
 He called me and asked me to pick him up, but when I arrived he wasn’t
there.

We also use the past simple to talk about past habits or past states.

 We often went to the bar for a drink before dinner.

 He really liked sport, and was very fit.

Past continuous
We use the past continuous the set the scene in a story.

 Last night I was walking home and listening to my iPod when …

 The sun was shining and lots of tourists were lying on the beach.
Suddenly …

We use the past continuous for actions in progress in the past or longer actions
interrupted by shorter actions in past simple.

 After dinner I went into the living room and saw that she was crying.
 When she opened the door, we were talking about her.

Past perfect simple

We use the past perfect simple to talk about an earlier past: events which
happened before the main event.

Earlier single events

We use the past perfect simple to talk about earlier events and experiences, or
single actions completed earlier in the past.

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  When she opened the door, he had already left.
 I realized that I had been there before.
 When I met her, I had never been in a serious relationship.
 He noticed I had cleaned the car. It was smooth and shiny.

We also use the past perfect simple (and not continuous) to say how much or
how many we had done of something earlier in the past.

 We had driven 500 miles and we needed some rest.

 How many hours had he slept when you woke him up?

Duration from earlier in the past (State verbs)

We use the past perfect simple with State verbs to talk about states or situations
that had started earlier in the past. We often use how long, for or since,
always, etc.

 The day Anne died, they had been married for 48 years.
 The day I left, I had been in England for exactly 4 years.
 She told me she had always hated her sister.

Past perfect continuous

Duration from earlier in the past (dynamic verbs)

We use the past perfect continuous with dynamic verbs to talk about longer
continuous actions that started earlier in the past than the main events of the
story.

 I was very angry. I had been waiting for him in the cold, and he didn’t call
to say he’d be late.
 We had been driving for less than an hour when the car broke down.

Repeated actions from earlier in the past (dynamic verbs)

We use the past perfect continuous with dynamic verbs to talk about repeated
actions from earlier in the past.

 I couldn’t believe it. She had been writing a letter every day for over a
year.

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Used to + infinitive
Repeated actions in the past

We can use used to + infinitive to talk about things that we did repeatedly in
the past.

 When I was a child, I used to go skiing every winter.

 From the age of 12 till I was 16, I used to dance at weekends.
 I didn’t use to smoke before I got this job.

Situations or states that are no longer true

We can use used to + infinitive to talk about situations or states (State verbs)
which were true in the past, but they are no longer true.

 As a child I used to be blond.

 I used to live with my mum when I was a child.

Would + infinitive
Repeated actions in the past

We can use would + infinitive to talk about things that we repeatedly did in
the past.

 Every Saturday we would go to the shopping center with my parents.

 My 5th-grade teacher would tell me to shut up at the beginning of every
class.

Situations or states that are no longer true

We cannot use would to talk about situations or states (State verbs) which are
no longer true.

 I used to be blond as a child. (NOTI would be blond as a child).

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Future arrangements
Present continuous

We often use the present continuous to talk about future events that are
already planned and decided, when a date and/or a place have been chosen.

 I’m seeing the dentist at 6.

 We are getting married next week.
 I’m flying to New York tomorrow morning.

Be going to

We can also use be going to for future arrangements.

 I’m going to play tennis with Elisabeth today.

Present continuous vs be going to

We can normally use both present continuous and going to talk about future
plans, but the present continuous emphasizes the fact that we have already
decided a place and/or time, whereas be going to emphasizes our intention to
do something.

 I’m going to have a drink after work. (=it’s my intention)

 I’m having a drink with some colleagues after work. (=it has been
arranged)

Future continuous

We can also use the future continuous instead of the present

continuous for future events that have already been planned or decided.

 We’ll be coming next weekend.

 We’ll be leaving at 8 a.m. tomorrow.

We often use the future continuous to ask politely about future arrangements.

 Will you be going home this summer?

And of course, we use the future continuous to talk about situations or actions
that will be in progress at a certain time in the future.

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  This time next week, we’ll be travelling to Paris.
 Tomorrow at 10, you’ll be doing your exam.

Present simple

We use the present simple for future events that are scheduled or timetabled.

 The train leaves at 4.

 Shops close at 6.
 I have my yoga class tomorrow at 10.

Predictions
Will

We use will to talk about something we think will happen:

 I think he’ll win the election.

 He will be a good doctor.

Be going to

We use be going to to talk about something that is very near to happen or

that we see is going to happen (there is present evidence)

 Don’t drive like a crazy man. We’re going to have an accident!

 The doctor said I’m going to have a girl.

Future perfect
Future perfect simple

We use the future perfect simple for actions that will be finished before a
certain time in the future.
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  By 2050, researchers will have found a cure for cancer.
 By this time next year, I’ll have graduated.

We can also use the future perfect simple to talk about the duration of a
situation until a certain time in the future (with State verbs).

 By the time I leave, I will have been in England for 6 months.

 In 2 years, we will have been married for 20 years.

Future perfect continuous

We use the future perfect continuous with dynamic verbs to talk about the
duration of a situation until a certain time in the future.

 By the end of the year, she will have been working on the publication for
over ten years.
 When he steps into the boxing ring on Saturday he will have been
training for about 18 months.

Future time clauses (when, as soon as, until, before,

after)
Use present simple to talk about the future in sentences with when, as soon
as, until, before, after

 I’ll retire when I’m 70. (NOT: when I’ll be)

 I won’t call you until I arrive (NOT: will arrive.)

Other uses of will

Instant decisions

We use will for decisions that we make at the moment of speaking (instant
decisions).

 ‘Oh, we don’t have sugar.’ ‘Don’t worry, I’ll buy some.’

Promises and refusals

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  I will help you whenever you need me.
 I won’t lend him my car.

Future facts

 The president will visit the Vatican next November.

Offers

When we offer to do something for somebody, we use I will in statements

or shall I in questions.

 I’ll carry that bag for you.

 Shall I organize the meeting?

Suggestions

We use shall we to make suggestions.

 Shall we eat out today?

Requests

 Will you open the door, please?

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Other ways to express future – Grammar chart

Be about to, be on the brink/verge/point of

Be about to

We often use be about to + infinitive to say that something will happen in the
very near future.

 Some apps are about to disappear from the market.

 Scientists say they are about to find a vaccine.

Be on the brink/verge/point of

We can also use be on the brink of, be on the verge of or be on the point
of to say that something will happen very soon.

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  Our country’s economy is on the brink of collapse.
 This historical museum is on the brink of losing half its masterpieces.
 They are on the verge of becoming the team to win most finals in history.
 The two historical enemies are on the point of reaching an agreement.

Be due to
We use be due to + infinitive to talk about things that are planned or expected
to happen.

 Greece is due to repay around £6 billion to its creditors next semester.

 The secretary is due to arrive in Montreal tomorrow morning.

Be to
We can use be to + infinitive in different situations.

Official arrangements

Be to + infinitive is often used in news reports to talk about official

arrangements and events that are planned or expected to happen. The meaning
is usually something like ‘it is expected’.

 Prince William is to visit Paris for the first time since his mother died. (=It
is expected that Prince William will…)
 Nine care homes for the elderly are to close by the end of March.

Formal instructions and orders

We can also use be to + infinitive to talk about official

instructions and orders. When used in the negative form, it
expresses prohibition.

 All employees are to attend a health and safety orientation at the end of
the week.
 You are not to leave this room until I say so.

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If clauses

We often use be to + infinitive in an if-clause. In these cases, we say what

should be done (main clause) to achieve the desired result (if-clause).

 We need to be open to everybody’s opinion if we are to avoid repeating

the mistakes of the past.
 If he is to succeed, he will need to learn to represent the interests of all
Americans.

Be bound to, be likely to (probability)

Be bound to

We use be bound to + infinitive to say that something is certain or very likely to

happen.

 They are bound to like him. He is such a sweet guy.

 His new film is bound to win the heart of every romantic out there.

Be likely to

We use be likely to + infinitive to say that something will probably happen. We

can also use It + be likely that + clause.

 The government is likely to pass new regulations very soon.

 It’s likely that the company will have to pay for the damages.

We use be unlikely + infinitive to say that something will probably not

happen. We can also use It + be unlikely that + clause.

 He is unlikely to win this match.

 It’s unlikely that the weather will change over the next few days.

Using future in the past

Sometimes we are talking about a past event and we want to refer to something
that happened in the future at that particular point in the past. When we want to
express future in the past, we use the past of the regular future forms.

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Check the following sentences to see the future forms and their corresponding
past forms.

We can also talk about future in the past using other ways to express future.
Check the table below.

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Permission
Can, could, may, might

The most common modal verbs to talk about permission

are can, could, may and might.

 Can I sit here? (informal; asking for permission)

 You can/can’t sit here.
 Could I use this chair? (more polite/politer)
 You may use this chair. (formal; giving permission)
 Might/May I use this chair? (more formal; asking for permission)
 Sorry, you can’t use this chair. (informal; refusing permission)
 Sorry, you may not use this chair. (formal; refusing permission)

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Was/were allowed to, couldn’t

To talk about the past, we use the forms was/were allowed to or couldn’t.

 He wasn’t allowed to sit down during the lesson.

 He couldn’t sit down during the lesson.
 He was allowed to receive visits. (NOT could)

Obligation
Must / have to

Must and have to are used to express obligation. When we use must this
usually means that the obligation comes from the speaker, it’s like a personal
obligation, whereas have to normally means that the obligation is external.

 I must give up smoking. (I need to, I say so)

 I have to give up smoking. (I’m obliged. My doctor says so)

In informal English can also use ‘ve got to to express obligation (⇒ See Have –
auxiliary or main verb).

 I’ve got to be there before ten.

In the past, we use had to in every instance.

 I had to give up smoking. (because I needed to, or because my doctor

forced me to).

