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CBSE Class–10 Artificial Intelligence

Revision Notes
Communication Skills
Methods of Communication

Methods of Communication
The word 'communication' comes from the Latin word communicare, meaning 'to share'. Clear and concise communication is of
immense importance in work and business environment as there are several parties involved.

Communication has three important parts:

1. Transmitting - The sender transmits the message through one medium or another.
2. Listening - The receiver listens or understands the message.
3. Feedback - The receiver conveys their understanding of the message to the sender in the form of feedback to complete the
communication cycle.

Communication Process and Elements

The various elements of the communication cycle are:
Sender: the person beginning the communication.
Message: the information that the sender wants to convey.
Channel: the means by which the information is sent.
Receiver: the person to whom the message is sent.
Feedback: the receiver’s acknowledgment and response to the message.

Methods of Communication

Face-to-face informal
communication
e-mail
Notices/Posters
Business Meetings
social networks, message, phone call for communication, newsletter, blog, etc

Choosing the right method of communication depends on

Target audience
Costs
Kind/type of information
Urgency/priority

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Revision Notes
Communication Skills
Verbal Communication

Verbal communication includes sounds, words, language, and speech. Speaking is one of the most effective and commonly used
ways of communicating. It helps in expressing our emotions in words.

Type of Verbal Communication

Interpersonal Communication: This form of communication takes place between two individuals and is thus a one-on-one
conversation. It can be formal or informal.
Written Communication: This form of communication involves writing words. It can be letters, circulars, reports, manuals,
SMS, social media chats, etc. It can be between two or more people.
Small Group Communication: This type of communication takes place when there are more than two people involved. Each
participant can interact and converse with the rest.
Public Communication: This type of communication takes place when one individual addresses a large gathering.

Advantages of Verbal Communication

It is an easy mode of communication in which you can exchange ideas by saying what you want and get a quick response.

Disadvantages of Verbal Communication

Since verbal communication depends on written or spoken words, sometimes the meanings can be confusing and difficult to
understand if the right words are not used.

Mastering Verbal Communication

Think Before You Speak

Think about your topic.

Think about the most effective ways to make your listeners

Understand the topic

Write or note down whatever you plan to

say. Concise and Clear
Speak clearly, loudly and at moderate speed.
Be sure the information you want to share is to the point.
Do not repeat the same sentences.
Confidence and Body Language Be confident.
Maintain eye contact, stand straight and be attentive.
Be friendly.

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Revision Notes
Communication Skills
Non-verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication is the expression or exchange of information or messages without using any spoken or written
word.

Importance of Non-verbal Communication

In our day-to-day communication

55% communication is done using body movements, face, arms, etc.

38% communication is done using voice, tone, pauses, etc.
only 7% communication is done using words.

Types of Non-verbal Communication

Facial Expressions
Posture
Gestures or Body Language
Touch
Space
Eye Contact
Paralanguage: tone, speed and volume of our voice.

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CBSE Class–10 Artificial Intelligence

Revision Notes
Communication Skills
Visual Communication

Visual Communication: Visual communication proves to be effective since it involves interchanging messages only through
images or pictures and therefore, you do not need to know any particular language for understanding it. It is simple and remains
consistent across different places. Some examples of Visual Communication are given below.

Types of Visual Communication

Some common types of visual communications are given below.

1. Infographics
2. Process Diagrams
3. Flow Charts
4. Roadmaps
5. Charts and Graphs
6. Visual Reports
7. Presentations
8. Mind Maps

Advantages of Visual Communication : The main advantage of visual communication is the way that symbols can become
universal & supersede the need for a shared language. Visual communication is also used to express different moods & feelings.
However, while visual subjects may be universally understood, care needs to be taken that the visual communication that we
use does not perpetuate unfair or offensive stereotypes.
Disadvantages of visual communication
There are some disadvantages to visual communication.

The visual methods of communication are more costly than those of other methods. To draw maps, charts, diagram is
costly.
Visual communication is not sufficient to communicate effectively and clearly but also it can be successfully used with
oral communication.
Sometimes the visual communication of information becomes complex. The receivers cannot understand the meaning of
the presentation.

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CBSE Class–10 Artificial Intelligence

Revision Notes
Communication Skills
Descriptive And Specific Feedback

Communication Cycle and the Importance of Feedback

For effective communication, it is important that the sender receives an acknowledgment from the receiver about getting the
message across. While a sender sends information, the receiver provides feedback on the received message.

Types of Feedback

Positive Feedback
Negative Feedback
No Feedback

A good feedback is one that is:

Specific: Avoid general comments. Try to include examples to clarify your statement. Offering alternatives rather
than just giving advice allows the receiver to decide what to do with your feedback.
Timely: Being prompt is the key, since feedback loses its impact if delayed for too long.
Polite: While it is important to share feedback, the recipient should not feel offended by the language of the feedback.
Offering continuing support: Feedback sharing should be a continuous process. After offering feedback, let recipients
know you are available for support.
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Importance of Feedback.

It validates effective listening: The person providing the feedback knows they have been understood (or received) and
that their feedback provides some value.
It motivates: Feedback can motivate people to build better work relationships and continue the good work that is being
appreciated.
It is always there: Every time you speak to a person, we communicate feedback so it is impossible not to provide one.
It boosts learning: Feedback is important to remain focussed on goals, plan better and develop improved products and
services.
It improves performance: Feedback can help to form better decisions to improve and increase performance.

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Revision Notes
Communication Skills
Barriers To Communication - Types and Factors

Communication means sharing meaning. With no sharing, there is no communication.

Effective communication requires an understanding that-

A message is conveyed clearly between communicators in order that it is effective and serves the desired purpose.
Whether in a team or with others, at work or in the community, the communication environment is conducive and there
are no barriers which prevent messages being sent and received successfully.
Communication barriers create misunderstandings and misinterpretations of messages.
To communicate successfully you must know what barriers to communication exist and ensure that they do not
obstruct communication.
You must make efforts to navigate around these roadblocks.

A communication barrier is thus anything that prevents us from receiving and understanding the messages others use to
convey their information, ideas and thoughts.
Communication between two individuals should be simple. Remember that there are differences between talking and
communicating. When we communicate, we are successful in getting our point across to the person we're talking to.
When we talk, we tend to erect barriers that hinder our ability to communicate.

Some barriers to effective communication you should be aware of are:

Physical Barriers - Physical barriers separate people from each other and mark territories. These barriers can often be seen in
the workplace where offices and closed doors stop communication.
Physical barriers can stop you from being comfortable communicating with a person whom you do not come face to face with
often. As long as people still have a personal space that they can call their own, nearness to others aids communication because
it helps us get to know one another.
Language Barriers - Not using words another can understand will certainly stop your message from being conveyed. This not
only applies to actual languages but also expressions, format used, buzz words and other jargon.
If one is not familiar with your language, misinterpretation will occur. The accents and dialect (use of words) of people
belonging to different places differ even if their language is same and may become barriers to communication.
For example, the abbreviation "LOL" used in chat language used to mean Lots of Love before, which changed to Laugh Out
Loud. If a person says LOL, the second person can interpret the meaning in any way they want or from their understanding.
People use both the abbreviations according to the context and need.

Gender Barriers - Variation exists among masculine and feminine styles of communication. There are distinct differences
between the speech patterns in a man and those in a woman. A woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas
a man speaks between 7,000 and 10,000.
While women often emphasize politeness, empathy, and rapport building, male communication is often more direct. This
means that a man talks in a linear, logical and compartmentalized way, features of left-brain thinking; whereas a woman talks
more freely mixing logic and emotion, features of both sides of the brain. Meshing these two styles without awareness could
become a barrier.
Attitudinal Barriers - as those behaviors or perceptions that are divisive in nature – the ones that can lead to nagging doubt,
sullen disagreement or even overt conflict. They all interfere with and undermine communication. These are barriers that

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distance one from others. These are visible through withdrawal, meaningless rituals which keep one devoid of real contact,
superficial activities and more.
Perceptual Barriers - Different world views can create misunderstanding. People tend to interpret messages from their own
point of view or ideologies. Without thinking, one might only view a message from his or her own mindset rather than looking
at it from another viewpoint. The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. You might
ask someone an innocent question based on a previous experience but it is quite likely for them to perceive it with suspicion.

Cultural Barriers - Ethnic, religious, and social differences can often create misunderstandings when trying to communicate.
These differences can also affect one’s perception and create confusion in getting a message.
Emotional Barriers - If one is consumed with emotion he will have difficulty in understanding what is communicated.
Hostility, anger, fear, and other emotions make it hard to hear outside one’s own self. The roots of our emotional mistrust
of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful about what we said to others. We must have
been often warned- "Mind your P's and Q's". "Don't speak until you're spoken to". As a result, many people hold back from
communicating their thoughts and feelings to others. While some caution may be wise in certain relationships, excessive fear of
what others might think of us can stunt our development as effective communicators.

Overcoming these barriers to communication is no easy task. You need awareness and a willingness to adapt and try to form
meaningful relationships.
But, if you begin to focus on how these communication barriers are affecting your everyday conversation, you will be well on
your way to becoming an effective communicator.

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Revision Notes
Communication Skills
Barriers in Effective Communication

Handling Barriers to Communication

Following are some practical ideas for dealing with attitudinal barriers to communication so that all of your exchanges as a
small business owner or part of a team in an office are as productive as they can be:
Engage in face-to-face interactions whenever possible. As you've probably learned from experience, text messages and even
emails can be misinterpreted without the nonverbal “assist” of facial expressions, tone and inflection. When timely
communication is of great importance, you may have no choice but to send a quick text or email. In this case, be sure to follow
up later to seek questions and to ensure that your message was understood as you had intended it to be.
Reduce or eliminate distractions around you. Noise from other people and office machines can sink even the most pleasant
interactions, dooming them to a rough start. They interfere with the focus you need to have so that you can counteract any
attitudinal barriers. Then again, sometimes a lack of noise from other people, such as if the environment is too quiet, can be
distracting; this could mean that people are eavesdropping on your conversation - something you want to avoid. If "the walls
have ears," then move your conversation to another part of the building or go outdoors.
Try to assess the needs of the receiver. This is not an easy objective. But as an employer, look at the bright side: you're privy
to some attitudinal variables: age, culture, education, experience, gender and race. Others, such as lifestyle and upbringing, may
elude you. Use what you know to develop an empathetic stance and, if possible, tailor your message accordingly. This is
another way of saying "know thy audience." No doubt, you will get better with experience and practice.
Hone your active listening skills. The University of Maine suggests a five-step approach to this alert and engaged listening
style:

a. Acknowledge the other person's ideas, thoughts or feelings. Paraphrase the other person's words to ensure understanding.
b. Ask questions without judging. Summarize and clarify what you hear. Offer your opinion if it's requested.
c. Organize your thoughts. You don't have to write notes, but if doing so helps you organize what you want to say and how
you want to say it, then by all means, start writing. Many communications go haywire because the purpose is hazy in the
mind of the sender. And if it's hazy in the mind of the sender, it might be a complete blur to the recipient.

Soften your tone and language. As the boss, you know people watch your every move, so you also know that being courteous
and professional is a must in every interaction. To defeat any attitudinal barriers, it can help immensely to maintain a gentle,
reassuring tone and use simple, non-confrontational language. Keeping sentences short and direct can also help to prevent any
misunderstandings.
Encourage feedback. Even this seemingly benign step can be fraught with peril, if "the other guy" clams up and disses you
behind your back. Now might be a good time to remember the advice about how the receiver also bears responsibility for
whether a two-way exchange is a success or a failure. All you can do is ask that he understood what you had to say and if he has
any questions you can clarify. At least, you will be doing your part as a conscientious communicator.
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Described below are some common barriers to effective communication which we must avoid:

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1. Second guessing the sender: We do this when we are impatient with the speaker and are in a hurry to finish the sentence
for the speaker. It takes away from the speaker the opportunity to compete what was being said. At times, we could be
completely off the mark while finishing off the unspoken part and create antagonism in the speaker. We have thus
defeated out first principle of seeking first to understand.
2. Stereotyping: We often form stereotypes about those whom we know the least! Once our mental sets are created, all
our transactions are affected by these sets, preventing us from effective listening.
3. Halo effect: This is another form of stereotyping. Based on a single characteristic we make up our mind usually positively
about the other person. We may like someone's mannerisms or passion while speaking and get so impressed that are
unable to see any negatives in this person.
4. Not listening as a status or gender issue: Studies have shown that men listen much less than women do. Similarly those in
positions listen less to those who are lower in hierarchy. How well do we listen to our children, or our subordinates? If a
woman employee is speaking, are men colleagues as attentive as they would be when a male colleague speaks up?