Mustn’t / don’t have to

The negative forms mustn’t and don’t have to are completely

different. Mustn’t is used to express prohibition (an obligation not to do
something), whereas don’t have to is used to express an absence of obligation.
(⇒ See Have to, must, should – obligation, prohibition, necessity, advice)

 You mustn’t reveal where you get the information. (=you have the
obligation not to do it)
 You don’t have to arrive before 7. (=you can do it, but it’s not necessary,
there’s no obligation)

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Necessity
Need to, have to, don’t need to, don’t have to

We use need to/have to or don’t need to/don’t have to + infinitive to say that
something is or is not necessary.

 We need to/have to confirm our reservations before Friday.

 You don’t need to/don’t have to believe in God to be a good person.

Don’t need to / needn’t

We can use both don’t need to or needn’t + infinitive to say that it is

unnecessary to do something. However, when we are talking about a general
necessity (in general, not on one specific occasion), we normally use don’t
need to, and we can use both don’t need to or needn’t + infinitive when we
are talking about a specific necessity (on one specific occasion).

 The doctor said I don’t need to wear glasses. (in general, all the time)
 Tell him he doesn’t need to/needn’t wash the dishes. I’ll do it later. (on one
specific occasion)

Didn’t need to / needn’t have

When something was not necessary but we did it, we can use both didn’t need
to + infinitive and needn’t have + past participle.

 Thanks, it’s very beautiful, but you didn’t need to buy/needn’t have
bought anything. (=you did it)

However, when something was not necessary and we did not do it, we can only
use didn’t need to.

 I didn’t buy any groceries because Sarah told me I didn’t need to buy
anything. (NOT needn’t have bought)

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Be able to, be allowed to, be permitted to, be
supposed/meant to, had better
Be able to / be allowed to

We can use person + be able to / be allowed to instead of can to express

permission or possibility. (⇒ See Can, could, be able to – ability and
possibility)

 We were allowed to eat all that we wanted.

 You won’t be able to finish before the deadline.

We do NOT use it + be able to/be allowed to.

 You are not allowed to use your mobile phones. (NOT It isn’t allowed to
use …)

It is (not) permitted to

We can use it + be (not) permitted to +infinitive to express permission or

prohibition in formal or official situations, to say what the rules or laws are.

 It is not permitted to take photos of the archive documents.

 Picnics are not permitted in the park.

Be supposed to / be meant to

We can also use be supposed/meant to + infinitive to express obligation or

permission, to say what we should or shouldn’t do.

 We are supposed/meant to check in one hour before take-off.

 What are you doing? You aren’t supposed/meant to be here.

Had better, had better not

We use had better + infinitive (without to) to talk about actions we think
someone should or shouldn’t do. There is often a negative result if the action is
carried out. We normally use the shortened form ‘d better, and the negative form
is never contracted: ‘d better not.

 We’d better hurry up or we’ll miss our train.

 You’d better not tell her you broke the vase –she’ll get very mad.

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Modal verbs of speculation and deduction
Must

We use must + infinitive for obligation and strong recommendation, but also to
say that we are quite sure that something is true.

 They are almost identical. They must be sisters.

 But I answered all the questions correctly. There must be a mistake.

We use must be + –ing with dynamic verbs to say that we are quite sure that
something is happening now.

 What you are saying is not possible. You must be kidding.

 Can you hear the shouting? Our neighbors must be arguing again.

We use must have + past participle or must have been + -ing to say that we
are quite sure that something was true or happened in the past.

 I can’t find my wallet! I must have dropped it in the taxi.

 You must have had a real scare when you saw the crocodile.
 He was the only victim. He must have been sleeping when the fire started.

Can’t

We can use can’t + infinitive to say that we are quite sure that something is
NOT true.

 He can’t be that famous. I’ve never heard his name before.

 She can’t be married. I have never seen a ring on her finger.

We use can’t be + –ing to say that we are quite sure that something is NOT
happening now.

 They can’t be travelling by bus. There is no bus service on Sundays.

We use can’t/couldn’t have + past participle or can’t have been + -ing to say
that we are quite sure that something did NOT happen or was NOT true in
the past.

 You can’t/couldn’t have seen John last night. He was in hospital.

 She can’t/couldn’t have passed the test. She didn’t even open the books.

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Note that for negative deduction we use can’t and NOT mustn’t

 He can’t be that famous. (NOT He mustn’t be that famous.)

Could/might/may

We can use could/might/may + infinitive to say that it’s possible that

something is true (but we are not sure).

 I can’t get hold of him on the phone. He could/might/may be away.

 We didn’t do anything when we could and now it could/might/may be too
late.

We use could/might/may be + –ing to say that we are quite it’s possible that
something is happening now (but we are not sure).

 Tom isn’t at the office. He might/may be working from home today.

 ‘Why isn’t she picking up her phone.’ ‘She might/may be driving.’

We can use could/might/may have + past participle or might/may have been

+ -ing to say that it’s possible that something was true or happened in the
past.

 It’s been three days. They could/might/may have finished painting the house
by now.
 If they left at 9, they could/might/may have already arrived.
 She was home last night but didn’t answer the door. She might/may have
been having a shower.

We can use could have + past participle to say that something was possible in
the past but did not happen.

 He could have played in the first division, but he had a terrible injury.
 He could have had better jobs if he had spoken English.

Note that we use might not or may not (NOT could not) to talk about a
negative possibility.

 He seems too calm. He might/may not be aware of the risks.

 She might/may not have heard us. Knock again.

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Should/ought to

We use should/ought to + infinitive to talk about a situation that we expect to

happen (present or future).

 He should/ought to be home by now. He is always home before 7.

 They should/ought to arrive before midnight.

We use should have/ought to have + past participle to talk about a

situation expected to happen in the past. We can also use this form to express
criticism.

 He should/ought to have received the parcel yesterday. I sent it two days

ago.
 He should/ought to have studied more. Nobody fails if they study.

Expressions for speculation

Bound/sure

Bound and sure are adjectives that are used to say that we are quite sure that
something will be true or happen. We use them in the structure be bound/sure +
to-infinitive.

 The Jamaican is bound/sure to win the final.

 There are bound/sure to be some discrepancies during the meeting, so be
prepared.

Likely/unlikely

Likely and unlikely are adjectives. If something is likely to happen it means

that it will probably happen or that it is expected to happen. If something is
unlikely to happen it means that it probably won’t happen. We can use these
two adjectives in two ways.

It is likely/unlikely that + clause

 It’s likely that just in a few years we will change our economic model.
 It’s unlikely that the police had anything to do about it.

Subject + be likely/unlikely + to + infinitive

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  He is likely to win this game.
 They are unlikely to reach an agreement.

Definitely/probably

Definitely and probably go before the main verb and after the auxiliary verb (if
there is one) in (+) sentences.

 You’ll definitely get the job. Nobody’s got your qualifications and experience.
 He’s definitely our best player.

And they go before the auxiliary verb in (-) sentences.

 They definitely won’t find any evidence.

 She definitely isn’t seeing anyone right now.

State or dynamic uses of sense verbs

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State uses of feel, hear, see, smell, taste

When we use the verbs feel, hear, see, smell, or taste to talk about the
impressions that we receive through our five senses (touch, hearing, sight, smell,
taste), they are all non-action verbs and cannot be used in progressive forms.

 You smell nice. (NOT you are smelling)

 This soup tastes fantastic. What did you put in it? (NOT is tasting)

Can/can’t (feel, hear, see, smell, taste)

We normally use can or can’t with these verbs (and NOT present continuous) to
talk about something that is happening at the moment.

 I can see a beautiful woman next to your sister. (NOT I am seeing)

 Sorry, can you speak up? I can’t hear you. (NOT I’m not hearing)
 I can smell petrol. Have you just filled up the tank? (NOT I am smelling)
 I’ve burned my tongue and now I can’t taste the flavor in the dish. (NOT I am
not tasting)
 I can feel your heartbeat. It is very fast. (NOT I’m feeling)

Look and sound

Look and sound are also State (or non-action) verbs when they mean ‘seem’ or
‘appear’.

 She looks old.

 You sound very happy.

Dynamic uses of feel, hear, look, see, smell, taste

The verbs feel, look, smell, and taste can be used in continuous forms when
they are voluntary actions.

 Why are you smelling the milk? Isn’t it good? (=Put your nose near
something to see how it smells)
 He’s tasting the food to see if it needs more salt. (=Put something into your
mouth to see how it tastes)
 I’m feeling the fabric to see if it’s soft or not. (=Touch something to see how it
feels)
 Why are you looking in that direction? (=direct your eyes in order to see)

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We can also use feel in progressive tenses to talk about how we feel physically
or emotionally.

 ‘How are you feeling?’ ‘I’m not feeling very well.’

 I was feeling very weak after the operation.

The verbs hear and smell can also be used as action verbs with different
meanings.

 I’m seeing Jerry for lunch. (=Meet someone)

 We’ve been seeing each other for months. (=Date someone)
 I’ve been hearing really strange things about him recently. (=receive
information)

Sense verbs + infinitive or gerund?

After feel, hear, listen, notice, see, watch we can use a gerund to express an
incomplete action, an action in progress, or a repeated action:

 I saw them kissing in the park. (=The action was in progress. I didn’t see it
finish.)
 They watched the man hitting a police officer. (=The action was in progress;
the man hit the police officer repeatedly.)

After feel, hear, listen, notice, see, watch we can use an infinitive to talk
about an action we heard or saw from beginning to end; usually a short action,
and not a repeated action.

 I saw them kiss in the park. (=I saw the action from start to end. It was
probably a short kiss)
 They watched the man hit a police officer. (=They saw the action from start
to end; the man hit the police officer once)

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Sense verbs + adjective, noun or clause (linking
verbs)

Look, smell, taste, sound, feel + adjective

We can use feel, smell, taste, sound, and feel before an adjective to talk about
how something feels, tastes, etc.