In addition there are others which we are familiar with such as daydreaming, private planning or detouring, fatigue and
exhaustion. Typical mannerisms like saying 'you know', 'well', or making gesticulations while talking also act as barriers. These
can be observed in both the sender and the receiver. One can overcome these through seeking feedback on one's style of
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Revision Notes
Communication Skills
Principles of Effective Communication

We all wish to communicate our ideas and thoughts effectively. There are some principles that must be followed
for communication to be successful.

A. Seek first to understand, then diagnose and prescribe: The most important principle of communication is that we should
understand the other person with our mind, heart and soul, deeply, without judging, without censoring. Stephen Covey in his
book titled '7 Habits of Highly Effective People' gives an example of a father who complains that he is unable to understand
his son as the son doesn't listen to him. After repeating, "I don't understand my son, he just doesn't listen to me", several
times, the man realizes that in order to understand another person, one must deeply listen and only with the intention of truly
wanting to understand. Very often we struggle to make ourselves understood. But if the person does not open up to the
experience of wanting to understand the struggle continues and communication fails.
Covey says seeking first to understand is like opening an emotional bank account. If you invest yourself emotionally and
fully, you will get high returns in the form of a rewarding communication experience. When you truly understand the other
person you can begin to explore for causes of problems and solutions.
B. Face to Face Communication is most effective: One of the requirements within any organization is to put everything
down on paper, in writing. While all of us follow this dictum, how many of us have chosen to precede or follow up our
written
communication with a personal discussion or meeting? A face to face discussion can give us much better results. In a face to
face interaction, we are able to observe and respond to verbal and non-verbal cues, the inconsistence between the two, offer
feedback & seek clarifications. Some of this is not possible for example, when we are engaged in a telephonic conversation.
C. Communication becomes complex as the number of people we are communicating with increases: In an interaction
involving only two people, the number of communicative stimuli, both verbal and non-verbal, is limited. One is left to deal
with and manage the partner's interactions and structure one's response based on the cues received from the partner. But as
the number of people increases, stimuli, feedback, channels also increase and communication becomes complex. Suppose
you are talking to a group of 5 persons. Four of them are listening intently to you while the fifth one seems bored and
uninterested. If you continue, you have lost the opportunity to understand the reason for his or her disinterest and modify
your delivery. However, if you single this person out, she might feel cornered while others may become impatient.
Thus in a group context, one has to manage several different aspects of communication in order to be effective.
D. Communication across cultures differs: Culture can be defined as shared knowledge, symbols, conventions, folklore,
language, habits, rituals, rules and lifestyles that link and give a common identity to a particular group of people at a given
point in time. Cultural differences must be respected and kept in mind while communicating. It is a good idea to find out
about the culture, traditions and customs of another country or state you are visiting for the first time. Also remember, in a
large country like India people belonging to different states, tribes or communities have certain mannerisms and
behavioural characteristics that need to be understood. Not giving eye-contact to a member of the opposite sex or a person
who belongs to a higher caste class is common among Indians. To a Westerner, the same gesture may mean lack of
earnestness of the people we are interacting with.
E. Feedback is the key to effective communication: Communication transactions continue to evolve effectively in the
presence of feedback. Try talking to a person with a deadpan face. Chances are, very soon the enthusiasm with which you
started will wane. Conversely if the audience responds with nods, smiles, anything that conveys attention and interest, the
speaker is
encouraged to continue. Feedback also gives you an indication if there is any change needed in the communication stimuli.

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Revision Notes
Communication Skills
C's of effective communication

In your daily life and at work you write emails, facilitate meetings, participate in conference calls, create reports, devise
presentations, debate with your colleagues… the list goes on.
We all spend almost our entire day communicating. So, it stands to reason that communicating clearly and effectively is very
important and can boost our productivity.
This is why the 7 Cs of Communication are stressed in our discussions on good communication. The 7 Cs provide a checklist
for making sure that your meetings, emails, conference calls, reports, and presentations are well constructed and clear – so your
audience gets your message. Following are the 7 Cs of effective communication:
Watch this video that makes it easy to understand the 7 Cs:
NEXT.

https//youtu.be/sYBw9-8eCuMs://youtu.be/sYBw9-8eCuM

1. Be Clear
Begin every message by asking the question, “What is the purpose of this communication?” This will enable you to make
the objective of your communication clear to the recipient. Clarity is also about avoiding the use of complex words,
sentences, and fuzzy language.
It is important that you clearly communicate the intended information to the recipient. You must be able to explain a concept
several ways and answer clarifying questions about the topic.
If you are not clear about the purpose of your communication, then your objectives will not be met.
Writing points on note cards or a notepad can help you methodically work through what you want to communicate.
Most people will tend to drift or forget items if they don’t have a clear framework to operate within. Presentation slides
can be helpful though very often a simple outline will be enough.
2. Be concise
Make your message brief and to the point. Why use 10 sentences to explain something when a single sentence will suffice?
Being concise will save time for both you and the receiver of your message.
To help make your communications more concise, avoid going over the same point several times, and avoid the use of filler
words, sentences, and over wordy expressions. Although we are trying to be concise, it is important to remember that we are
not trying to lose completeness.
3. Be Concrete
Concrete communication is about being specific and clear rather than vague, obscure, and general. To be more concrete use
sentences that cannot be misinterpreted. Include supporting facts and figures to underscore your message, but don’t allow
anything that detracts from the focus of your message.
4. Be Correct
Incorrect information doesn’t help anyone and it does your credibility no good. Ensure that: Your message is typo-free;
your facts and figures are correct and you are using the right level of language. Being correct first time will both save you
time
and boost your credibility. A correct message will also have a greater impact on the recipient than an incorrect one.
5. Be Coherent
Does your message make sense? Does it flow logically from one sentence to the next? To ensure that your communication is
coherent: Check that each sentence flows logically from one to the next and check that you haven’t tried to cover too many
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6. Be Complete
Your message must contain all the necessary information to achieve the desired response. To ensure that your message is
complete think about questions the receiver might think of as they receive your message. Address these questions. Ensure
you have included a call to action so that your audience knows exactly what you expect them to do next.
7. Be Courteous
Be polite. You’re more likely to get what you want from your communication if you are courteous, as courtesy builds
goodwill. Check that your message is polite, shows respect for the feelings of the receiver, and is tactful. Make your
message brief and to the point.

The following table makes the 7C's clear to you

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7 C's of Communication Checklist

Make objective clear.
Clear
Avoid complex words & phrases.
Keep it clear and to the point.
Concise
Avoid filler words \&
sentences.
Be specific not vague.
Concrete
Use facts and figures to support your message.
Try to avoid typos. Use correct facts and
Correct
figures. Use the right level of language.
Does your message make sense?
Coherent
Ensure it flows logically. Avoid covering too much.
Does the message contain everything it needs to?
Complete
Include a call-to-action.
Being polite builds goodwill.
Courteous
Ensure message is tactful.

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Revision Notes
Communication Skills
Basic Writing Skills

What is a Sentence?
A sentence is a group of words giving a complete thought. A sentence must contain a subject and a verb.
There are three types of sentences-

a. Simple Sentence
b. Compound Sentences
c. Complex Sentences.

Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is one independent clause that has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.

Must have a subject and a verb.

Must express a complete thought.
Must only have one clause.

Examples

I am out of paper for the printer.

Will you help me with the math homework?

Compound Sentence
A compound sentence allows us to share a lot of information by combining two or more related thoughts into one sentence.
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Example: I drove to the office, and then I walked to the cabin.

Complex Sentence
Answer: A complex sentence is a sentence that combines one independent clause with at least one dependent clause.
Example:

Although Rohan had some doubts, he found the courses very useful.
Computers have come a long way since they first came on the market.

What are Phrases?

Phrases are a group of words that work together to communicate an element of speech.

Types of phrases are-

i. Prepositional Phrases
ii. Participial Phrase
iii. Appositive Phrase.
iv. Gerund Phrase
v. Infinitive Phrase

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Parts of Sentence
Answer: Every sentence can be broken into two parts-

a. Complete Subject - The complete subject consists of the simple subject (The noun or the pronoun is the subject is about)
and its modifiers
b. Complete Predicate - The complete predicate is made up of verbs and modifiers.

The old man built a road.

the subject is - "the old man"
the predicate is - "built a road"

What is an Object?
A category to which a word is assigned in accordance with its syntactic functions.
In English, the main parts of speech are noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.

Types of Parts of Speech with example

There are eight parts of speech in English. These are

i. Noun - A word for a person, place of things. e.g. - Rama, Chennai, Box, Info Tech, democracy, gravity, etc.
ii. Pronoun - A word that stands in for a noun i.e. to use in place of noun. e.g. he, she, I, we, they, him, her, me, us, them.
iii. Adjective - A word that describes the noun or pronoun. e.g. green 'green leaf', young in 'young girl'
iv. Verb - A doing word. e.g. cried, jump, read, like, etc.
v. Adverb - A word that describes an adjective, adverb or verb. e.g. quickly, slowly, carefully, etc.
vi. Preposition - A word that shows the position in time or space i.e. shows relationships. e.g. on, over, for, besides, etc.
vii. Conjunction - A word that connects two sentences together i.e. joining words. Eg. and, but, or, because.
viii. Interjection - A word of surprise. Eg. hey, well, now, so, Wow!, Oh my!
ix. Article - A word that introduces a noun. e.g. a, an, the

What are Quantifiers?

The words that describe the quantity or amount of a noun are called quantifiers. e.g. much, little, few, bit, several, etc.

Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are those which can be counted. A countable noun can be used in both singular and plural forms e.g, books,
apples, pens, phones, rooms, glasses, etc.

Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are those which cannot be counted. An uncountable noun can be used in singular forms e.g, books, apples,
pens, phones, rooms, glasses, etc.

Quantifiers for Countable & Uncountable Nouns

Quantifiers are used when we want to give information about the number or quantity of a noun.

Countable Nouns - Quantifiers Uncountable Nouns - Quantifiers

much, a little, little, very little, a bit, a great deal of, a large many, a few, few, very few, a number, several, a large number
amount of, a large quantity of, a bit of of, a great number of, a majority of, couple of

Quantifiers that can be used with both Countable & Uncountable Nouns
Quantifiers are used when we want to give information about the number or quantity of a noun.

Common Quantifiers - Countable & Uncountable Nouns

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all, enough, more, most, less, least, no, none, not any, some, any, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, heaps of, tons of, loads of

What is Article Writing?

Article writing is the process of creating a non-fiction text about current or recent news, items of general interest, or specific
topics.

Format of Article writing

Topic of Article
(By Govind Singh)

1. Introduction of the topics [ Meaning and Present status)

2. Causes of the topic (if it is a problem)
3. Statistics of the topic (Problem, if known)
4. Advantages/Disadvantages of the topic (Problem)
5. Conclusion with warning/message/advice/steps requirement.

What is a Paragraph?
A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related to a single topic.
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A paragraph is a group of sentences that describes one idea.

Parts of a Paragraph
A paragraph is having different parts -

a. Topic sentences
b. Supporting details
c. Colorful vocabulary
d. Concluding sentences

Rules for writing a good paragraph are:

A basic rule of writing a paragraph is -
A paragraph represents one idea., if you have to write about a different idea, start a new paragraph.
To write a good paragraph, you need to follow these rules -

a. Write an Outline for the Paragraph - (i) topic and (ii) supporting information of the topic
b. Write the topic sentence - that describes the topic.
c. Write supporting sentences for each outline, with the help of examples or facts.
d. Write the concluding sentence, i.e. sum up the idea of the paragraph.
e. Combine all the lines to get your final paragraph.

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Revision Notes
Self-management Skills
Ability to Work Independently

Ability to Work Independently

Everyone who has been sent on this earth has been blessed in their own way. They together make this earth a beautiful place.
Some can sing well, others are good at sports, some are intellectuals and some are good comedians. Everyone is special. But it
is important that everyone learns the art of working independently. This typically means that one must learn to take ownership
of the task assigned and leave no stone unturned in accomplishing the task. The individual who has the ability to work
independently need not be supervised for task completion.
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Importance of The Ability to Work Independently

Following benefits of working independently advocate its importance.

Ensures greater learning.

Individuals feel more empowered and responsible.
It provides flexibility to choose and define working hours and working mechanisms.
Failure and success of the task assigned are accounted for by individuals.
Individuals become assets to organizations, groups, and nations.
It ensures creativity and satisfaction amongst individuals.

Enhancing Ability to Work Independently

The ability to work independently can be enhanced by being self-aware, self-motivated, and self-regulated.
NEXT.
Let’s now learn what are these:
Self-Awareness
Having conscious knowledge of your own self, capabilities, feelings, and one's own character is called self-awareness. It helps
individuals to chart their ways of working independently.
Self-Motivation
Self-motivated individuals have an inner urge to do something, achieve their goals without any external pressure. It is a life skill
and must be necessarily developed.
Self-Regulation
Self-regulation guides independent individuals as it helps them consider long-term consequences rather than just transient
feelings. It leads to responsible and value-driven behavior.

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CBSE Class–10 Information Technology

Revision Notes
Self-management Skills - II
Stress Management
Techniques

Meaning and Importance of Stress Management

Stress Management refers to focusing human efforts on maintaining a healthy body and mind capable of better withstanding
stressful situations. Occasional stress is an unavoidable part of one's life. Stress refers to a "physical, mental, or emotional strain
or tension". Small amounts of stress have a positive effect and they help us stretch ourselves to a new level. High levels of stress
over prolonged periods need to be managed. Stress well managed can help one view events and situations as challenges and
contributes to the growth of the individual. Unmanaged stress leads to anxiety and sorrow resulting in an ill status of mental and
physical health. Stress causal agents can have the following origins.
NEXT.

Mental: Students can be left overwhelmed if they are unable to handle their assignment submission deadlines and examinations
grades. Overly high expectations from self can leave one with chronic anxiety and stress.
Physical: As children grow up they may seek more independence, may become critically conscious of their looks, and have to
cope up with hormonal changes. Issues related to the general well-being and health of an individual can lead to low self-esteem
and cause stress.
Social: Discord amongst family members, peer pressure for doing things which kids will generally avoid, maintaining balance
in relationships amongst friends, status show off may lead to stress at times.
Financial: Youngsters may have aspirational financial stress. This may of becoming independent or Finances aspirational stress
may

Importance of Stress Management

Being well versed with stress coping mechanisms helps people lead and healthy and happier life. Adequately managed stress
prevents medical and physical illnesses. Stress management is vital because it leads to the following benefits.

Improves mood
Boosts immune system
Promotes longevity
This leads to a burst of physical strength, which is vital for goal achievement
Complete mental and physical engagement for task accomplishment

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Increases efficiency and effectiveness

Prevents psychological disorders and behavioral problems

Stress Management Techniques

Stress is a mental state where one size doesn’t fit all, what stresses one person may not stress others at all. It is a highly
individualistic phenomenon and the solution has to be customized to an individual's mental state. Physical signs which may
suggest stress are breathlessness, dry mouth, butterflies in the stomach, indigestion, nausea, acidity, fatigue, sweaty palms, cold
hands and feet, irritation and hyperactivity, etc. At the mental level following symptoms may reflect stress irritation, impatience,
loneliness, upset, anxious, depressed, frustration, bored, guilty, insecure and forgetfulness.
NEXT.
Self-awareness amongst individuals for symptoms of stress will help them manage it better. They should try understanding the
cause, understanding self, and taking remedial measures. Avoiding the issues or procrastination is not the solution. Speaking out
to the well-wishers like family and friends is of help in stress management as they provide a social support system. Apart from
positive thinking, managing one’s time across any or a combination of the following activities aids in stress management.

Physical Exercise
When stress affects the brain, the rest of the body also feels the impact. Physical exercise in the form of walking,
skipping, or for that matter indulging in any sports has been found to relieve stress as they stabilize mood, improves self-
esteem, and induces sleep.
Yoga
Yoga is a school of Hindu philosophy that reduces stress, which includes a series of postures and breathing exercises
practiced to achieve control of body and mind.
Meditation
It is a practice where an individual is supposed to focus his/her mind on a particular object, thought or activity to achieve
a calm mental state reducing stress.
Enjoying
Recreational activities like watching movies, attending concerts, playing games, involving in adventure sports, singing,
dancing, or even sketching can help individuals transcend to a happier mental state and help manage stress.
Going On Vacations with Family and Friends
Vacations provide an opportunity of taking a holiday from our routine and appreciate different facets of life.
Vacations can be taken up to friends and relatives places as well as to far-flung attractive locations. Vacationing helps
in de-
stressing individuals.
Taking Nature Walks
Taking nature walks in a pristine environment of a national park or a sanctuary or a trail in the countryside/village brings
us a calmness by allowing our overstimulated minds a chanceGA to relax and helps us relax.

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Revision Notes
Information and Communication Technology
Skills Care and Maintenance of Computer

Importance and need of care and maintenance of computer

Computer systems require maintenance so that the system works efficiently. Poor maintenance may lead to system failure.
Regular care and maintenance may help you detect any issues at an early stage and keep it functioning well.
Since a lot of important data is stored in the computer, it is necessary to have regular maintenance of the computer to be done.
Computer virus, malware, and other harmful softwares can cause damage to the working of the computer. If anti-virus is
installed in the computer, and is updated and run periodically, then any loss of data can be prevented.
NEXT.
A large number of files are stored on the computer. These files can be disorganized and fragmented and may result in slowing
down of the computer.
Regular maintenance of the system includes installing updates, security, taking backups, scans,
etc Both internal and external parts of the computer system should be taken care of.

1. Keep the computer dust free.

2. Do not eat or drink while working on the computer. Food or drink may spill on the system.
3. To keep the keyboard clean, make sure your hands are clean before using it.
4. CDs and DVDs should be handled carefully so that it does not get any scratches.
5. Keep keyboard covered when not in use.

Cleaning the computer components

Computer components needs proper care for these to last longer. Preventive maintenance increases the life of the components.
For example, a cable is damaged, but still working. It should be timely replaced or repaired to prevent any other damage.
Fan in the CPU helps to cool down the CPU as it gets heated while working. If the cooling fan is blocked, may be due to dust
and is not repaired or replaced, can easily catch fire. Therefore regular inspection of the components is required. This increases
the lifetime of the hardware.
General precautions to be takes while cleaning the computer components are:

Always Power Off the computer system before cleaning.

Never spray cleaning fluid directly on the component of the computer. First spray the liquid on the cloth and then wipe
the component.
Do not allow the cleaning liquid to drip near the circuit board.
Preferably use anti-static wrist band which helps to prevent building up of static electricity near electronic device.

Computer monitor
To clean the computer monitor, you can use a soft lint-free cloth, like cotton and water or special cleaning liquid. You
should not spray water or cleaning liquid directly on the computer monitor as it may run through the seams. Spray water or
cleaning liquid on the cloth and gently wipe the computer monitor

Keyboard
Dirt and dust can cause damage to the keyboard. Keys of the keyboard may not function properly if dirt enters the keys. You
should always clean the keyboard periodically by holding upside down and shaking it. You can also clean it by blasting it with

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compressed air. After this, use a damp lint-free cloth to clean top of the keys. You should never spray any liquid cleaner or
water directly on the keys of the keyboard.

Optical Mouse
You can clean the bottom of the optical mouse with a clean lint-free cloth. Lens area can be cleaned by blowing air or cotton
swab.

Digital camera
Never touch the lens of the camera. To remove the dust, you can use soft lens brush or wipe with a soft dry cloth. For stubborn
dust, you can use special fluid for lens cleaning which should be first pot on the tissue and then wipe the lens. Never put the
fluid directly on the lens.

CDs and DVDs

Keep CD/DVD in proper case to prevent it from scratch free. If there is some dirt on the CD or DVD, it may not work at all.
Finger prints and dirt can be removed by lightly rubbing with a clean lint-free cotton cloth. If the dirt is hard to remove, you can
use special cleaning fluid. Put the drop of fluid on a swab of cotton and gently rub on the media.

Preparing maintenance schedule

Regular maintenance of the computer system is very important.
Some of the maintenance activities are:

Keep the components of the computer, like keyboard, mouse, monitor, etc. clean.
Replacing hardware that is not functioning properly
Keep food items away from the computer
Cables and chords should not be messed up
Removing unauthorized software from the computer
Taking regular backup of the data
Ensure backups are working properly by periodically restoring data. You should use external hard drive for backup of
data on your computer.
Running anti-virus periodically
Keeping anti-virus software up to date
Do not overcharge the batteries
Do not block the vents
Always shut down the computer properly

Regular scans should be done to check for viruses, malware, etc. An effective antivirus software should be installed in your
computer. Always keep your antivirus software updated so that it can detect new viruses. Full system scan should be done to
periodically, preferably weekly to scan for viruses.
A regular disk defragmentation should be done to remove all unnecessary information that slows down the computer. Disk
defragmentation done at regular intervals helps the disc space to be used at an optimal level.
Take regular backup of the data on your computer. In case the data is lost due to any reason, system failure, virus attack, etc.,
you can easily retrieve your data using backup files.
System should be upgraded with new technology that were not there at the time of purchase, like, increasing RAM, to improve
the performance. Also storage space should also be increased for storage of more information.
If you are getting some disc errors, then make sure that temporary internet files should be deleted from time to time.
Softwares should be updated regularly so that it works with maximum efficiency.

Computer virus
A computer virus is a software program that attaches itself to other programs and alters their behavior. A virus may or may not

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be destructive. Some viruses erase data or corrupt programs on the computer.

When a virus enters a computer system, it makes copies of itself and carries out the harmful tasks that it is programmed for.
Some viruses get activated at a certain date and time. Viruses also attach to the files stored on the computer or the storage media
and harm these files.
A virus may get attached to e-mail messages and spread from one computer to another.
A computer virus can infect only the software and not the hardware.
A computer can get infected with virus in any of the following ways:

Infected files
Infected pen drives
Infected CD-ROMs
Through infected file attachment of e-mails

A computer virus cannot do the following:

It cannot infect files on CD or DVD.

It cannot infect computer hardware like, keyboard, mouse, etc.

How do we know that our computer is infected with virus? Sometimes, computer shows strange behavior. Some of the common
signs of a virus attack are:

Computer runs very slow

There is change in the file size
Computer often stops responding
There is an increase in number of files (unusual)
Unusual error message appears on the screen
Computer restarts on its own

How to prevent virus infection

The following points should be kept in mind to prevent virus infection:

Install and use anti-virus software.

Keep anti-virus software updated.
Scan all the files that you download from the Internet
Do not open e-mails of an unknown person/sender
Don’t allow any untrustworthy person to use your system.
New use unknown pen drive/CD on your computer
Never click on the windows that pop-up when you are surfing the Internet.

Preparing computer against virus

To prevent our computer from being infected with virus, we should install antivirus software, run it periodically and keep it
updated so that it can scan and remove new viruses.
Antivirus software is a program designed to detect and remove malicious programs from the computer.
Some examples of antivirus software are McAfee VirusScan, Norton AntiVirus, Microsoft Security essentials, and Quick Heal.
For an anti-virus program to be effective:

It needs to run in the background at all times.

Keep the anti-virus software updated so that it can recognize new viruses.
run full disk scans periodically.

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Scanning and cleaning virus

Let us discuss how to use Quick Heal Total security to scan the computer system.