 When you use that cream, your skin feels really smooth.
 When he talked to us sounded nervous.

Look, smell, taste, sound, feel + like + noun

We can also use feel, smell, taste, sound, and feel + like before a noun.

 You sound like your mother.

 This tastes like chicken.

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Note that we say smell/taste of to talk about the smell or flavor are of the real
thing and we say smell/taste like when it’s a smell or flavor similar to the real
thing. Compare:

 The soup smells of cheese. (=There is cheese in it.)

 The soup smells like cheese. (=The smell is similar to the smell of cheese.)

Look, smell, taste, sound, feel + as if/as though + clause

 You sound as if you had a long party last night.

 You look as though you’ve just seen a ghost.

Note that in informal English we often use feel, smell, taste, sound,
and feel + like + clause.

 You sound like you had a long party last night.

 You look like you’ve just seen a ghost.

Seem, appear and look

Seem + adjective, seem like + noun, seem as if/though + clause

 You seem tired.

 He seems clever.
 The final five minutes seemed like five hours.
 It seems as if they aren’t going to help us.

Note that in informal English we also use like before a clause.

 It seems like we’ll never find out the truth.

Seem, appear + to + infinitive

After seem and appear we often use to + infinitive (present events), or a to +

have + past participle (past events).

 She appears to be in very good shape.

 It seems to be some kind of insect.
 He seems to have lost his moral compass.

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It seems/appears + that + clause

We can also use It seems/appears + that clause.

 It appears that he might be telling the truth after all.

 It seems that they have improved a lot since the end of the season.

Seem vs look

When we use seem and look as non-action verbs, there is some difference in
meaning.

 You look tired. (=I get the impression from seeing your face)
 You seem tired. (=I get the impression from the way you behave –your
voice, movements, etc.)

Sometimes we can use one verb but not the other and vice versa.

 She looks beautiful. (NOT seems, because I get the impression from
looking at her physique)
 She seems nice. (NOT looks, because I get the impression by her
behavior)

Sense verbs, followed by adjective or adverb?

When the verbs of senses are used as non-action verbs, they are copular verbs,
and copular verbs (like be) are followed by adjectives, and not by adverbs.

 You look tired. (NOT tiredly)

 She felt bad after saying that. (NOT badly)

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Get + direct object= obtain, receive, bring, buy,
bring, catch
Obtain

 He always gets everything he wants.

 He got his driving license last week.

Receive

 I got a letter from John yesterday.

 She gets lots of presents from her fans.

Buy

 We need to get a new computer. The old one is broken.

 Can you go to the shop to get some milk?

Bring

 Can you get me a couple of glasses from the kitchen?

 Can I get you a drink?

Catch

 Do you think we’ll have time to get the 7.40 train?

 I need to get the first flight to Seattle.

Get to + place = arrive, reach

 He always gets home very late.
 We got to London in the 8 o’clock train.
 How long does it take you to get to work?

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Get + adjective/past participle= become
Get + adjective

 I’m getting old.

 He gets angry very easily.
 You should go. It’s getting dark.

Get + past participle

 It’s very late and they are not here. I’m getting worried.
 He gets very tired after every concert.
 We got married last year.

Get in passive voice= be

 I got caught by the police after jumping a red light. (=was caught)
 She almost got killed by a drunk driver. (=was killed)
 His articles are always getting criticised by the press. (=being criticized)

Get something done= have something done

 We are getting the house painted next week.
 You should get your tires changed.

Get someone to do something= make, ask, persuade

someone to do something
 How can parents get their children to read more?
 I don’t know how to get my partner to do more things around the house.

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Zero, first, second, third and mixed conditionals

You can see a full explanation of type 0, type 1, type 2 and type 3 conditional
with examples.

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Mixed conditionals
We use mixed conditionals if we want to mix talking about the present and the
past in the same sentence. The mixed conditional is a combination of
the second and the third conditional:

➪ We can use past simple or continuous in the if-clause (to refer to the present
or future), and would/should/might have + past participle in the main clause (to
refer to the past).

➪ We can also use past perfect in the if-clause (to refer to the past),
and would/should/might + infinitive (to refer to the present).

 If I didn’t have (second conditional) so much work, I would have gone (third
conditional) to the party last night.
 If I spoke (second conditional) German, I would have understood (third
conditional) them.
 If I had won (third conditional) the lottery, I would be (second
conditional) rich.
 If I hadn’t dropped (third conditional) school, I could have (second
conditional) a better job now.

Alternatives to if in conditional sentences

As long as / provided (that) / providing (that) / on condition (that) /
only if

We can use the expressions as long as, provided/providing (that), on condition

(that), or only if instead of if when we want to emphasize the condition that needs
to be present so that something can happen or be done.

 I’ll tell you what really happened as long as you keep the secret.
 I’ll lend you the money provided (that) you pay me back next month.
 They will speak to the press on condition (that) they remain anonymous
sources.
 We will invest the money, but only if you can prove that it’s a safe
investment.

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Whether or not

We use whether or not when there are two alternatives and we want to say that
something will happen or will be true in any of those two alternatives. Compare:

 I’ll help him if he needs me. (=I will help him only if he needs me.)
 I’ll help him whether or not he needs me. (I will help him if he needs me,
and I will help him if he doesn’t need me, too.)

Even if

We also use even if with a similar meaning to ‘whether or not’. It is used to

emphasize that something will still be true or will happen if another thing
happens.

 Even if you apologize, he’ll never forgive you. (=Whether or not you
apologize, he’ll never forgive you.)

Suppose/supposing

We normally use suppose or supposing at the beginning of a sentence to make

someone imagine a situation. It means ‘what would happen if’, or simply ‘if’
(imagining a situation).

 Supposing I got a job, I wouldn’t be able to travel with you next summer.
 Suppose she doesn’t believe you, what would you do then?

Inversion in conditional sentences

Should you find

In first conditional sentences it’s possible to use should at the beginning of the
sentence instead of if. This form is formal and it’s quite common with an
imperative form in the main clause.

 Should you find the answer, please let me know as soon as possible. (=If
you find the answer)
 Should you change your mind, you know where to contact us. (=If you
change your mind)

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Had we arrived

In third conditional sentences, we can invert the auxiliary verb had and
leave if out. Had we arrived = If we had arrived.

 Had we arrived earlier, we could have prevented the incident.

 Had they looked further into the data, they might have realised there was a
mistake.

Were we to announce

We can also find cases of inversion with this structure: were + subject + to. +
infinitive. It is used to talk about future improbable events (like the second
conditional).

 Were we to announce the truth, we would receive a lot of criticism. (=If we

announced …)
 Were they to buy a new house, they would need to sell the old one first. (=If
they bought …)

Negative forms: should I not, had we not, were we not

When should, had or were are negative, contracted forms are not possible,
and not is used after the subject.

 Should you not wish to retake the test, you must let us know before the end
of June. (NOT Shouldn’t you wish)
 Had you not refused my invitation, we would have had the most incredible
time in our lives. (NOT Hadn’t you refused)
 Were you not my brother, I would call the police. (NOT Weren’t you)

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Mixed conditionals
Mixed conditionals are a combination of two types of conditional patterns,
usually second and third conditionals. We can have a third conditional in
the if clause and a second conditional in the main clause or a second conditional
in the if clause and a third conditional in the main clause.

Grammar chart

Second and third conditionals

In a second conditional we use past in the if clause and would/might/could +

infinitive in the main clause. It is used to talk about hypothetical situations
happening in the present or future.

 If I were rich, I‘d buy that house.

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In a third conditional we use past perfect in the if clause and would/might/could +
have + past participle in the main clause. It is used to talk about hypothetical
situations happening in the past.

 If you had studied more, you would have passed the exam.

A mixed conditional is a combination of second and third conditionals.

Mixed third/second conditional

We use this combination to talk about a hypothetical condition happening in the

past (third conditional) with a present result (second conditional). We use past
perfect in the if clause and would/could/might + infinitive in the main clause.

 If I had been elected, I would be the president now.

 If I had won the lottery, I would be rich.
 I might have a better job now if I hadn’t dropped out of school.

Mixed second/third conditional

We use this combination to talk about a hypothetical condition happening in the

present (second conditional) with a past result (third conditional). We use past in
the if clause and would/could/might + have + past participle in the main clause.

 If I were a man, they would have given me the job.

 If I didn’t have so much work, I would have gone to the party last night.
 I would have understood them if I spoke German.

Note that in this type of combination, the present condition also existed in the
past, when the result in the main clause took place. Let’s take a look, for
example, at the first sentence:

 If I were a man, they would have given me the job.

If I were a man now would mean that I would also have been a man in the past,
when I was not given the job. As I’m not a man now (which implies that I wasn’t a
man when I applied for the job either), I didn’t get the job.

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I wish/If only
I wish I did

We can use wish + past simple to talk about things that we would like to be
different in the present or future (but which are very unlikely or impossible).

 I wish things were different, but this is the way they are.
 We wish we had enough money to help you.
 I wish I could be there for you tomorrow.

I wish I had done

We can use wish + past perfect to talk about things that happened in the past
and that we regret (we would have wanted them to be different).

 I wish I hadn’t quit my job two years ago.

 I wish we hadn’t wasted all that money.

I wish you would do

We can use wish + person/thing + would + infinitive when we talk about

situations that annoy us and we would like them to change, or to stop.

 I wish you would stop biting your nails. I hate it when you do it.
 I wish it would stop raining. It’s been three days!

We CANNOT use this structure to wish about ourselves (do NOT use I wish I
would).

If only

We can use if only instead of I wish to mean the same. The only difference is
that if only is more emphatic.

 If only I was/were a bit taller!*

 If only you had followed my advice.
 If only you would make a bit of an effort. You are wasting your life!

Note that we can use were instead of was with I/he/she after I wish/if only.

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Would rather/would sooner
Would rather (than)/would sooner (than)

We use would rather or would sooner + infinitive to talk about preference. We

can use them with than in affirmative sentences or with or in questions.