1. Click Start > All Programs > Quick Heal Total Security >
Quick Heal Total Security.
Or
Double-click the Quick Heal Antivirus icon on the desktop.
2. The main window of Quick heal Total Security opens up (Fig 1)

Fig 1 Main window of Quick Heal Total Security

3. The main window has three sections:
a. Top section has the following options:
Option Description
Using this option you can customize settings like, automatic update, Internet settings, Self Protection,
Settings
Password Protection, Restore Default Settings, etc.
Helps you diagnose the system in case of virus attacks, clean application and Internet activities, restore the
Tools Internet Explorer settings modified by malwares, isolate the infected and suspicious files, prevent USB drives
against auto-run malware infection. You can also exclude files from virus protection.
Helps you view the activity reports of Scanner, Virus Protection, Email Protection, Scan Scheduler,
Reports
Behavior Detection, Quick Update, Memory Scan, Phishing Protection, Registry Restore, Boot Time
Scanner, etc.
Help This option provides information on how to use Quick Heal Antivirus and details about the version, etc.
b. The middle section has the following options:
Files and Folders Helps you protect files and folders against malicious threats.
With this option, you can configure Scan Settings, Virus Protection, Block Suspicious Packed Files, Screen Locker
Protection, Scan Schedule, Exclude Files & Folders, and Quarantine & Backup.
E-mails Helps you configure Email Protection, Trusted Email Clients Protection, and Spam Protection.
Internet & Network Helps you configure the settings for Internet & Network protection. With this option, you can
configure Firewall Protection, Browsing Protection, Malware Protection, Phishing Protection. Parental Control Helps
you control the Internet access, application access, and computer access for the children and other users.
External Drives & Devices This option allows you to configure settings related to threats that come from CDs, pen
drives, external disks, etc.
c. The bottom section has the following options:
News This option provides you with the latest news from Quick Heal PC Tuner Helps you improve system performance
by cleaning your system with features such as Disk Cleanup, Registry Cleanup, Traces Cleanup, Duplicate File Finder,
Secure Delete and Registry Defragmenter.
Scan This option provides various scanning options, like, Full System Scan, Custom Scan, Memory Scan, Mobile scan
and Boot Time Scan.

To perform full system scan,

1. Click Scan > Full System Scan.

2. The scan process will begin
3. On completion of the scan, the scan statistics and reports are provided.

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4. Click Close.

Fig Full System Scan in progress

Fig Scan statistics and reports

Removing Temporary Files

The steps to remove temporary files are:

1. Double-click Computer icon on the desktop.

2. The Computer Window opens.
3. Right-click Local Disk C: and select Properties option from the Shortcut menu. (Fig)

Fig Computer window

4. The Properties window opens. (Fig)

Fig Properties window

5. Click Disk Cleanup.
6. The Disk Cleanup for C: window appears (Fig)

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7. Click the Check box next to Temporary Files, Temporary Internet files, etc. that you want to delete.

Fig Disk Cleanup window

8. Click OK.
9. A confirmation message will appear (Fig ).

Fig Confirmation message

10. Click Delete Files.
11. Windows will delete all the temporary files on the computer.

Removing files of Temporary Folder

NEXT.
The steps to remove files of temporary folder are:

1. Press Windows button + R on the keyboard.

2. The Run dialog box appears.
3. Type %temp% (Fig)

Fig Run dialog box

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4. The Temp folder opens (Fig)

Fig Temp folder

5. Click Ctrl + A to select all the files in the folder. (Fig)

Fig Selecting files in Temp folder

6. Press Delete key.
7. A message box appears. Click Yes to confirm.

Fig message box

8. All the files in the Temp folder will be deleted.

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CBSE Class–10 Artificial Intelligence (417)

Revision Notes
Information and Communication Technology
Skills Operating Systems

Basic Computer Operations

As we all know that computer is a very useful machine. It is very important to properly start the computer and after finishing the
work, it needs to be properly shut down. If the power of the computer is switched off, and the files you were working on were
not closed, the files and the operating system may get corrupted.
NEXT.

Operating System
An operating system is the basic software that controls the computer. It serves as an interface between the user and the
computer. Some of the functions of Operating system are:

It manages all the devices of a computer and keeps track of the status of the device, whether it is busy or not.
It also checks whether the device is functioning properly or not.
It also controls software resources of the computer.
It manages the computer memory and keeps track of which memory space is in use by which program and which space
is free.
It manages the structure of the files and directories on a computer system.
It keeps track of the amount of disk space used by a specific file.
It allows you to create, copy, move and delete files.

Types of Operating Systems

We have already discussed about some commonly used operating systems in class IX. These are:

DOS DOS (Disk Operating System)

Windows It is an operating system developed by Microsoft.
Linux It is an operating system designed for personal computers. It is a free and open-source software
Mobile Operating Systems
Android
Symbian
Windows Phone
iOS

Types of Operating Systems

The different types of operating systems are as follows:

Interactive (GUI-based)
A graphical user interface is a user-friendly operating system in which commands can be entered by clicking/double-
clicking/right clicking a mouse. Windows operating system is an example of an interactive operating system.

Single-user, single-task operating system

This type of operating system allows only one user to do a task on the computer and one thing at a time.

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Single-user, multi-task operating system

This type of operating system is used on Desktop computers, laptops, where a single user can operate on several programs at the
same time. For example, Windows, Apple MacOS are examples of single-user multi task operating system.

Multi-user
A multi-user operating system enables multiple users to work on the same computer at different times or simultaneously.

Real Time
A real time operating system is used to control machinery, scientific instruments, like robots, in complex animations and
computer controlled automated machines. A real-time operating system is a computing environment that reacts to input within a
specific period of time. It manages the resources of the computer so that any particular operation is executed in the same amount
of time every time it is executed. Windows CE and Lynx OS are examples of real-time operating systems.

Distributed
A distributed operating system runs on a set of computers that are interconnected by a network. It combines the different
computers in the network into a single integrated computer and storage location. Windows, UNIX, and LINUX are examples of
distributed operating systems.

Windows 7 operating system

Windows 7 is an operating system developed by Microsoft and is used on personal computers.
After loading Windows 7, the first screen that appears on the monitor is called desktop. From the desktop, you can access
different components of Windows 7.
By default, Windows 7 has a picture for the desktop background. This is called wallpaper. Small pictures on the desktop are
called icons. These icons represent files, folders, applications, etc. At the bottom of the desktop is a long bar called the Taskbar.
To the left of the taskbar is the Start button.

Components of Windows 7 Desktop are shown below:

Fig: Desktop
We already know that use of following icons:
Computer It displays all the storage areas of the computer. Through the Computer icon, you can access all drives, files, and
folders on the computer. When you double-click Computer icon, a window shown below appears on the screen.

Fig Computer Window

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Documents
This contains area to store files on the computer.

Taskbar
Taskbar is the long horizontal bar present at the bottom of the screen. To the left is the Start button. Right of the taskbar contains
Date/Time. You can also see icons of active applications and some shortcuts on the Taskbar The main components of Taskbar
are shown in the following figure:

Fig Taskbar
Start button It is located on the left of the taskbar. Clicking the Start button opens the Start menu and provides access to
programs and features, like:

Shut Down:- allows the user to turn off the computer

All Programs:- Provides access to all the installed programs and applications. To start an application, just click it.
Search Box:- This allows the user to search a file or a folder or run executable files.
Control panel:- This allows the user to change various settings.

Recycle Bin
Files and folders deleted by the user are stored in the Recycle Bin. From Recycle Bin, you can retrieve files or folders deleted
by mistake.

File System
Everything you store on your computer is stored in the form of a file. File system is a way in which you give name to a file,
store it and retrieve it. There are specific naming conventions for naming files or folders, like characters that can be used,
maximum number of characters, etc.
Files can be separately placed into groups, called folders/directories. Each directory/folder can contain related files and/or sub-
folders. A sub-folder may contain one or more files and sub-folders within. This allows easy accessibility of files.
Files are managed in a hierarchy. This allows you to view the files in the current directory and then move to sub-directories.

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Creating a folder
The steps to create a new folder are:

1. Double-click the Computer icon. (Fig.)

2. Select the drive in which you want to create a new folder. Say, Local Disk D:.
3. Window will open up showing files and folders in Local Disc D: (Fig.)

Fig Files and folders in Local Disc D

4. Click New Folder on the
toolbar. Or
Right-click anywhere in the blank area of the right column. A shortcut menu appears. Select New > Folder from the shortcut
menu. (Fig.)

Fig Shortcut menu

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5. A new folder is created with name New Folder highlighted (Fig.).

Fig New Folder created

6. Type a name for the folder (Fig.). Press Enter key.

Fig naming a folder

Creating a file
To create a new file:

1. Right-click anywhere in the blank area of the right-column.

2. In the Shortcut menu, click New and select the type of the file you want to create.

Fig Creating a new file

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Renaming folders and files

To rename a file or a folder, the steps are:

1. Right-click the file or the folder.

2. From the shortcut menu, select Rename option (Fig).

Fig Rename option of Shortcut menu

3. Type the new name or edit the existing name and press the Enter key.

Deleting files or folders

To delete a file or a folder:

1. Click the file or the folder.

2. Press the Delete
key. Or
Right-click and select Delete option from the Shortcut menu.

Copying Files and folders

When you copy a file or a folder, duplicate of the original file or folder is created at the new location., the original remains as it
is. You can copy a file or a folder in any one of the following ways:
NEXT.

1. Shortcut menu:
a. Right-click the file or the folder you want to copy.
b. Select Copy option from the Shortcut menu. (Fig.)
c. Select the drive or the folder where you want to make a copy of the selected file or folder.
d. Right-click and select Paste option from the Shortcut menu.

Fig Shortcut menu

2. Drag and Drop method: To copy a file or a folder, hold down the Ctrl key while dragging it to the new location.
3. Using Keyboard:

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a. Select the file or the folder.

b. Press Ctrl + C to copy the file or the folder.
c. Open the destination folder.
d. Press Ctrl + V to paste the copied file.

Moving Files and folders

When you move a file or a folder, the original file or folder is moved to the new location.
You can move a file or a folder in any one of the following ways:

1. Shortcut menu:
a. Right-click the file or the folder you want to copy.
b. Select Cut option from the Shortcut menu. (Fig)
c. Select the drive or the folder where you want to move the selected file or folder.
d. Right-click and select Paste option from the Shortcut menu.

Fig Shortcut menu

2. Drag and Drop method: To copy a file or a folder, select the file and drag it to a new location.
3. Using Keyboard:
a. Select the file or the folder.
b. Press Ctrl + X to cut the file or the folder.
c. Open the destination folder.
d. Press Ctrl + V to paste the copied file.

Permanently Deleting Files

You can permanently delete the contents of the Recycle Bin in any one of the following ways: Right-click the Recycle Bin icon
and then click Empty Recycle Bin.

OR

1. Double-click the Recycle Bin icon.

2. The Recycle Bin window appears.
3. Click Empty the Recycle Bin.

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Restore Files/Folder from Recycle Bin window

To recover a file from the Recycle Bin, right-click the file, and then click Restore.

Or
Select the file and click Restore this item

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Introduction to Artificial
Intelligence
Uncategorized

Intelligence

Mathematical Logical Reasoning: A person's ability to regulate, measure, and understand numerical
symbols, abstraction and logic.
Linguistic Intelligence: Language processing skills both in terms of understanding or implementation
in writing or verbally.
Spatial Visual Intelligence: It is defined as the ability to perceive the visual world and the relationship
of one object to another.
Kinaesthetic Intelligence: Ability that is related to how a person uses his limbs in a skilled manner.
Musical Intelligence: As the name suggests, this intelligence is about a person's ability to recognize
and create sounds, rhythms, and sound patterns.
Intrapersonal Intelligence: Describes how high the level of self-awareness someone has is. Starting
from realizing weakness, strength, to his own feelings.
Existential Intelligence: An additional category of intelligence relating to religious and
spiritual awareness.
Naturalist Intelligence: An additional category of intelligence relating to the ability to process the
information on the environment around us.
Interpersonal intelligence: Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to communicate with others
by understanding other people's feelings & influence on the person.

In other words, we may define intelligence as:

Ability to interact with the real world

To perceive, understand and act
Example: Speech Recognition – Understanding and
synthesis Example: Image Recognition
Example: Ability to take action: to have an effect
Reasoning and planning
Modelling the external world, given input
Solving new problems, planning and making
decisions Ability to deal with unexpected problems,
uncertainties
Learning and adaptation
Continuous learning and adapting graph
Our internal models are always being updated
Example: Baby learning to categorize and recognise animals

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you make decisions?

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The basis of decision-making depends upon the availability of information and how we experience and
understand it. For the purposes of this article, ‘information’ includes our past experience, intuition,
knowledge, and self-awareness.

What is Artificial Intelligence?

When a machine possesses the ability to mimic human traits, i.e., make decisions, predict the future, learn
and improve on its own, it is said to have artificial intelligence.

How do machines become Artificially Intelligent?

Bachines also become intelligent once they are trained with some information that helps them achieve
their tasks. AI machines also keep updating their knowledge to optimise their output.

NITI Aayog: AI refers to the ability of machines to perform cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving,
learning, problem-solving and decision-making.

World Economic Forum: Artificial intelligence (AI) is the software engine that drives the Fourth Industrial
Revolution. Its impact can already be seen in homes, businesses and political processes. In its embodied form
of robots, it will soon be driving cars, stocking warehouses and caring for the young and elderly.

AI is a form of Intelligence; a type of technology and a field of study.

AI theory and the development of computer systems (both machines and software) enable machines
to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence.
Artificial Intelligence covers a broad range of domains and applications and is expected to impact
every field in the future. Overall, its core idea is building machines and algorithms capable of
performing
computational tasks that would otherwise require human-like brain functions.

AI, ML & DL

Artificial Intelligence (AI): Refers to any technique that enables computers to mimic human intelligence. It
gives the ability to machines to recognize a human’s face; to move and manipulate objects, understand human
voice commands, and do other tasks. The AI-enabled machines think algorithmically and execute what they
have been asked for intelligently.

Machine Learning (ML): It is a subset of Artificial Intelligence that enables machines to improve at tasks
with experience (data). The intention of Machine Learning is to enable machines to learn by themselves using
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Deep Learning (DL): It enables software to train itself to perform tasks with vast amounts of data. In Deep
Learning, the machine is trained with huge amounts of data which helps it in training itself around the data.
Such machines are intelligent enough to develop algorithms for themselves. Deep Learning is the most
advanced form of Artificial Intelligence out of these three.

AI Domains

With respect to the type of data fed in the AI model, AI models can be broadly categorized into three domains:

Data Sciences
Computer Vision
Natural Language Processing

Data Sciences

Data sciences is a domain of AI related to data systems and processes, in which the system collects numerous
data, maintains data sets and derives meaning/sense out of them. The information extracted through data
science can be used to make a decision about it.

Computer Vision

Computer Vision, abbreviated as CV, is a domain of AI that depicts the capability of a machine to get and
analyse visual information and afterwards predict some decisions about it. The entire process involves image
acquiring, screening, analysing, identifying and extracting information. This extensive processing helps
computers to understand any visual content and act on it accordingly.

Natural Language Processing

Natural Language Processing, abbreviated as NLP, is a branch of artificial intelligence that deals with the
interaction between computers and humans using natural language. Natural language refers to language that
is spoken and written by people, and natural language processing (NLP) attempts to extract information
from the spoken and written word using algorithms.

AI ethics is a system of moral principles and techniques intended to inform the development
and responsible use of artificial intelligence technology.
AI ethics is a set of guidelines that advise on the design and outcomes of artificial intelligence.
Human beings come with all sorts of cognitive biases, such as recency and confirmation bias, and those
inherent biases are exhibited in our behaviors and subsequently, our data.

AI Bias means favoring someone or something. AI bias focuses upon training the machines with unbiased
data, when Bias Data is fed to an AI Machine while creating the Model then the machine will also be biased.
The quality of your model is usually a direct result of the quality and quantity of your data.

Data privacy generally means the ability of a person to determine for themselves when, how, and to what
extent personal information about them is shared with or communicated to others. This personal information
can be one's name, location, contact information, or online or real-world behavior.

AI Access

Since Artificial Intelligence is still a budding technology, not everyone has the opportunity to access it. The
people who can afford AI enabled devices make the most of it while others who cannot are left behind.
Because of this, a gap has emerged between these two classes of people and it gets widened with the rapid
advancement of technology.

AI creates unemployment

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AI is making people’s lives easier. Most of things nowadays are done in just a few clicks. In no time AI will
manage to do all the laborious tasks we humans have been doing for a long time. Maybe in the coming years,
AI-enabled machines will replace all the people who work as labourers. This may start an era of mass
unemployment where people having little or no skills may be left without jobs and others who keep up with
their skills according to what is required, will flourish.

AI for kids: As we all can see, kids nowadays are smart enough to understand technology from a very early
age. As their thinking capabilities increase, they start becoming techno-savvy and eventually they learn
everything more easily than an adult.

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AI Project Cycle
Uncategorized
AI Project Cycle

The AI Project Cycle provides us with an appropriate framework that can lead us towards the goal. The AI
Project Cycle mainly has 5 stages:

AI Project Cycle

You need to acquire data that will become the base of your project as it will help you in understanding the
parameters that are related to problem scoping.
You go for data acquisition by collecting data from various reliable and authentic sources. Since the data
you collect would be in large quantities, you can try to give it a visual image of different types of
representations like graphs, databases, flow charts, maps, etc. This makes it easier for you to interpret the
patterns which your acquired data follows.
After exploring the patterns, you can decide upon the type of model you would build to achieve the
goal. For this, you can research online and select various models which give a suitable output.
You can test the selected models and figure out which is the most efficient one.
The most efficient model is now the base of your AI project and you can develop your algorithm around
it. Once the modelling is complete, you now need to test your model on some newly fetched data. The
results will help you in evaluating your model and improve it.
Finally, after evaluation, the project cycle is now complete and what you get is your AI project.

Problem Scoping

Scoping a problem is not that easy as we need to have a deeper understanding around it so that the
picture becomes clearer while we are working to solve it. Hence, we use the 4Ws Problem Canvas to

help us out.

Who?

The “Who” block helps in analysing the people getting affected directly or indirectly due to it. Under this,
we find out who the ‘Stakeholders’ of this problem are and what we know about them. Stakeholders are the
people who face this problem and would be benefitted from the solution.

What?

Under the “What” block, you need to look into what you have on hand. At this stage, you need to determine
the nature of the problem. What is the problem and how do you know that it is a problem? Under this block,
you
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evidence to prove that the problem you have selected actually exists. Newspaper articles,
Media, announcements, etc are some examples.

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Where?

Now that you know who is associated with the problem and what the problem actually is; you need to focus
on the context/situation/location of the problem. This block will help you look into the situation in which the
problem arises, its context of it, and the locations where it is prominent.

Why?

You have finally listed down all the major elements that affect the problem directly. Now it is convenient to
understand who the people that would be benefitted by the solution are; what is to be solved; and where will
the solution be deployed.

Problem Statement

The Problem Statement Template helps us to summarize all the key points into one single Template so that in
the future, whenever there is a need to look back at the basis of the problem, we can take a look at the Problem
Statement Template and understand the key elements of it.

Data Acquisition

As the term clearly mentions, this stage is about acquiring data for the project. Data can be a piece of
information or facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis. Whenever we want an AI
project to be able to predict an output, we need to train it first using data.

For any AI project to be efficient, the training data should be authentic and relevant to the problem statement
scoped.

Data Features

Data features refer to the type of data you want to collect. There can be various ways in which you can
collect data. Some of them are:

Surveys
Web
Scraping
Sensors
Cameras
Observations
API (Application Program Interface)

Data Exploration

To analyse the data, you need to visualize it in some user-friendly format so that you can:

Quickly get a sense of the trends, relationships and patterns contained within the
data. Define the strategy for which model to use at a later stage.
Communicate the same to others effectively. To visualize data, we can use various types of
visual representations.

Modelling

The ability to mathematically describe the relationship between parameters is the heart of every AI model.
Thus, whenever we talk about developing AI models, it is the mathematical approach to analyzing data that
we refer to. Generally, AI models can be classified as follows:

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Rule Based Approach

It refers to the AI modelling where the rules are defined by the developer. The machine follows the rules or
instructions mentioned by the developer and performs its task accordingly. For example, we have a dataset
that tells us about the conditions on the basis of which we can decide if an elephant may be spotted or not
while on safari. The parameters are Outlook, Temperature, Humidity and Wind.

This is known as a rule-based approach because we fed the data along with rules to the machine and the
machine after getting trained on them is now able to predict answers for the same.

A drawback/feature of the rule-based approach is that the learning is static. The machine once trained, does
not take into consideration any changes made in the original training dataset. That is, if you try testing the
machine on a dataset that is different from the rules and data you fed it at the training stage, the machine will
fail and will not learn from its mistake. Once trained, the model cannot improvise itself on the basis of
feedback.

Learning Based Approach

It refers to AI modelling where the machine learns by itself. Under the Learning Based approach, the AI model
gets trained on the data fed to it and then is able to design a model which is adaptive to the change in data.

If the machine learning based model is trained with X type of data and the machine designs the
algorithm around it, the model would modify itself according to the changes which occur in the data so
that all the
exceptions are handled in this case.

The learning-based approach can further be divided into three

parts: Supervised Learning

Unsupervised
Learning
Reinforcement
Learning

Supervised Learning

In a supervised learning model, the dataset which is fed to the machine is labelled. In other words, we can
say that the dataset is known to the person who is training the machine only then he/she is able to label the
data.

There are two types of Supervised Learning models:

Classification: Where the data is classified according to the labels. For example, in the grading system,
students are classified on the basis of the grades they obtain with respect to their marks in the examination.
This model
works on a discrete dataset which means the data need not be continuous.

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Such models work on continuous data. For example, if you wish to predict your next salary, then
you would put in the data of your previous salary, any increments, etc., and would train the model. Here, the
data which has been fed to the machine is continuous.

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Unsupervised Learning

An unsupervised learning model works on unlabelled dataset. This means that the data which is fed to the
machine is random and there is a possibility that the person who is training the model does not have any
information regarding it. The unsupervised learning models are used to identify relationships, patterns and
trends out of the data which is fed into it. It helps the user in understanding what the data is about and what are
the major features identified by the machine in it.

Unsupervised learning models can be further divided into two categories:

Clustering: Refers to the unsupervised learning algorithm which can cluster the unknown data according to
the patterns or trends identified out of it. The patterns observed might be the ones that are known to the
developer or it might even come up with some unique patterns out of it.

Dimensionality Reduction: We humans are able to visualise upto 3-Dimensions only but according to a lot
of theories and algorithms, there are various entities that exist beyond 3-Dimensions. For example, in
Natural language Processing, the words are considered to be N-Dimensional entities. Which means that we
cannot visualise them as they exist beyond our visualisation ability. Hence, to make sense out of it, we need
to reduce their dimensions. Here, a dimensionality reduction algorithm is used.

Evaluation

Once a model has been made and trained, it needs to go through proper testing so that one can calculate the
efficiency and performance of the model. Hence, the model is tested with the help of Testing Data (which was
separated out of the acquired dataset at the Data Acquisition stage) and the efficiency of the model is
calculated on the basis of the parameters mentioned below:

Neural Networks

Neural networks are loosely modelled by how neurons in the human brain behave. The key advantage of
neural networks are that they are able to extract data features automatically without needing the input of the
programmer. A neural network is essentially a system of organizing machine learning algorithms to perform
certain tasks. It is a fast and efficient way to solve problems for which the dataset is very large, such as in
images.

Some of the features of a Neural Network are listed below:

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Natural Language Process

Uncategorized
Natural Language Processing, or NLP, is the sub-field of AI that is focused on enabling computers to
understand and process human languages. AI is a subfield of Linguistics, Computer Science, Information
Engineering, and Artificial Intelligence concerned with the interactions between computers and human
(natural) languages, in particular how to program computers to process and analyse large amounts of natural
language data.

Applications of Natural Language Processing

Automatic Summarization: Automatic summarization is relevant not only for summarizing the
meaning of documents and information, but also to understand the emotional meanings within the
information,
such as in collecting data from social media.
Sentiment Analysis: The goal of sentiment analysis is to identify sentiment among several posts or
even in the same post where emotion is not always explicitly expressed.
Text classification: Text classification makes it possible to assign predefined categories to a
document and organize it to help you find the information you need or simplify some activities. For
example, an application of text categorization is spam filtering in email.
Virtual Assistants: Nowadays Google Assistant, Cortana, Siri, Alexa, etc have become an integral part
of our lives. Not only can we talk to them but they also have the ability to make our lives easier. By
accessing our data, they can help us in keeping notes of our tasks, make calls for us, send messages and
a lot more.

Natural Language Processing: Natural Language Processing is all about how machines try to understand and
interpret human language and operate accordingly.