 I’d rather/sooner have tea, please.

 I’d rather/sooner have tea than coffee.
 Would you rather/sooner have tea or coffee?

Would rather/would sooner + subject + past simple

When we use a different subject after would rather or would sooner, we use
past simple to refer to the present or future.

 We’d rather/sooner she was/were with us now.*

 She’d rather/sooner I picked her up after lunch.
 Would you rather/sooner we went by bus or by train?

Note that we can use were instead of was with I/he/she after would
rather or would sooner.

Would rather/would sooner + subject + past perfect

When we use a different subject after would rather or would sooner, we use
past perfect to refer to the past.

 I’d rather/sooner you hadn’t spoken to her like that.

 I’d rather/sooner you had called me before.

It’s time
It’s (high) time + subject + past simple

We can use it’s time or it’s high time followed by a subject and a past
simple verb to say that something should be done now or in the future.

 It’s time you went to the doctor.

 I really think it’s high time you took a decision. We can’t go on like this any
longer.
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We can also use the alternatives it’s time + to infinitive or it’s time for someone
+ to-infinitive.

 It’s time for you to go to the doctor.

 It’s time to take a decision.

Other expressions
Suppose/supposing/imagine/what if

Suppose, supposing, imagine, and what if can be used like we use if in

conditionals. So after these words, we use the present tense for real situations
(first conditional), and the past simple or past perfect for unreal situations
(second and third conditionals).

 Imagine you meet him in the street, what are you going to tell him? (=First
conditional: If you meet him in the street, what are you going to tell him?)
 What if you found a suitcase full of money? What would you do? (=Second
conditional: If you found a suitcase full of money, what would you do?)
 Supposing she hadn’t told you anything, you would have
acted differently. (=Third conditional: If she hadn’t told you anything, you
would have acted differently.)

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Other expressions in conditionals – Grammar chart

Unless (= if not)

We can use unless in conditional sentences to mean ‘if … (not)’.

 I won’t go on holiday unless I save some money.

 = I won’t go on holiday if I don’t save some money.

In case

We use in case to talk about things that we do to be prepared for something that
might happen or might be needed in the future.

 I’ll take my umbrella in case it rains. (=because it might rain)

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As long as / provided (that) / providing (that) / on condition (that) /
only if

We can use the expressions as long as, provided/providing (that), on

condition (that), or only if instead of if when we want to emphasize the
condition that needs to be present so that something can happen or be done.

 I’ll tell you what really happened as long as you keep the secret.
 I’ll lend you the money provided (that) you pay me back next month.
 They will speak to the press on condition (that) they remain anonymous
sources.
 We will invest the money, but only if you can prove that it’s a safe investment.

Whether or not

We use whether or not when there are two alternatives and we want to say that
something will happen or will be true in any of those two alternatives. Compare:

 I’ll help him if he needs me. (=I will help him only if he needs me.)
 I’ll help him whether or not he needs me. (I will help him if he needs me, and
I will help him if he doesn’t need me, too.)

Even if

We also use even if with a similar meaning to ‘whether or not’. It is used to

emphasize that something will still be true or will happen if another thing
happens.

 Even if you apologize, he’ll never forgive you. (=Whether or not you
apologize, he’ll never forgive you.)

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Suppose/supposing

We normally use suppose or supposing at the beginning of a sentence to make

someone imagine a situation. It means ‘what would happen if’, or simply ‘if’
(imagining a situation).

 Supposing I got a job, I wouldn’t be able to travel with you next summer.
 Suppose she doesn’t believe you, what would you do then?

Passive voice with reporting verbs

In news reports and formal writing, it is common to use the passive forms of
reporting verbs (verbs of saying or believing). Using this resource allows us to
give information when we don’t know whether it is true. We distance ourselves
from the information.

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Reporting verbs are verbs such
as agree, announce, believe, claim, consider, expect, hope, know, report, sa
y, suggest, think, understand, etc. And we can use their passive form for
distancing in two different ways.

It is said that …

It+ passive reporting verb + that + clause (subject + verb)

 It is believed that the murderer is no longer in the country.

 It has been announced that they are going to cancel the tour.
 It has been suggested that the team can’t be trusted defensively.
 It was thought that the building could collapse.

They are said to be

Subject + passive reporting verb + to + infinitive …

 He is thought to be a close associate of the terrorist.

 The terrorist is believed to have fled to the mountains.

When we use this pattern, we use the simple infinitive or the continuous
infinitive when the reported action is simultaneous to the reporting.

 He is said to be an art collector.

 They were believed to be secretly in love.
 They are thought to be living under strict protection.

We can also use the simple infinitive to refer to the future.

 She is expected to become a superstar.

We use the perfect infinitive or the perfect continuous infinitive when the
reported action is previous to the reporting (earlier in the past).

 She was thought to have left the previous week.

 He is claimed to have hit another student.
 He is known to have been hiding somewhere in Panama since he escaped.

There are said to be

We can also use the same structure with the pronoun there.

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  There are said to be new leads on the case.
 There is believed to be a new donor who is partially financing the campaign.

Seem/appear
We can also use the verbs seem and appear to distance ourselves from the
information we are giving.

It seems/appears that + clause

 It seems/appears that the new series will begin shooting in about two months.

It would seem/appear that

It means the same as it seems that, but it is more formal.

 It would seem/appear that the situation is finally under control.

Subject + seem/appear + to infinitive

 The new secretary seems/appears to be very concerned about

climate. (simple infinitive)
 They seem/appear to be having some difficulties. (continuous infinitive)
 Their leaders seem/appear to have suffered some setbacks. (perfect
infinitive)
 The company seems/appears to have been doing very well over the last
year (perfect continuous infinitive)

There seem(s) to be/to have been

 There seem to be two options for kids.

 There seems to have been a great response in social media.

Apparently, allegedly, according to

There are expressions that we can also use for distancing.

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Apparently

 Apparently, the new prime minister isn’t going to visit Cuba until the end of
May.

Allegedly

We use allegedly to give information when something wrong appears to have

been done, but there is no proof.

 He allegedly took a knife and stabbed the victim in the stomach.

According to

 According to witnesses, she abandoned the place well after midnight.

Might/may
We can also use might or may to speculate and say that something is possible,
but that maybe it isn’t true.

 They might have fled the scene leaving the victim bleeding on the floor.
 They may be spending their Christmas holiday together.

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Passive verbs with two objects – Grammar chart

In a passive sentence, the subject is the object of the corresponding active

sentence.

 Somebody said something.

 Something was said (by somebody).

There are some verbs which can take two objects. Some of these verbs
are: bring, get, give, make, offer, promise, send, show, etc.

 I sent my friends a picture. (= I sent a picture to my friends.)

With these verbs, it is possible to make two different passive sentences because
you can use either of the two objects as the subject of the passive sentence:

 My friends were sent a picture.

 A picture was sent to my friends.

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It is more common to begin the passive sentence with the person: My friends
were sent a picture.

Verb + object + to + infinitive

After certain verbs

We can use the following verbs + object + to + infinitive: advise, allow, ask,
beg, cause, convince, enable, encourage, expect, force, get (see get
uses), help, intend, invite, mean, order, persuade, recommend, remind,
take (time), teach, tell, warn. (See table with examples below)

Want, need, would like, would hate, would prefer

We can also use want, need, would like, would hate, would prefer + object
+ to + infinitive.

 I need you to do something for me.

 She wants me to go to the doctor with her.
 They would like me to be available at all times.
 I would hate you to think I didn’t appreciate what you did for me.
 I would prefer you to be quiet

Verbs also used in other ways

Advise, persuade, remind, teach, tell, warn

We can also use advise, persuade, remind, teach, tell, warn + object
+ (that) clause.

 Our mentor has advised us that we should start working on the project as
soon as possible.
 The president persuaded them that the situation was critical.
 I called him to remind him he had to take all the necessary equipment.
 They taught me things aren’t always as they seem.
 Danny told me that he is going to be appointed director of overseas
operations.
 He warned us that temperatures would drop dramatically the following
week.

Recommend

We can also use recommend + that clause (without object).

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  I recommended him to stay.
 I recommended (that) he stay. (more formal)
 I recommended (that he stays. (less formal)

Advise, allow, recommend

We can use advise, allow, recommend + object + to + infinitive. But if they are
followed by the verb (without the object), this verb must take the -ing form.

 He advised me to go, but He advised going.

 They don’t allow us to drink anything, but They don’t allow drinking.
 He recommended me to take the course, but He recommended taking the
course.

Verb + for someone + to + infinitive

Arrange, ask, plan, wait

We say arrange, ask, plan or wait + for someone + to + infinitive.

 I will arrange for you to have a meeting with him next week.
 I asked for somebody to repair my air conditioner.
 They are planning for him to turn his ideas into action.
 We waited for them to arrive.

Adjectives

We can use certain adjectives + for someone + to + infinitive.

 It’s essential for us to be ready when we are needed.

 It would be nice for you to be there on the day of the rehearsal.
 It’s difficult for Sarah to make ends meet now that she’s working part
time.

Nouns

We can use certain nouns such as advantage, disadvantage, demand,

disaster, idea, mistake, etc. + for someone + to + infinitive.

 It was a mistake for you to lend him the money.

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  It would be a disaster for the company to reduce the number of staff.
 I think it’s a good idea for him to go to the interview.
 An extra room is an advantage for families to use it as a play area.

Too/enough

We can also use too or enough + for someone + to infinitive.

 The book was too great for me to forget.

 It was warm enough for us to sit in the open.

Infinitive of purpose

We can also use the same structure after an infinitive of purpose.

 The purpose of this activity is for the students to practice their listening
skills.
 The goal is for the dog to relax when wearing a leash.

Verb + object + infinitive without to

Let, make, help

We can use the verbs let, make, and help followed by object + infinitive
without to.