AI Project Cycle in Natural Language Processing

The Scenario: We get to hear a lot of cases where people are depressed due to reasons like peer
pressure, studies, family issues, relationships, etc. To overcome this, cognitive behavioural therapy
(CBT) is
considered to be one of the best methods.
Problem Scoping: CBT is a technique used by most therapists to cure patients out of stress and
depression. But it has been observed that people do not wish to seek the help of a psychiatrist willingly.
Data Acquisition: To understand the sentiments of people, we need to collect their conversational data
so the machine can interpret the words that they use and understand their meaning.
Data Exploration: Once the textual data has been collected, it needs to be processed and cleaned so
that an easier version can be sent to the machine.
Modelling: Once the text has been normalised, it is then fed to an NLP based AI model. Note that in
NLP, modelling requires data pre-processing only after which the data is fed to the machine.
Evaluation: The model trained is then evaluated and the accuracy for the same is generated on the
basis of the relevance of the answers which the machine gives to the user’s responses.

Chatbots

Script-bot Smart-bot
Script bots are easy to make Smart bots are flexible and powerful
Script bots work around a script that is programmed into Smart bots work on bigger databases and other
them resources directly
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Script-bot Smart-bot
Mostly they are free and are easy to integrate into a
Smart bots learn with more data
messaging platform
No or little language processing skills Coding is required to take this up on board
Limited functionality Wide functionality

All the assistants like Google Assistant, Alexa, Cortana, Siri, etc. can be taken as smart bots as not only can
they handle the conversations but can also manage to do other tasks which makes them smarter.

Human Language VS Computer Language

Humans communicate through language which we process all the time. Our brain keeps on processing
the sounds that it hears around us and tries to make sense of them all the time.
On the other hand, the computer understands the language of numbers. Everything that is sent to
the machine has to be converted to numbers.

Use cases:

Arrangement of the words and

meaning Multiple Meanings of a
word
Perfect Syntax, no Meaning

Data Processing

It's how Natural Language Processing makes it possible for machines to understand and speak in
Natural Languages just like humans.
Since we all know that the language of computers is Numerical, the very first step that comes to our
mind is to convert our language to numbers.

Text Normalisation: In Text Normalisation, we undergo several steps to normalize the text to a lower level.
Text Normalisation helps in cleaning up the textual data in such a way that it comes down to a level where its
complexity is lower than the actual data.

Sentence Segmentation: Under sentence segmentation, the whole corpus is divided into sentences.
Each sentence is taken as different data so now the whole corpus gets reduced to sentences.

Tokenisation: After segmenting the sentences, each sentence is then further divided into tokens. The token is
a term used for any word or number or special character occurring in a sentence. Under tokenisation, every
word, number and special character is considered separately and each of them is now a separate token.

Removing Stopwords, Special Characters and Numbers: In this step, the tokens which are not necessary
are removed from the token list. Stopwords are the words which occur very frequently in the corpus but do not
add any value to it. Humans use grammar to make their sentences meaningful for the other person to
understand. But grammatical words do not add any essence to the information which is to be transmitted
through the statement hence they come under stopwords.

Converting text to a common case: After the stopwords removal, we convert the whole text into a similar
case, preferably lower case. This ensures that the case-sensitivity of the machine does not consider same
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different just because of different cases.

Stemming: In this step, the remaining words are reduced to their root words. In other words, stemming is
the process in which the affixes of words are removed and the words are converted to their base form.

Lemmatization: Stemming and lemmatization both are alternative processes to each other as the role of both
processes is the same – removal of affixes. But the difference between both of them is that in lemmatization, the
word we get after affix removal (also known as lemma) is a meaningful one. Lemmatization makes sure that a
lemma is a word with meaning and hence it takes a longer time to execute than stemming.

Bag of Words: Bag of Words is a Natural Language Processing model which helps in extracting features out
of the text which can be helpful in machine learning algorithms. In bag of words, we get the occurrences of
each word and construct the vocabulary for the corpus.

TFIDF: Term Frequency & Inverse Document Frequency

The bag of words algorithm gives us the frequency of words in each document we have in our corpus. It
gives us an idea that if the word is occurring more in a document, its value is more for that document. For
example, if I have a document on air pollution, air and pollution would be the words that occur many times in
it. And these words are valuable too as they give us some context around the document.

Term Frequency: Term frequency is the frequency of a word in one document. Term frequency can easily
be found from the document vector table as in that table we mention the frequency of each word of the
vocabulary in each document.

Inverse Document Frequency: Now, let us look at the other half of TFIDF which is Inverse Document
Frequency. For this, let us first understand what does document frequency mean. Document Frequency is
the number of documents in which the word occurs irrespective of how many times it has occurred in
those documents.

Finally, the formula of TFIDF for any word W becomes:

TFIDF(W) = TF(W) * log( IDF(W) )

Here, the log is to the base of 10.

Summarising the TFIDF concept, we can say that:

1. Words that occur in all the documents with high term frequencies have the least values and are
considered to be stopwords.
2. For a word to have high TFIDF value, the word needs to have a high term frequency but less
document frequency which shows that the word is important for one document but is not a common
word for all documents.
3. These values help the computer understand which words are to be considered while processing the
natural language. The higher the value, the more important the word is for a given corpus.

Applications of TFIDF

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TFIDF is commonly used in the Natural Language Processing domain. Some of its applications are:

Document Classification: Helps in classifying the type and genre of a document.

Topic Modelling: It helps in predicting the topic for a corpus.
Information Retrieval System: To extract the important information out of a corpus.
Stop word filtering: Helps in removing unnecessary words from a text body.

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Data Science
Uncategorized

Data Sciences

It is a concept to unify statistics, data analysis, machine learning and their related methods in order to
understand and analyse actual phenomena with data. It employs techniques and theories drawn from many
fields within the context of Mathematics, Statistics, Computer Science, and Information Science.

Applications of Data Sciences - Fraud and Risk Detection

Over the years, banking companies learned to divide and conquer data via customer profiling, past
expenditures, and other essential variables to analyse the probabilities of risk and default. Moreover, it also
helped them to push their banking products based on customers’ purchasing power.

Applications of Data Sciences - Genetics & Genomics

Data Science applications also enable an advanced level of treatment personalization through research in
genetics and genomics. The goal is to understand the impact of the DNA on our health and find individual
biological connections between genetics, diseases, and drug response.

Applications of Data Sciences - Internet Search

All search engines (including Google) make use of data science algorithms to deliver the best result for our
searched query in a fraction of a second. Considering the fact that Google processes more than 20 petabytes
of data every day, had there been no data science, Google wouldn’t have been the ‘Google’ we know today.

Applications of Data Sciences - Targeted Advertising

If you thought Search would have been the biggest of all data science applications, here is a challenger – the
entire digital marketing spectrum. Starting from the display banilrs on various websites to the digital
billboards at the airports – almost all of them are decided by using data science algorithms.

Applications of Data Sciences - Website Recommendations

Internet giants like Amazon, Twitter, Google Play, Netflix, LinkedIn, IMDB and many more use this system
to improve the user experience. The recommendations are made based on previous search results for a user.

Applications of Data Sciences - Airline Route Planning

Now, while using Data Science, airline companies can:

Predict flight delay • Decide which class of airplanes to buy

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Whether to directly land at the destination or take a halt in
between Effectively drive customer loyalty programs

Data Science is a combination of Python and Mathematical concepts like Statistics, Data Analysis, probability,
etc. Concepts of Data Science can be used in developing applications around AI as it gives a strong base for
data analysis in Python.

The Scenario

Every day, restaurants prepare food in large quantities keeping in mind the probable number of customers
walking into their outlet. But if the expectations are not met, a good amount of food gets wasted which
eventually becomes a loss for the restaurant as they either have to dump it or give it to hungry people for
free. And if this daily loss is taken into account for a year, it becomes quite a big amount.

Problem Scoping

The Problem statement template leads us towards the goal of our project which can now be stated as: “To be
able to predict the quantity of food dishes to be prepared for everyday consumption in restaurant buffets.”

Data Acquisition

For this problem, a dataset covering all the elements mentioned above is made for each dish prepared by
the restaurant over a period of 30 days.

Data Exploration

After creating the database, we now need to look at the data collected and understand what is required out of
it. In this case, since the goal of our project is to be able to predict the quantity of food to be prepared for the
next day, we need to have the following data:

Modelling

Once the dataset is ready, we train our model on it. In this case, a regression model is chosen in which the
dataset is fed as a dataframe and is trained accordingly. Regression is a Supervised Learning model which
takes in continuous values of data over a period of time.

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Evaluation

Once the model has been trained on the training dataset of 20 days, it is now time to see if the model is
working properly or not. Once the model is able to achieve optimum efficiency, it is ready to be deployed in
the restaurant for real-time usage.

Data Collection

Data collection is nothing new that has come up in our lives. It has been in our society for ages. Even when
people did not have a fair knowledge of calculations, records were still maintained in some way or the other
to keep an account of relevant things.

Data collection is an exercise that does not require even a tiny bit of technological knowledge. But when
it comes to analysing the data, it becomes a tedious process for humans as it is all about numbers and
alpha- numerical data. That is where Data Science comes into the picture.

Data Science not only gives us a clearer idea of the dataset but also adds value to it by providing deeper
and clearer analyses around it. And as AI gets incorporated in the process, predictions and suggestions by
the machine become possible on the same.

Sources of Data

Offline Data Collection: Sensors, Surveys, Interviews, Observations.

Online Data Collection: Open-sourced Government Portals, Reliable Websites (Kaggle), World
Organisations’ open-sourced statistical Observations websites

While accessing data from any of the data sources, the following points should be kept in mind:

i. Data that is available for public usage only should be taken up.
ii. Personal datasets should only be used with the consent of the owner.
iii. One should never breach someone’s privacy to collect data.
iv. Data should only be taken from reliable sources as the data collected from random sources can be
wrong or unusable.
v. Reliable sources of data ensure the authenticity of data which helps in the proper training of the AI
model.

Types of Data

For Data Science, usually, the data is collected in the form of tables. These tabular datasets can be stored
in different formats.

CSV

CSV stands for comma-separated values. It is a simple file format used to store tabular data. Each line of this
file is a data record and the reach record consists of one or more fields that are separated by commas. Since the
values of records are separated by a comma, hence they are known as CSV files.

Spreadsheet

A Spreadsheet is a piece of paper or a computer program that is used for accounting and recording data
using rows and columns into which information can be entered. Microsoft Excel is a program that helps in
creating spreadsheets.

SQL

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SQL is a programming language also known as Structured Query Language. It is a domain-specific language
used in programming and is designed for managing data held in different kinds of DBMS (Database
Management Systems) It is particularly useful in handling structured data.

Data Access

After collecting the data, to be able to use it for programming purposes, we should know how to access the
same in Python code. To make our lives easier, there exist various Python packages which help us in accessing
structured data (in tabular form) inside the code.

NumPy

NumPy, which stands for Numerical Python, is the fundamental package for Mathematical and logical
operations on arrays in Python. It is a commonly used package when it comes to working around numbers.
NumPy gives a wide range of arithmetic operations around numbers giving us an easier approach to
working with them. NumPy also works with arrays, which are nothing but a homogenous collection of
Data.

An array is nothing but a set of multiple values which are of the same data type. They can be numbers,
characters, booleans, etc. but only one datatype can be accessed through an array. In NumPy, the arrays used
are known as ND-arrays (N-Dimensional Arrays) as NumPy comes with a feature of creating n-dimensional
arrays in Python.

NumPy Arrays

i. Homogenous collection of Data.

ii. Can contain only one type of data, hence not flexible with datatypes.
iii. Cannot be directly initialized. Can be operated with Numpy package only.
iv. Direct numerical operations can be done. For example, dividing the whole array by 3 divides
every element by 3 .
v. Widely used for arithmetic operations.
vi. Arrays take less memory space.
vii. Functions like concatenation, appending, reshaping, etc are not trivially possible with arrays.
viii. Example: To create a numpy array '
A ': import numpy
A= numpy.array ([1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0])

Lists

i. Heterogenous collection of Data.

ii. Can contain multiple types of data, hence flexible with datatypes.
iii. Can be directly initialized as it is a part of Python syntax.
iv. Direct numerical operations are not possible. For example, dividing the whole list by 3 cannot
divide every element by 3 .
v. Widely used for data management.
vi. Lists acquire more memory space.
vii. Functions like concatenation, appending, reshaping, etc are trivially possible with lists.
viii. Example: To create a
list: A =
[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0]

Pandas

Pandas is a software library written for the Python programming language for data manipulation and analysis.
In particular, it offers data structures and operations for manipulating numerical tables and time series. The
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multiple time periods for the same individuals.