 She drives me to work and never lets me pay for the petrol.
 The teacher made us write a very long essay.
 Can I help you fix the fence? (But help somebody to do is also correct)

Be made to do

We say make + someone + infinitive (without to), but we say someone

+ be made + to + infinitive.

 They made the staff wear their uniform every day.

 The staff were made to wear their uniform every day.

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Hear, listen, notice, see

We can use hear, listen, notice, see + object + infinitive without to to talk about
a short or complete action (see B1+ verb patterns):

 I saw them kiss (I saw the action from start to end. It was probably a short
kiss.)
 I heard someone shout your name. (I heard the shouting from start to
end.)

But we use hear, listen, notice, see, watch + object + -ing to talk about an
action in progress; an action that is longer and incomplete.

 I saw them kissing in the park. (The action was in progress. I didn’t see it
finish.)

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Verb + object + gerund
In this kind of construction, the object of the main verb is the subject of the verb
in the gerund form. The following verbs can be used before object +
gerund: dislike, hate, imagine, involve, keep, mind, prevent, not like,
remember, resent, risk, stop (See table with examples below)

Tables with example sentences

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Reflexive pronouns
The reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
ourselves, yourselves, themselves. There is also a reflexive generic
pronoun: oneself.

Same subject and object

Reflexive pronouns are normally used when a subject and an object are the
same person.

 She cut herself chopping the onions.

 We really enjoyed ourselves at the party.
 Talking to oneself is not necessarily a sign of madness.

After preposition

We can use reflexive pronouns after most prepositions if they refer back to the
subject.

 He should be really proud of himself.

 With the 3-D printer and this scanner, you can print a small version of yourself.

NOT after prepositions of place

We don’t use reflexive pronouns after prepositions of place; we use object

pronouns instead.

 She told her husband to sit in the chair in front of her. (NOT of herself)
 They put their luggage behind them.

And we don’t use reflexive pronouns after with when it means ‘accompanied by’.

 He took his son with him.

To emphasize who did the action

We also use a reflexive pronoun to emphasize that the subject does the action,
and nobody else. In this sense, we can use the reflexive at the end of the
sentence or after the subject.

 I will talk to Anna myself.

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  I think you should do it yourself, instead of having it done.
 Paul himself designed everything.

By oneself

We can say by myself, by yourself, etc. to mean ‘alone, without anybody else’,
or also to mean ‘without anybody’s help’.

 My son doesn’t like to be by himself, he always wants us around.

 She raised her four children by herself.

We can also say on my own, on your own, etc.

 I was on my own, all morning.

 She did it on her own.

Verbs with NO reflexive pronoun

Students of English often make mistakes when they use some verbs which are
used reflexively in their language but not in English. Some of these verbs
are dress, shave, wash, relax, hurry, or open.

 The first thing I do is wash, shave, and dress. (NOT wash/shave/dress

myself)
 When I arrive home I only want to relax on the sofa.
 Please, hurry or we’ll be late.
 The door opened and everybody got in.

Reciprocal pronouns
We use each other or one another when person A does something to person B,
and person B does something to person A.

 When the twins found each other, they had been living apart for more than 10
years.
 You should try to understand one another.

We also can use the possessive forms each other’s and one another’s.

 The lovers were found in each other’s arms.

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  The couple enjoyed one another’s company so much that they soon decided to
move in together.

One, you, we
Meaning

We can use one, you or we to talk about people in general, including the
speaker and hearer, and not one person in particular.

 One can never know what to expect from politicians. (Or also You/We can never
know.)
 In these situations, you must never lose your temper.
 We are human, and will always make mistakes.

Register

One is more formal than we or you and is rarely used in spoken English.
However, the possessive determiner one’s is a little more common.

 Education always changes one’s life for the better. (Or also your/our life.)
 Poverty eats up one’s dignity.

Subject, object, etc.

One, you, we can be used as subject or object, and they are often used in their
reflexive form (oneself, yourself, ourselves).

 Sometimes the government treats you/us as if you/we were a child.

 There is the tendency to just lie down and let life treat one as it deems fit.
 Success and failure always teach you/us something
about yourself/ourselves.
 Helping others helps oneself.

Consistency

We can normally choose one pronoun or the other for generic reference, but
what is important is that we keep consistency throughout the text.

 You never know what your future will bring you.

 We never know what our future will bring us.
 NOT: You never know what our future will ...

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They
A group of people

In English we often use they to refer to people in general or a more

specific group of people that does not include the speaker or hearer, such as
people in a country, city, place, or authorities, police, etc.

 They don’t like strangers in this village.

 They are going to raise our taxes this year.
 They are going to open a new pub opposite my house.

Singular reference (= he or she)

In informal English, we use they, them or their to refer to one generic person
who could be male or female. This use is considered incorrect by many
grammarians, but it is very common, even in written language.

 A good journalist should never reveal where they get their information.
 Before the class, every student said their name aloud.

The use of they, them, their for generic singular reference is often preceded by
an indefinite singular pronoun.

 Someone has left their suitcase in the taxi.

 Everyone accepted, didn’t they?
 Nobody wanted to give us their phone number.

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Possessive ‘s
We normally use ‘s with people or animals, although we can also use it with time
expressions, shops, or places (cities, countries, etc.) and organisations.

Download full-size image from Pinterest

Note that when we are talking about places or organizations, we can use both
the possessive ‘s or of.

 The decision of the country/The country’s decision to raise taxes is

very controversial.
 The prediction of the bank/The bank’s prediction is very optimistic.

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Look at the table below to see how to use the possessive case.

Note that we use of + possessive case or possessive pronoun if there is a

determiner (a, some, this, etc.) before the nouns.

 Some friends of Anna’s came to the party. (=some of Anna’s friends.)

 Some friends of hers came to the party.
 Isn’t that a friend of your sister’s? (=one of your sister’s friends.)

Using possessive of
Inanimate things and abstract nouns

We normally use of instead of ‘s when we are talking about inanimate things,

parts of things, or abstract nouns.

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  We enjoyed the beauty of the park.
 The head of the shower is broken.
 Go to the end of the street.
 Love is the secret of life.

Long noun phrases

We also use of instead of ‘s with long noun phrases.

 This is the child of the neighbours who live next

door. (NOT the neighbours who live next door’s child)
 That’s the wife of one of my friends from Liverpool.

Compound nouns
In many cases, we use noun + noun, instead of possessive ‘s or of. When we
use noun + noun, the first noun is acting as a modifier of the second noun, like
an adjective, and is normally singular (tourist destination, stomach bug,
school bus, etc.). Sometimes more than one form is possible:

 The head of the shower/shower head is broken.

 What’s the school policy/school’s policy on bullying?

However, we often prefer one form over the other because it’s more
common: bus stop, car key, toothpaste, car park, ice cream, haircut, etc.

One word, two separate words or two words linked with a hyphen?

Compound nouns are often two separate words, e.g. school bus, car park, etc.,
but very common compound nouns are sometimes used as one word,
e.g. bathroom, haircut, etc., and sometimes linked with a hyphen, e.g. letter-
box. But on many occasions, you can see the same compound noun written in
different ways.

Containers

We can use a compound noun to refer to a container, which is usually empty: a

tea cup, a wine glass, a beer glass, a matchbox, etc.

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  Can you pass me those tea cups? I’m going to wash them. (=they are
empty)
 She keeps the insects that she catches in that matchbox.

But note that we use noun + of + noun to refer to a container together with its
contents: a cup of tea, a glass of wine, a glass of beer, a box of matches,
etc.

 Would you like a cup of tea? (=a cup with tea in it)
 I need to light this candle. Do you have a box of matches?

The use of the possessive ’s with time expressions

We don’t normally use the possessive ‘s with inanimate things. In those cases,
we generally use of instead. For example, we say:

 the end of the street (NOT the street’s end)

 the first page of the document (NOT the document’s first page)

However, the possessive ’s is often used in time expressions to talk about the
duration of something. For example:

 You need two years’ experience to get a job.

 He lives one hour’s drive from the airport.
 The three hours’ journey to the valley was amazing.

Note that the apostrophe is sometimes not included, but this is usually not
considered correct.

When do we need to use the possessive ’s with

time expressions?
If you are not sure whether you should use the possessive ’s with a time
expression, you can try replacing it with the word of. If the expression still makes
sense, it means that you should use the ’ (apostrophe) or ’s.

For example, we say:

 two years’ experience (=an experience of two years)

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  one hour’s drive (=a drive of one hour)
 three hours’ journey (=a journey of three hours)

But we say:

 It’s two months old. (The expression two months of old does not make
sense.)
 She is nine months pregnant. (The expression nine months of
pregnant does not make sense.)

The possessive ’s with singular and plural time

expressions
The form of the possessive ’s with time expressions is the same as with other
nouns.

 Add ’s after singular nouns: one year’s notice, an hour’s walk, etc.
 Add only ’ (apostrophe) after plural nouns ending in -s: three years’ notice,
two hours’ walk, etc.

A two-day journey = two days’ journey

We also often use number + time expression before nouns to talk about how
long something lasts. In this case, the number and the time expression are
joined by a hyphen and the time word is singular.

 a four-hour journey = four hours’ journey

 a thirty-minute delay = thirty minutes’ delay
 a two-hour drive = two hours’ drive

Note that this type of number + noun compound adjective is also used to talk
about other kinds of measurements.

 a one-hundred-dollar bill
 a five-liter bottle
 a twenty-foot container

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Defining vs non-defining
There are two types of relative clauses, defining and non-defining. In the
grammar chart below, you can see the main differences between them.

Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns are the words that introduce relative clauses. They can act as
the subject or the object of the relative clause.

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Note that that can be used in informal English instead of who/whom/which but
it is never used after commas, i.e. in non-defining relative clauses, or after
prepositions.

 That’s the man who/that offered me the job.

 My mother’s older brother, who/that lives in New York, is coming to visit.
 That’s the house in which/that they lived all their lives.

Which/that vs what

We use which/that as relative pronouns. They refer back to a noun or sentence.

 I gave her the letter which/that I had been keeping since the war. (which/that=
the letter)
 He offered to help us, which was a nice gesture. (which= offering to help us)

We don’t use what as a relative pronoun. It cannot be used to refer back to a

sentence or noun.
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  I gave her the letter what I had been keeping since the war.
 He offered to help us, what was a nice gesture.

We use what independently to mean ‘the thing/s that’.

 I didn’t like what he did.= I didn’t like the thing/s that he did.
 What I don’t understand is why we are here. (what= the thing that)

Prepositions in relative clauses

When the relative pronoun is the complement of a preposition, we can use the
preposition before the relative pronoun or at the end of the relative clause.

Preposition + relative pronoun

It’s not very common to use prepositions before relative pronouns, we just do it in
formal language.

 He wrecked the car for which he had paid a fortune.

 He was a man for whom everybody had great respect.

Note that after a preposition we can only use the pronouns whom or which. We
cannot use who or that after a preposition.

We can also use whose after a preposition.

 The team signed then the young Maradonian, in whose skills everybody had
their hopes.

Preposition at the end of the relative clause

The most common position of the preposition is at the end of the relative clause.

 He wrecked the car for which he had paid a fortune. (formal; not common)
 He wrecked the car (which/that) he had paid a fortune for. (more usual)

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Relative adverbs
Relative adverbs introduce relative clauses, just like relative pronouns, but in this
case, they are used to introduce information about time (when), place (where),
or reason (why).

Note that we can use a preposition + which instead of a relative adverb,

although this structure is more formal and not as common.

 The coach changed the time when the players had to get up.
 =The coach changed the time at which the players had to get up.
 The bench where they were sitting was dirty.
 =The bench on which they were sitting was dirty.

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Quantifier + of which/whom
In non-defining relative clauses (=between commas), we can use of
which/whom after a quantifier such as some, any, none, all, both, several,
enough, many and few.

 Their daughters, both of whom are in university, don’t visit them very often.
 The students, none of whom had failed the exam, were thrilled.
 Their house was full of cats, most of which had been found in the street.
 The two rooms, neither of which had windows, were small and dirty.

We can also use a quantifier + of whose.

 I belong to a reading club, most of whose members are retired teachers.

 The parents, some of whose children were already grown-ups, marched
down the street.

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There + be + noun
Use and meaning

We use there as some kind of preparatory subject to say that something exists
somewhere. We put the real subject after the verb be.

 There are lots of people in the waiting room.

 There used to be a fancy restaurant on this street.

Different tenses

We can use there + be with be in any verb tense, in active or passive voice, and
with or without modal verbs.

 There will be a storm on Saturday.

 There has been some tension between the participants.
 There must be something wrong here.
 There’s going to be a conflict between the two parties.

Different structures

We can also use the structures there seem(s) to be, there tend(s) to be or we
can use there + be before expressions of probability such as sure, likely,
bound, etc.

 There seem to be no consequences for his actions.

 Unfortunately, there seems to be no possible solution to the problem.
 In nature, there tends to be an evolutionary arms race between predator and
prey
 There is sure to be a full house and a great vibe at the festival, so buy your
tickets today.
 There are likely to be some side effects, but the new drug looks promising.

We can also use there + used to.

 There used to be a library at the end of this street.

Note that the negative form is there didn’t use to be.

 There didn’t use to be any bars in our neighborhood.

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There is no use (in), there is no point (in), there is no need

We often use the expression there is no use/point (in) + -ing and there is no
need + to-infinitive.

 There is no point in hating those that hate you.

 There is no use in trying to make him understand. He doesn’t want to
understand.
 Yes, we made a mistake, but there is no need to panic; we’ll find out how to
fix this.
 There is no need for you to worry. Everything’s OK.

It as a preparatory subject
Time, weather, temperature, distance

 It’s 5 o’clock.
 It’s Saturday tomorrow.
 It’s snowing.
 It’s very hot today; it’s 35 degrees.
 It’s only 2 miles from the hotel.

Something already mentioned

We use it to refer to something that we have already mentioned.

 ‘What is that?’ ‘It seems like an old piece of metal.’ (it= that)
 I read a good book last week. It was my second book this month. (it= the book)

It + be + adjective + to + infinitive

We use it + be/seem as a preparatory subject before adjectives + to-infinitive.

The infinitive clause is the real subject of the sentence, but we put it at the end
because it’s long.

 It seems impossible to get out of here unharmed.

 It’s has been quite hard to go through all the difficulties we have
encountered.
 It’s nice to hear from you again.

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Note that we also often use it + be + noun + to-infinitive.

 It would be a pleasure to have you at my house.

It + be + adjective + that clause

We also use it as a preparatory subject when the real subject of the sentence is
a that clause.

 It’s unlikely that they will ever agree.

 It’s surprising that the paramedics could save that woman’s life.
 It’s just wonderful that we can all be here today.

Note that we also often use it + be + noun + that clause.

 It’s a shame that you can’t come.

It takes … to + infinitive

We use this structure to talk about the time we need to do something.

 It takes me 20 minutes to get to work every day.

 How long did it take you to write your essay?

Cleft sentences

We can use it at the beginning of cleft sentences, to emphasize one element of

the sentence.

 It was Peter who took your car.

 It’s my laptop that doesn’t work.
 It was in the evening that they arrived.

There and it
It’s no use/there’s no use

With the word use we can use either there or it as preparatory subjects.

 It’s no use arguing with your brother. It’s not really his fault.

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  There’s no use (in) arguing with your brother. It’s not really his fault.

Have as a main verb

When we use have as a main verb, it works as any other verb. We need an
auxiliary verb, e.g. do, to make questions and negatives and we don’t normally
use its contracted form.

Have meaning ‘possess’ or ‘suffer’ (from pain, illness, etc.)

We use have to talk about possession. We need the verb do to make questions
and negatives. The past form is had and it’s a State verb, so it CANNOT be used
in progressive forms.

 Do you have time?

 I’ve had this watch since I was a child.
 I have a terrible headache.

Have to for obligation

Have to is used to express obligation; usually to talk about obligation coming

from others: rules, regulations, etc. In this case, have is also a State verb.

 We have to wear a uniform at school.

 Remember you have to return the book before next month.

We need do or another auxiliary verb to make questions and negatives.

 You won’t have to show me your credential, it won’t be necessary.

 I didn’t have to say anything, because they already knew.

The negative form of have to is used to talk about lack of necessity (NOT
about prohibition)

 I don’t have to get up too early tomorrow. (=I don’t need to)

Have something done

When we have something done, it means that we ’employ someone to do

something for us’.

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  I have my house cleaned every Thursday. (=I employ someone to clean my
house.)

We can also use have something done when something bad happens to us.

 He had his wallet stolen in Piccadilly.

 They had their house destroyed by the fire.

Have here is a dynamic verb, so it can be used in progressive forms.

 We are having the house redecorated.

In informal speech, the it’s common to use get instead of have.

 Where did you get your car serviced?

Have meaning ‘take’ (a shower, a drink, etc.), ‘give’ (a party), etc.

Have can have different meanings depending on the words that come after it. It
can mean:

 ‘Take’ (a meal, a drink, a shower, a bath, a massage, a lesson, etc.)

o I’m going to have a massage tomorrow.
o How many lessons do you have every week?
 ‘Give’ (a party)
o We are having a party next week; do you want to come?
 ‘Encounter’ (trouble, difficulties)
o Did you have any trouble finding the place?
 ‘Experience’, ‘enjoy’ (day, weather, time, etc.)
o We had so much fun!
o We had a wonderful weekend in Los Angeles.

In all these cases have is a dynamic verb, so it can be used in continuous forms.

 I’m having a lot of problems with my new computer.

 We are having fantastic weather.

In all these cases have is a main verb, and we need do or did or another
auxiliary to make questions and negatives.

 Do you have a shower in the mornings?

 You won’t have any trouble.

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Have as an auxiliary verb
When have is used as an auxiliary verb, it normally has negative and
interrogative forms and it can be contracted.

Have got used for possession

In informal English, it is common to use have got instead of have to talk about
possession. When expressing possession, the verb have is not an auxiliary verb
when used on its own, but it is an auxiliary verb in have got.

 I haven’t got any brothers or sisters = I don’t have any brothers or sisters.
 How many computers have you got? = How many computers do you have?

The verb have got only exists in the present tense.

 We didn’t have an umbrella and got wet. (NOT hadn’t got an umbrella).

Haven’t for possession

In negative sentences sometimes we leave out got to express possession.

 I haven’t time to do what I want.

 I haven’t a clue.
 I haven’t the slightest idea.

Have got to for obligation

In informal English we can also use have got to express the idea of obligation. It
is normally used to talk about specific obligations rather than general obligations.

 I’ve got to call my boss after lunch. (=specific obligation)

 I have to wear a tie at work. (=general obligation)

Simple and continuous and past perfect simple and continuous

We use have in the present perfect simple and continuous. These are verb
tenses that we often use to express the idea of duration.

 I’ve been writing all morning.

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  We’ve been married for ten years.

We also use have in the past perfect simple and continuous.

 She told me she hadn’t been there before.

 I could see in her eyes that she had been crying.

Future perfect simple and continuous

We use have in the future perfect simple for actions that will be completed at a
certain time in the future.

 In 2030 we will have found the cure for cancer.

We also use have in the future perfect simple to express the duration of a
situation until certain time in the future.

 In 2020 we will have been married for 25 years.

We use the present perfect continuous with dynamic verbs to express the
duration of a situation until certain time in the future.

 By the end of January, I will have been working on this project for two years.

Perfect or past infinitive: to have done

We use the verb have in the perfect infinitive to talk about things that happened
in the past.