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Pandas is well suited for many different kinds of data:

Tabular data with heterogeneously-typed columns, as in an SQL table or Excel

spreadsheet Ordered and unordered (not necessarily fixed-frequency) time series data.
Arbitrary matrix data (homogeneously typed or heterogeneous) with row and column labels
Any other form of observational / statistical data sets. The data actually need not be labelled at all to
be placed into a Pandas data structure

The two primary data structures of Pandas, Series (1-dimensional) and DataFrame (2-dimensional),
handle the vast majority of typical use cases in finance, statistics, social science, and many areas of
engineering.

pandas does well:

Easy handling of missing data (represented as NaN) in floating point as well as non-floating point data
Size mutability: columns can be inserted and deleted from DataFrame and higher dimensional objects
Automatic and explicit data alignment: objects can be explicitly aligned to a set of labels, or the user
can simply ignore the labels and let Series, DataFrame, etc. automatically align the data for you in
computations
Intelligent label-based slicing, fancy indexing, and subsetting of large data
sets Intuitive merging and joining data sets
Flexible reshaping and pivoting of data sets

Matplotlib

Matplotlib is an amazing visualization library in Python for 2D plots of arrays. Matplotlib is a

multiplatform data visualization library built on NumPy arrays.

Matplotlib comes with a wide variety of plots. Plots help to understand trends, and patterns, and to
make correlations. They’re typically instruments for reasoning quantitative information.

Some types of graphs that we can make with this package are listed below:

Not just plotting, but you can also modify your plots the way you wish. You can stylise them and make them
more descriptive and communicable.

Basic Statistics with Python

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Analysing the data collected can be difficult as it is all about tables and numbers. While machines work
efficiently on numbers, humans need a visual aid to understand and comprehend the information passed.
Hence, data visualisation is used to interpret the data collected and identify patterns and trends out of it.

Issues we can face with data:

Erroneous Data: There are two ways in which the data can be erroneous:
Incorrect values: The values in the dataset (at random places) are incorrect.
Invalid or Null values: In some places, the values get corrupted and hence they become invalid.
Missing Data: In some datasets, some cells remain empty.
Outliers: Data that do not fall in the range of a certain element are referred to as outliers.

In Python, Matplotlib package helps in visualising the data and making some sense out of it. As we
have already discussed before, with the help of this package, we can plot various kinds of graphs.

Scatter plots

Scatter plots are used to plot discontinuous data; that is, the data which does not have any continuity in flow
is termed as discontinuous. There exist gaps in data that introduce discontinuity. A 2D scatter plot can
display information maximum upto 4 parameters.

Bar Chart

It is one of the most commonly used graphical methods. From students to scientists, everyone uses bar charts
in some way or the other. It is very easy-to-draw yet informative graphical representation. Various versions
of bar chart exist like a single bar chart, double bar chart, etc

Histograms

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Histograms are the accurate representation of continuous data. When it comes to plotting the variation in just
one entity of a period of time, histograms come into the picture. It represents the frequency of the variable at
different points of time with the help of the bins.

Box Plots

When the data is split according to its percentile throughout the range, box plots come in Haman. Box plots
also known as box and whiskers plot conveniently display the distribution of data throughout the range with
the help of 4 quartiles.

K-Nearest Neighbour

The k-nearest neighbours (KNN) algorithm is a simple, easy-to-implement supervised machine learning
algorithm that can be used to solve both classification and regression problems. The KNN algorithm assumes
that similar things exist in close proximity. In other words, similar things are near to each other as the saying
goes “Birds of a feather flock together”.

Some features of KNN are:

The KNN prediction model relies on the surrounding points or neighbours to determine its class or
group Utilises the properties of the majority of the nearest points to decide how to classify unknown
points Based on the concept that similar data points should be close to each other

KNN tries to predict an unknown value on the basis of the known values. The model simply calculates the
distance between all the known points with the unknown point (by distance we mean to say the difference
between two values) and takes up K number of points whose distance is minimum. And according to it,
predictions are made.

As we decrease the value of K to 1, our predictions become less stable. Just think for a minute, imagine
K=1 and we have X surrounded by several greens and one blue, but the blue is the single nearest neighbour.
Reasonably, we would think X is most likely green, but because K=1, KNN incorrectly predicts that it is blue.

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Inversely, as we increase the value of K, our predictions become more stable due to majority voting /
averaging, and thus, more likely to make more accurate predictions (up to a certain point). Eventually, we
begin to witness an increasing number of errors. It is at this point we know we have pushed the value of K
too far.

In cases where we are taking a majority vote (e.g. picking the mode in a classification problem) among
labels, we usually make K an odd number to have a tiebreaker.

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Computer Vision
Uncategorized
Introduction

The Computer Vision domain of Artificial Intelligence, enables machines to see through images or visual
data, process and analyse them on the basis of algorithms and methods in order to analyse actual
phenomena with images.

Applications of Computer Vision - Facial Recognition

With the advent of smart cities and smart homes, Computer Vision plays a vital role in making the home
smarter. Security being the most important application involves the use of Computer Vision for facial
recognition. It can be either guest recognition or log maintenance of the visitors. It also finds its application in
schools for an attendance system based on the facial recognition of students.

Applications of Computer Vision - Face Filters

Modern-day apps like Instagram and Snapchat have a lot of features based on the usage of computer vision.
The application of face filters is one among them. Through the camera, the machine or the algorithm is able to
identify the facial dynamics of the person and applies the facial filter selected.

Applications of Computer Vision - Google’s Search by Image

The maximum amount of searching for data on Google’s search engine comes from textual data, but at the
same time, it has an interesting feature of getting search results through an image. This uses Computer Vision
as it compares different features of the input image to the database of images and gives us the search result
while at the same time analysing various features of the image.

Applications of Computer Vision - Retail

The retail field has been one of the fastest growing fields and at the same time is using Computer Vision
for making the user experience more fruitful. Retailers can use Computer Vision techniques to track
customers’ movements through stores, analyse navigational routes and detect walking patterns.

Applications of Computer Vision - Inventory Management

Through security camera image analysis, a Computer Vision algorithm can generate a very accurate estimate
of the items available in the store. Also, it can analyse the use of shelf space to identify suboptimal
configurations and suggest better item placement.

Applications of Computer Vision - Self Driving Cars

Computer Vision is the fundamental technology behind developing autonomous vehicles. Most leading car
manufacturers in the world are reaping the benefits of investing in artificial intelligence for developing on-
road versions of hands-free technology. This involves the process of identifying the objects, getting
navigational routes and also at the same time environment monitoring.

Applications of Computer Vision - Medical Imaging

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For the last decades, computer-supported medical imaging application has been a trustworthy help for
physicians. It doesn’t only create and analyse images, but also becomes an assistant and helps doctors with
their interpretation. The application is used to read and convert 2D scan images into interactive 3D models that
enable medical professionals to gain a detailed understanding of a patient’s health condition.

Applications of Computer Vision - Google Translate App

All you need to do to read signs in a foreign language is to point your phone’s camera at the words and let
the Google Translate app tell you what it means in your preferred language almost instantly. By using
optical character recognition to see the image and augmented reality to overlay an accurate translation, this
is a convenient tool that uses Computer Vision.

Computer Vision Tasks: The various applications of Computer Vision are based on a certain number of
tasks that are performed to get certain information from the input image which can be directly used for
prediction or forms the base for further analysis. The tasks used in a computer vision application are :

Classification: The image Classification problem is the task of assigning an input image one label from a
fixed set of categories. This is one of the core problems in CV that, despite its simplicity, has a large variety
of practical applications.

Classification + Localisation: This is the task that involves both processes of identifying what object is
present in the image and at the same time identifying at what location that object is present in that image. It is
used only for single objects.

Object Detection: Object detection is the process of finding instances of real-world objects such as faces,
bicycles, and buildings in images or videos. Object detection algorithms typically use extracted features
and learning algorithms to recognize instances of an object category. It is commonly used in applications
such as image retrieval and automated vehicle parking systems.

Instance Segmentation: Instance Segmentation is the process of detecting instances of the objects, giving
them a category and then giving each pixel a label on the basis of that. A segmentation algorithm takes an
image as input and outputs a collection of regions (or segments).

Basics of Pixels: The word “pixel” means a picture element. Every photograph, in digital form, is made up
of pixels. They are the smallest unit of information that make up a picture. Usually round or square, they
are typically arranged in a 2-dimensional grid.

Resolution: The number of pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution. When the term is used to
describe pixel count, one convention is to express resolution as the width by the height, for example, a
monitor resolution of 1280×1024. This means there are 1280 pixels from one side to the other, and 1024
from top to bottom.
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Another convention is to express the number of pixels as a single number, like a 5 megapixel camera (a
megapixel is a million pixels). This means the pixels along the width multiplied by the pixels along the height
of the image taken by the camera equals 5 million pixels. In the case of our 1280×1024 monitors, it could also
be expressed as 1280 x 1024 = 1,310,720, or 1.31 megapixels.

Pixel value: Each of the pixels that represent an image stored inside a computer has a pixel value that
describes how bright that pixel is, and/or what colour it should be. The most common pixel format is the byte
image, where this number is stored as an 8-bit integer giving a range of possible values from 0 to 255.
Typically, zero is to be taken as no colour or black and 255 is taken to be full colour or white.

Grayscale Images: Grayscale images are images that have a range of shades of gray without apparent colour.
The darkest possible shade is black, which is the total absence of colour or zero value of a pixel. The lightest
possible shade is white, which is the total presence of colour or 255 value of a pixel. Intermediate shades of
gray are represented by equal brightness levels of the three primary colours. A grayscale has each pixel of size
1 byte having a single plane of 2d array of pixels. The size of a grayscale image is defined as the Height x
Width of that image.

RGB Images: All the images that we see around are coloured images. These images are made up of
three primary colours Red, Green and Blue. All the colours that are present can be made by combining
different intensities of red, green and blue.

Image Features: In computer vision and image processing, a feature is a piece of information that is relevant
for solving the computational task related to a certain application. Features may be specific structures in the
image such as points, edges or objects.

In image processing, we can get a lot of features from the image. It can be either a blob, an edge or a corner.
These features help us to perform various tasks and then get the analysis done on the basis of the application.
Now the question that arises is which of the following are good features to be used? As you saw in the
previous activity, the features having corners are easy to find as they can be found only at a particular
location in the image, whereas the edges are spread over a line or an edge look the same all along. This tells
us that the corners are always good features to extract from an image followed by the edges.

OpenCV or Open Source Computer Vision Library is a tool that helps a computer extract these features
from the images. It is used for all kinds of image and video processing and analysis. It is capable of processing
images and videos to identify objects, faces, or even handwriting.

Convolution: Different filters applied to an image change the pixel values evenly throughout the image with
the help of the process of convolution and the convolution operator which is commonly used to create these
effects. As we change the values of these pixels, the image changes. This process of changing pixel values is
the base of image editing.

We all use a lot of image editing software like photoshop and at the same time use apps like Instagram
and Snapchat, which apply filters to the image to enhance the quality of that image.

Convolution: Convolution is a simple Mathematical operation that is fundamental to many common image-
processing operators. Convolution provides a way of `multiplying together' two arrays of numbers, generally
of different sizes, but of the same dimensionality, to produce a third array of numbers of the same
dimensionality. An (image) convolution is simply an element-wise multiplication of image arrays and
another array called the kernel followed by a sum.

What is a Kernel?

A Kernel is a matrix, which is slid across the image and multiplied with the input such that the output is
enhanced in a certain desirable manner. Each kernel has a different value for different kind of effects that
we want to apply to an image.
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Convolution

i. Convolution is a common tool used for image editing.

ii. It is an element-wise multiplication of an image and a kernel to get the desired output.
iii. In computer vision applications, it is used in Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to extract
image features.

What is a Convolutional Neural Network?

A Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is a Deep Learning algorithm that can take in an input image, assign
importance (learnable weights and biases) to various aspects/objects in the image and be able to differentiate
one from the other.

A convolutional neural network consists of the following layers:

1) Convolution Layer 2) Rectified linear Unit (ReLU) 3) Pooling Layer 4) Fully Connected Layer

Convolution Layer

It is the first layer of a CNN. The objective of the Convolution Operation is to extract the high-level features
such as edges, from the input image. CNN need not be limited to only one Convolutional Layer.
Conventionally, the first Convolution Layer is responsible for capturing the Low-Level features such as edges,
colour, gradient orientation, etc. With added layers, the architecture adapts to the High-Level features as well,
giving us a network that has a wholesome understanding of images in the dataset.

Rectified Linear Unit Function

The next layer in the Convolution Neural Network is the Rectified Linear Unit function or the ReLU layer.
After we get the feature map, it is then passed onto the ReLU layer. This layer simply gets rid of all the negative
numbers in the feature map and lets the positive number stay as it is.

Pooling Layer

Similar to the Convolutional Layer, the Pooling layer is responsible for reducing the spatial size of the
Convolved Feature while still retaining the important features. There are two types of pooling which can be
performed on an image.

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i. Max Pooling : Max Pooling returns the maximum value from the portion of the image covered by
the Kernel.
ii. Average Pooling: Max Pooling returns the maximum value from the portion of the image covered by
the Kernel.

The pooling layer is an important layer in the CNN as it performs a series of tasks which are as

follows : Makes the image smaller and more manageable

Makes the image more resistant to small transformations, distortions and translations in the input image.

Fully Connected Layer

The final layer in the CNN is the Fully Connected Layer (FCP). The objective of a fully connected layer is to
take the results of the convolution/pooling process and use them to classify the image into a label.

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Evaluation
Uncategorized
Introduction: In the Evaluation stage, we will explore different methods of evaluating an AI model. Model
Evaluation is an integral part of the model development process. It helps to find the best model that
represents our data and how well the chosen model will work in the future.

What is evaluation?
Evaluation is the process of understanding the reliability of any AI model, based on outputs by feeding the test
datasets into the model and comparing it with actual answers.

It’s not recommended to use the data we used to build the model to evaluate it. This is because our model
will simply remember the whole training set, and will therefore always predict the correct label for any
point in the training set. This is known as overfitting.

Here, we can see in the picture that a forest fire has broken out in the forest. The model predicts a Yes
which means there is a forest fire. The Prediction matches with the Reality. Hence, this condition is
termed as True Positive.

Here there is no fire in the forest hence the reality is No. In this case, the machine too has predicted it
correctly as a No. Therefore, this condition is termed as True Negative.

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Here the reality is that there is no forest fire. But the machine has incorrectly predicted that there is a forest
fire. This case is termed as False Positive.

Here, a forest fire has broken out in the forest because of which the Reality is Yes but the machine has
incorrectly predicted it as a No which means the machine predicts that there is no Forest Fire. Therefore, this
case becomes False Negative.

Confusion matrix: The result of the comparison between the prediction and reality can be recorded in what
we call the confusion matrix. The confusion matrix allows us to understand the prediction results. Note that it
is not an evaluation metric but a record that can help in evaluation.

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Prediction and Reality can be easily mapped together with the help of this confusion

matrix. Accuracy is defined as the percentage of correct predictions out of all the

observations.

Here, total observations cover all the possible cases of prediction that can be True Positive (TP), True
Negative (TN), False Positive (FP) and False Negative (FN).

But this parameter is useless for us as the actual cases where the fire broke out are not taken into account.
Hence, there is a need to look at another parameter that takes account of such cases as well.

Precision: Precision is defined as the percentage of true positive cases versus all the cases where the
prediction is true. That is, it takes into account the True Positives and False Positives.

If Precision is high, this means the True Positive cases are more, giving lesser False alarms.

Recall
Another parameter for evaluating the model’s performance is Recall. It can be defined as the fraction of
positive cases that are correctly identified. It majorly takesinto account the true reality cases where in Reality
there was a fire but the machine either detected it correctly or it didn’t. That is, it considers True Positives
(There was a forest fire in reality and the model predicted a forest fire) and False Negatives (There was a
forest fire and the model didn’t predict it).

Now as we notice, we can see that the Numerator in both Precision and Recall is the same: True Positives. But
in the denominator, Precision counts the False Positives while Recall takes False Negatives into consideration.

Which Metric is Important?

Choosing between Precision and Recall depends on the condition in which the model has been deployed. In a
case like Forest Fire, a False Negative can cost us a lot and is risky too. Imagine no alert being given even
when there is a Forest Fire. The whole forest might burn down.
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Which Metric is Important?
Another case where a False Negative can be dangerous is Viral Outbreak. Imagine a deadly virus has started
spreading and the model which is supposed to predict a viral outbreak does not detect it. The virus might spread
widely and infect a lot of people.

Which Metric is Important?

On the other hand, there can be cases in which the False Positive condition costs us more than False
Negatives. One such case is Mining. Imagine a model telling you that there exists treasure at a point and you
keep on digging there but it turns out that it is a false alarm. Here, False Positive case (predicting there is
treasure but there is no treasure) can be very costly.

F1 Score
F1 score can be defined as the measure of the balance between precision and recall.

An ideal situation would be when we have a value of 1 (that is 100%) for both Precision and Recall. In that
case, the F1 score would also be an ideal 1 (100%). It is known as the perfect value for F1 Score. As the
values of both Precision and Recall ranges from 0 to 1, the F1 score also ranges from 0 to 1.

In conclusion, we can say that a model has good performance if the F1 Score for that model is high.

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Advance Python
Uncategorized
Jupyter Notebook

The Jupyter Notebook is an incredibly powerful tool for interactively developing and presenting AI
related projects. The Jupyter project is the successor to the earlier IPython Notebook, which was first
published as a prototype in 2010.

Jupyter Notebook is an open-source web application that can be used to create and share documents that
contain live code, equations, visualizations, and text.

The easiest way to install and start using Jupyter Notebook is through Anaconda. Anaconda is the most
widely used Python distribution for data science and comes pre-loaded with all the most popular libraries
and tools.

With Anaconda, comes the Anaconda Navigator through which we can scroll around all the applications
which come along with it. Jupyter notebook can easily be accessed using the Anaconda Prompt with the help
of a local host.

To work with Jupyter Notebook, it is necessary to have a kernel on which it operates. A kernel
provides programming language support in Jupyter. IPython is the default kernel for Jupyter
Notebook.

A virtual environment is a tool that helps to keep dependencies required by different projects separated,
by creating isolated Python virtual environments for them. This is one of the most important tools that
most of Python developers use.

Different projects developed in the system might have another environment to keep their dependencies isolated
from each other.

Python is a programming language that was created by Guido Van Rossum in Centrum Wiskunde &
Informatica. The language was publicly released in 1991 and it got its name from a BBC comedy series from
1970s – ‘Monty Python’s Flying Circus’.

There are various programming languages like Lisp, Prolog, C++, Java and Python, which can be used
for developing applications of AI.

Why Python in AI?

Easy to learn, read and maintain: Python has few keywords, a simple structure and a clearly defined
syntax. Python allows anyone to learn the language quickly. A program written in Python is fairly easy-
to- maintain.
A Broad Standard library: Python has a huge bunch of libraries with plenty of built-in functions to
solve a variety of problems.
Interactive Mode: Python has support for an interactive mode that allows interactive testing
and debugging of snippets of code.
Portability and Compatibility: Python can run on a wide variety of operating systems and
hardware platforms and has the same interface on all platforms.
Extendable: We can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These modules enable
programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more efficient.
Databases and Scalable: Python provides interfaces to all major open source and commercial
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Applications of Python

Python Statements

Instructions written in the source code to execute are known as statements. These are the lines of code that we
write for the computer to work upon. For example, if we wish to print the addition of two numbers, say 5 and
10, we would simply write: print(5+10)

Python Comments

Comments are the statements that are incorporated in the code to give a better understanding of code
statements to the user. To write a comment in Python, one can use # and then write anything after it. For
example:

# This is a comment and will not be read by the machine.

print(5+10) # This is a statement and the machine will print the summation.

In Python, there exist some words which are pre-defined and carry a specific meaning for the machine by
default. These words are known as keywords. Keywords cannot be changed at any point in time and should
not be used any other way except the default one, otherwise, they create confusion and might result in
ambiguous outputs.

Keywords in Python

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Identifier

An identifier is any word that is variable. Identifiers can be declared by the user as per their convenience of
use and can vary according to the way the user wants. These words are not defined and can be used in any
way.
Keywords cannot be used as identifiers. Some examples of keywords can be: count, interest, x, ai_learning,
Test, etc. Identifiers are also case-sensitive hence an identifier named as Test would be different from an
identifier named test.

Variable

A variable is a named location used to store data in memory. It is helpful to think of variables as a container
that holds data that can be changed later throughout programming. Just like in Mathematics, in Python too we
can use variables to store values in it. The difference here is, that in Python, the variables not only store
numerical values but can also contain different types of data.

Variable Examples:

X = 10 # X variable contains numerical data

Letters = ‘XYZ’ # Letters variable contains alphabetic
data number = 13.95 # number variable contains a
decimal value word = ‘k’ # word variable contains a
character

Datatype

All variables contain different types of data in them. The type of data is defined by the term datatype in
Python. There can be various types of data that are used in Python programming. Hence, the machine
identifies the type of variable according to the value which is stored inside it.

Python inputs

In Python, not only can we display the output to the user, but we can also collect data from the user and can
pass it on to the Python script for further processing. To collect the data from the user at the time of execution,
input() function is used.
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While using the input function, the datatype of the expected input is required to be mentioned so that the
machine does not interpret the received data in an incorrect manner as the data taken as input from the user
is considered to be a string (sequence of characters) by default.

Python Operators

Operators are special symbols that represent computation. They are applied to operand(s), which can be
values or variables. The same operators can behave differently on different data types. Operators when
applied to operands form an expression. Operators are categorized as Arithmetic, Relational, Logical and
Assignment.
Value and variables when used with operators are known as

operands. Conditional Operators

Operator Meaning Expression Result

20 > 10 True
> Greater Than
15 > 25 False
20 < 45 True
< Less Than
20 < 10 False
5 == 5 True
== Equal To
5 == 6 False
67 != 45 True
!= Not Equal to
35 != 35 False
45 >= 45 True
>= Greater than or Equal to
23 >= 34 False
13 <= 24 True
<= Less than or equal to
13 <= 12 False

Arithmetic Operators

Operator Meaning Expression Result

+ Addition 10 + 20 30
- Subtraction 30 - 10 20
* Multiplication 30 * 100 300
/ Division 30 / 10 20.0
// Integer Division 25 // 10 2
% Remainder 25 % 10 5
** Raised to power 3 ** 2 9

Logical Operators

Operator Meaning Expression Result

True and True True
and And operator
True and False False

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Operator Meaning Expression Result
True or False True
or Or operator
False or False False
not False True
not Not Operator
not True False

Assignment Operators

Operator Expression Equivalent to

= X=5 X=5
+= X +=5 X=X+5
-= X -= 5 X=X-5
*= X *= 5 X=X*5
/= X /= 5 X=X/5

Conditional Statements

Conditional statements help the machine in taking a decision according to the condition which gets
fulfilled. There exist different types of conditional statements in Python. Some of them are:

If statement
If-else
statement If-
else ladder

Looping

The loop statements help in iterating statements or a group of statements as many times as it is asked for. In
this case, we will simply write a loop that would start counting from 1 to 10. At every count, it will print
hello once on the screen and as soon as it reaches 10, the loop will stop executing. All this can be done by
just one loop statement. Various types of looping mechanisms are available in Python. Some of them are:

For Loop
While
Loop
Do-While Loop

Python Packages

A package is nothing but a space where we can find codes or functions or modules of similar type. There are
various packages readily available to use for free (perks of Python being an open-sourced language) for
various purposes.

NumPy

- A package created to work around numerical arrays in python.

- Handy when it comes to working with large numerical databases and calculations around it.

OpenCV

- An image processing package that can explicitly work around images and can be used for image
manipulation and processing like cropping, resizing, editing, etc.
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NLTK

- NLTK stands for Natural Language Tool Kit and it helps in tasks related to textual data.
- It is one of the most commonly used packages for Natural Language Processing.

Pandas

- A package that helps in handling 2-dimensional data tables in python.

- It is useful when we need to work with data from excel sheets and other databases.

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