 I’m glad to have met you. (=to meet you in the past)
 He pretended to have lost my phone number. (=to lose my phone number
earlier in the past)

Perfect modal verbs: must have done, can’t have done, etc.

We use the verb have to form the past modal verbs of deduction.

 You can’t have seen Tom. He is in Chicago.

 I may have made a mistake.

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Ellipsis
Repeated subject or subject + auxiliary verb

After and, but, and or we can leave out a repeated subject or a subject +
auxiliary verb.

 He closed the door and he took off his shoes.

 We could go out or we could have a party at home.
 She called but she didn’t leave a message.

Repeated verb phrase or adjective after the same auxiliary

We can avoid repeating an adjective, a verb or a verb phrase and repeat only the
auxiliary or modal verb.

 Maria should take the exam, but I don’t think you should take the exam.
 She’ll go to the meeting but I won’t go to the meeting.
 They say he is the best right now, but I don’t think he is the best.

Use do/does/did in the second clause or sentence when the verb is present or
past simple.

 She doesn’t like it, but I do.

 She liked it, but I didn’t.

Repeated verb phrase after a different auxiliary

We can also omit a repeated verb phrase when we use a different auxiliary or
modal verb.

 I’m studying for the exams, but not as much as I should be studying.
 I told you I’d help you, but I can’t help you.

In the second clause or sentence, we may need to leave two auxiliaries to

express past meaning.

 She didn’t win, but she could have won.

 ‘Did you go?’ ‘No, but I should have gone.’

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Repeated verb phrase after the infinitive with to (reduced infinitive)

A reduced infinitive is when you leave out a repeated verb phrase after an
infinitive with to.

 I shouldn’t go out tonight, but I really want to go out.

 ‘Are you going to sell the car?’ ‘No, I‘ve decided not to sell the car. ‘

Substitution
One, ones

We can use one to avoid repeating a singular countable noun, and we can
use ones to avoid repeating a plural noun.

 ‘Do you need a pen?’ ‘No, I’ve already got one.’

 ‘Which car do you prefer?’ ‘I like the red one.’
 Are you going to wear these trousers or the ones that I gave you?
 I’d lend you a pen, but this is the only one I have.

Do so

We can use do so (or does so, did so, doing so, etc.) to avoid repeating a verb
phrase.

 If I can help, I’ll be happy to do so. (=to help)

 I won’t apologise, because doing so would be admitting that I was
wrong. (=apologising)

We can also use do it/that (more informal) instead of do so.

 They told me to be quiet and I did it/that/so.

If so, if not

We can use if so/if that is so (positive) or if not (negative) to avoid repeating a

clause in a conditional sentence.

 Do you want to be better at what you do? If so, pay attention to what I have to
say. (=If you want to be better at what you do)

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  Mr Chen should be there when you arrive. If not, just give me a call. (=If Mr
Chen isn’t there when you arrive)

Using so and not as substitutes for clauses

We use so after certain verbs of thinking and speaking to avoid repeating a

positive clause. This use is common with the verbs assume, believe, expect,
guess, hope, imagine, presume, suppose, suspect, say, tell sb, think and
the expressions be afraid and it seems/appears .

 ‘Are they coming?’ ‘I think so.’ (=they are coming)

 ‘I didn’t do it.’ ‘If you say so.’ (=that you didn’t do it)
 ‘Is she going to be there?’ ‘I hope so.’ (=she’s going to be there)

When we want to avoid repeating a negative clause, we can use a positive verb
+ not or a negative verb + so. We can use either of those forms with the
verbs appear, seem, suppose .

 ‘Did they leave a copy of the key?’ ‘It doesn’t seem so/It seems not.’

We normally use a positive verb + not with be afraid, assume, guess, hope,
presume, suspect .

 ‘Shall we go for a run tomorrow?’ ‘I’m afraid not. I have to be at the office all
day.’

We normally use a negative verb + so with believe, expect, imagine, think .

 ‘Will it take long to fix it?’ ‘I don’t think so.’

So, neither

We can use so and neither + auxiliary + subject to avoid repeating a clause

when we are agreeing with someone.

 ‘I can be there at any time tomorrow.’ ‘So can I.’ (=I can be there at any time
tomorrow too.)
 ‘I shouldn’t take the offer, and neither should you.’ (=and you shouldn’t take
the offer either.)

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If there is no auxiliary verb in the first clause or sentence, we
use do/does or did.

 ‘I love this book.’ ‘So do I.’

 ‘We arrived on time, and so did all the other guests.’

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 74 | P a g e
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What is an inversion with a negative adverbial?
In formal English, we can place a negative or restrictive adverb at the
beginning of a sentence to make the sentence more emphatic or dramatic. When
we do this, the adverb is then followed by an inversion: auxiliary verb + subject
(+ verb). See the example below:

 I could find my keys nowhere. ⇒ Nowhere could I find my keys.

When there is no auxiliary verb, we use do/does (present) or did (past) as

auxiliary.

 I understand the true meaning only now. ⇒ Only now do I

understand the true meaning.
 I didn’t say anything until she arrived. ⇒ Not until she arrived did I
say anything.

Common adverbs used with this structure

In the table below you can see some of the most common negative or restrictive
adverbials that are sometimes used at the beginning of the sentence for
emphasis.

Hardly, barely, scarcely, no sooner

We normally use hardly … when, barely … when, scarcely … when, and no

sooner … than in narratives with past perfect in the inversion.

We use no sooner … than (NOT that, or when)

Adverbial + clause + inversion

Note that after some adverbials, such as only if and only when we use a
subordinate clause (subject + verb), and that the inversion is never in the
subordinate clause but in the main verb of the sentence. Check the sentence
below:

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  Only when I sleep can I forget about the accident. (NOT: Only when do I
sleep I can…)

The same happens with other adverbials, such as not since and not until; we
use a subordinate clause (subject + verb), and the inversion is never in the
subordinate clause but in the sentence’s main verb. Check the sentence below:

 Not since I was a child have I had such a great time. (NOT: Not since
was I a child I’ve had …)

If you are in doubt, it’s always useful to look at the sentence without the negative
adverbial at the beginning.

 I can forget about the accident only when I sleep.

 I haven’t had such a great time since I was a child.

The main subject and verb are at the beginning of the sentence, and this is the
element that must be in the inversion.

Not

We must always use not followed by another element before the inversion.

 Not often can we see such great expressions of art. (NOT Not can we
see such great expressions of art often.)

Adverbs of frequency

We can also use inversion after the negative or restrictive adverbs of frequency,
such as seldom, rarely, or never.

We often use never to talk about experiences. In that case, we normally use
present perfect or past perfect.

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Clauses of contrast
Although, even though

We can use although/even though at the beginning or in the middle of a

sentence followed by a clause (subject + verb). We NEVER use a comma
after although or event though.

 Although/Even though we had a bad game, we won.

 We won, although/even though we had a bad game.

However

We use however to connect two different sentences. We normally

use however at the beginning of the second sentence after a full stop (.) or a
semi-colon (;). However is ALWAYS followed by a comma.

 We didn’t like the hotel. However, we had a fantastic time.

 We went to the beach; however, the weather wasn’t perfect.

We can also use however at the end of the sentence.

 We didn’t like the hotel. We had a fantastic time, however.

Despite/in spite of

Despite and in spite of are normally followed by a noun or a –ing verb. They
can go at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence.

 Despite/In spite of the rain, we went to the concert.

 They arrived despite/in spite of leaving very early.

We can use a clause (subject + verb) after despite/in spite of + the fact that.

 We went out despite/in spite of the fact that it was raining.

Clauses of purpose
To + infinitive

The most common way to express purpose in English is to + infinitive.

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  The student worked hard to pass the test.

In order to/so as to + infinitive

In order to or so as to + infinitive are more common in formal English, mainly in

writing. The negative forms are in order not to and so as not to + infinitive.

 We were asked to stay in order to finish the project.

 He left home early in order not to be late.
 Use a plastic hammer so as to avoid damage.
 They walked quietly so as not to wake up the children.

We can also use the structure in order for someone/something to do

something.

 We need to mobilize the media in order for the Government to listen to us.
 Three different surgeries were necessary in order for him to survive.

So that + clause

We can also use so that + subject + verb to express purpose. We normally use
a modal verb with this connector, e.g. could, can, would, etc.

 We left early so that we could park near the centre.

 He made some flashcards so that it would be easier for his mum to remember
the instructions.

For + noun

We can also use for + noun to express purpose.

 We went to the bar for a drink.

 Would you like to go to the park for a run?

We can use for + –ing verb (instead of to + infinitive) to talk about the purpose of
an object or action when we use the verb used or when we imply it.

 This knife is (used) for cutting plastic.

 Schools are for educating, not for entertaining.

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In case + clause

To express purpose, we can also use in case + subject + verb. We use this form
to talk about precautions, when we do something because something not wanted
might happen.

 Take the umbrella in case it rains. (=take the umbrella so that you won’t get
wet if it rains)
 I won’t tell Ann in case she tells everyone else.

Clauses of reason
When we want to explain the reason why something happened or why someone
did something, we use a clause of reason introduced by a conjunction
(as, since, because) or a noun phrase introduced by because of, due
to, owing to, or on account of.

Because

We use because before a clause (subject + verb). It can be used at the

beginning or at the end of a sentence (at the end is more common). A comma is
used when the clause of reason is at the beginning of the sentence.

 We didn’t go because it was raining heavily.

 Because the event was cancelled, they lost their deposits.

As/since

We use as and since in a very similar way to because. They are followed by
subject + verb and can be used at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
However, as and since are more formal expressions, and more common in
written than in spoken English.

 The government urged people to stay indoors since/as more rain is forecast for
the entire weekend.
 As/Since the roads were blocked, the victims had to be rescued by helicopter.

Because of

We use because of before a noun.

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  The concert was postponed because of the heavy rain.

Due to/owing to/on account of

We can also use due to/owing to/on account of before a noun. They mean
‘because of’ but are more formal.

 The event was cancelled due to/owing to/on account of lack of interest.
 I couldn’t enjoy the meal due to/owing to/on account of their constant
arguing.

Clauses of result
We use clauses of result to talk about the result of an action or situation.

So

We can use so + subject + verb at the end of a sentence to mean ‘this is why’.

 We didn’t have anything to do, so we decided to rent a film.

 I worked very hard today, so I’m exhausted.

For this reason

We normally use for this reason at the beginning of a sentence. We use a

comma after it.

 Rent is very expensive in Boston. For this reason, we decided to move to Ohio.
 He threatened to commit suicide. For this reason, we kept him under
surveillance.

As a result/consequently/therefore

As a result, consequently and therefore are more formal and more common in
written language. They are normally used at the beginning of a sentence,
followed by a comma.

 The flight was delayed due to the storm. As a result, many passengers
complained.

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  Animals were his only true passion. Therefore/Consequently, he decided to
study biology.

We can also use consequently and therefore in mid position (before the verb,
after be as the main verb, or after the first auxiliary verb).

 You have been a real asset to the company. We

have therefore/consequently decided to promote you.

Discourse markers
Discourse markers are very important to structure text or speech to connect
sentences in a meaningful and logical way. They are used to express contrast,
reason, purpose, result, etc. Here you can find some very common discourse
markers, their meaning and some examples.

By the way / incidentally

Used to change the subject, to say something that you have just thought about
and that doesn’t have to be connected to what was being said before.

 Well, it has been a very productive meeting, don’t you think? By the
way/Incidentally, what time is it?
 I’ll try to fix my car this afternoon. By the way/Incidentally, do you still
have that screwdriver that I lent you?

Actually / in fact / as a matter of fact

Used to introduce information that might be in some

way surprising or unexpected.

 I don’t really like chicken. Actually/In fact/As a matter of fact I have only
eaten chicken once in my life.
 Everybody thinks he has a very bad temper, but actually/in fact/as a
matter of fact he is very kind.

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Anyway / in any case

Used to return to an earlier subject after a digression, or to get to the most

interesting point.

 It’s not so strange to lose documents. It happens to lots of people all the
time. Anyway/In any case, we finally found the passports in …

Used to give a more important reason for something you are saying.

 I’m too tired to go and it’s too late, and anyway/in any case it’s too
expensive.

As I was saying

Used to return to an earlier subject in the conversation after an interruption or

digression.

 As I was saying, we could get up early and spend the whole day there.

After all

Used to introduce an additional point that supports or explains what you have
just said.

 I might understand her better than you; after all, she is my wife.
 Don’t be too hard on him. After all, he is just a kid.

Used to say that something is true despite what is believed or said.

 He is not such a bad professional after all.

At least

Used to introduce positive information when talking about something negative.

 Lots of people got injured in the accident, but at least nobody died.

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  I finished last in the race, but at least I finished.

Used to reduce the effect of something we have said, or to make something

less certain or definite.

 He knows the president, or at least that’s what he says.

All in all

= Taking into consideration all the parts of a situation.

 There were some mistakes, but all in all, you did a pretty good job.
 Both TVs are great, but all in all, I think this one is better for you.

On the whole

= Generally

 On the whole, men tend to avoid talking about feelings.

 There has been some criticism, but on the whole, customers like what we
offer.

Besides

Used to add additional information (informal)

 I think it’s a wonderful place; besides, it’s very cheap.

Furthermore

Used to add additional (an often more important) information (formal)

 Electric cars are becoming more powerful and energy-

efficient. Furthermore, they are much cheaper than a few years ago.

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What’s more

We use what’s more to add something interesting to what we have just said. It’s
similar to furthermore but more informal.

 Scientists have found a big body of water under the surface of the
planet. What’s more, they think it’s not the only body of water they are
going to find.
 He said that the new season is going to be premiered this September
and, what’s more, he confirmed that it’s not going to be the last.

Obviously

Used to introduce a fact that is easy to see or understand.

 Obviously, without qualifications it’s harder to get a good job.

Basically

Used to introduce the most important point or characteristic of something.

 Basically, what we do here is produce the plastic parts of the phone.

In other words

Used to say what has been said in simpler words.

 She said we should take a break and have time to ourselves; in other
words, she dumped me.

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That is to say

Used to explain or be more precise about something we have said. Similar to in

other words.

 The best thing about music is its repeatability; that is to say, you can
listen to the same songs again and again and never get bored.

Otherwise

Used after an order or suggestion to say what will happen if that order or
suggestion is not followed.

 Be here at 8 o’clock; otherwise, you will miss your turn.

Regarding … / as regards … / as far as … is concerned

= About. Used to introduce a topic of conversation.

 Regarding/As regards the new player, we’ll have to decide if or when to

sell him.
 As far as the new player is concerned, …

On the other hand

Used to introduce a contrasting fact.

 Cycling is good for your health, and it’s a sport that is gentle with your
muscles and joints. But on the other hand, there are many fatal accidents
among cyclists.

It can be preceded by on the one hand:

 On the one hand, cycling is good for your health, and it’s a sport that
is gentle with your muscles and joints. But on the other hand, there are
many fatal accidents among cyclists.

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Whereas

We use whereas to compare and contrast two things or ideas. It means ‘while’
when it is used to express contrast.

 The north is cold whereas the south is very hot.

 Whereas people used to aspire to have a big house, kids, dog etc.,
nowadays preferences are tending more towards apartments.

What are participle clauses?

Participle clauses are not very common in spoken English; however, you can find
lots of examples in written English, maybe because participle clauses can be
very useful. They allow us to express condition, reason, cause, result or time in a
similar way to full adverbial clauses, only with less words. Look at a couple of
examples:

 After she had finished the exam, she felt very happy. (time)
 Having finished the exam, she felt very happy.

 As she didn’t know where the theatre was, she asked for directions at the
reception. (reason)
 Not knowing where the theatre was, she asked for directions at the
reception.

-ing participle clauses

This is one of the most common participle clauses. We can use –ing participle
clauses to refer to the present or the past.

 As she was such a great singer, she didn’t have problems to find a job.
 Being such a great singer, she didn’t have problems to find a job.

 When I talk to you I always feel better.

 Talking to you I always feel better.

 Because I was walking quickly, I soon caught up with him.

 Walking quickly, I soon caught up with him.
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Having + past participle clauses
By using the perfect –ing participle clause you can emphasize that an action was
previous to another. These clauses are commonly used to express the cause of
a second action.

 Having lost all the games, he felt depressed.

 Not having eaten for hours, I was desperate to find a restaurant.

It’s common to have the passive structure having been + past participle as an
alternative to a since-clause (reason):

 Having been unemployed for so long, he felt he would never find a

job. (=Since he had been…)
 Having been offered a promotion, she decided to stay in the
company. (=Since she had been…)

Participle clauses can also follow prepositions or conjunctions: after, before,

instead of, without, when, while, etc. This use of prepositions or conjunctions
before participle clauses (mainly –ing participle clauses) is quite common:

 Remember to take your bags when leaving the bus.

 Instead of listening to me, Tom left the room.
 After having lost many games, he felt depressed.
 I visited her after talking with her mother.
 People often use their phones while driving.

Past participle clauses (-ed/third column)

Past participle clauses usually replace a sentence with a verb in the passive
voice.

 Found in a litter bin, the briefcase contained classified information. (=The

briefcase was found.)
 Impressed by the painting, John praised the artist. (=He was
impressed by the painting.)
 Founded 20 years ago, the company has received many awards. (=The
company was founded 20 years ago.)
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  Located in the city center, the bar is very popular among tourists. (=The
bar is located in the city center)

Note that these participle clauses can often be replaced by a relative clause:

 The briefcase, which was found in a litter bin, contained classified

information.
 John, who was impressed by the painting, praised the artist.
 The company, which was founded 20 years ago, has received many awards.
 The bar, which is located in the city center, is very popular among tourists

Be careful with this common mistake!

You must always make sure that the subject of the verb in the participle clause
and the subject of the verb in the main clause are the same. Using two different
subjects is the most common mistake students make when they try to use
participle clauses.

 If you mix it with soda, the cocktail tastes even better. (The subject
of mix is you, and the subject of tastes is the cocktail.)

Mixing it with soda, the cocktail tastes even better. (The subjects are different.)
Mixed with soda, the cocktail tastes even better. (Same subject)

 If you water them at night, the plants live longer.

Watering them at night, the plants live longer.

Watered at night, the plants live longer.

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What are cleft sentences?
Cleft sentences are complex sentences that are used to emphasize one
particular part of a sentence. They are particularly useful in writing where we
cannot use intonation for emphasis, but they are also frequently used in speech.

Types of cleft sentences

The reason why, the thing that, the person/people who, the place
where, the day when…

We can focus on an element of the sentence by using these structures with a

relative clause. We use the relative pronouns in the same way we use them in
any relative clause.

It + be + phrase + relative clause

Instead of the person who, the thing that, etc. we can also use an
introductory it, the verb be in any verb tense that we may need, and the element
that we want to focus on.

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We can use who/which or that after a noun phrase, e.g. Sheila, the book,
etc. But we should use that after adverbial phrases, e.g. under the mattress, on
Monday, etc.

Note that we can also use when after noun phrases, but not after adverbial
phrases. Compare:

 It’s Monday when I have to call.

 It’s on Monday that I have to call.

The thing/s that = What/All

We can also use what or all (more emphasis) instead of the thing/s that to
focus on an element of the sentence.

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What + subject + do/does/did/ + is/was + (to) infinitive

We use this structure when we want to focus on the verb or verb phrase. In these
structures, we can use an infinitive with or without to.

What happens is (that) … / What happened was (that)

We use this structure when we want to focus on a whole sentence, and not only
on an element in the sentence.

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