Sampling techniques are methods used to select a subset of individuals, items, or observations from a

larger population for the purpose of analysis or study. The goal is to draw conclusions about the entire
population based on the characteristics of the sample. Sampling can be broadly categorized into
probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

1. Probability Sampling

In probability sampling, every member of the population has a known, non-zero and equal chance of
being selected. This ensures the sample is representative of the population, reducing bias.

a. Simple Random Sampling

 Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

 Selection is often done using random number generators or lotteries.

 Example: Drawing names from a hat.

b. Stratified Sampling

 The population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on a specific characteristic (e.g., age,
gender).

 A random sample is taken from each stratum, ensuring proportional representation.

 Example: Sampling 30% males and 70% females if those are the proportions in the population.

c. Systematic Random Sampling

 Selects every k-th individual from a list, starting from a randomly chosen point.

 Example: Surveying every 10th person on a list of employees.

d. Cluster Sampling

 The population is divided into clusters (e.g., geographic regions).

 A few clusters are randomly selected, and all or some members within the chosen clusters are
surveyed.

 Example: Selecting specific schools to survey students.

e. Multi-Stage Sampling

 Combines several sampling methods in stages.

  Example: Randomly selecting regions, then schools within those regions, and finally students
within those schools.

2. Non-Probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, which may introduce
bias. However, it is often easier and cheaper to conduct.

a. Convenience Sampling

 Participants are selected based on their availability and willingness to take part.

 Example: Surveying people in a nearby shopping mall.

b. Judgmental (or Purposive) Sampling

 The researcher selects participants based on their judgment of who will be most useful or
representative.

 Example: Choosing experts in a specific field for a study.

c. Snowball Sampling

 Current participants recruit future participants from among their acquaintances.

 Often used for hard-to-reach populations.

 Example: Studying people with rare medical conditions.

d. Quota Sampling

 Similar to stratified sampling but non-random; researchers ensure the sample meets certain
quotas (e.g., gender, age).

 Example: Surveying 50 males and 50 females without randomization.

How to Choose a Sampling Technique

 Population Characteristics: Is the population homogenous or diverse?

 Objective of the Study: Does it require representativeness or exploratory insight?

 Resources Available: Time, cost, and tools for sampling.

  Nature of the Research: Qualitative studies often use non-probability sampling, while
quantitative studies favor probability sampling.

sampling distribution process

The sampling distribution process refers to the generation and study of the distribution of a statistic (like
the mean, proportion, or variance) calculated from all possible samples of a given size from a population.
Understanding the sampling distribution is essential in statistics because it forms the basis for inferential
techniques such as confidence intervals and hypothesis testing.

Steps in the Sampling Distribution Process

1. Define the Population

 Identify the population of interest.

 Determine its characteristics, such as mean (μ\mu), standard deviation (σ\sigma), and size (N).

2. Decide on a Sample Size

 Choose the size of each sample (n).

 Larger sample sizes typically yield sampling distributions with less variability.

3. Draw Random Samples

 Randomly select samples of size n from the population.

 Ensure that each sample is chosen independently.

4. Calculate the Statistic for Each Sample

 Compute the desired statistic (e.g., mean, variance, proportion) for each sample.

 For example, if you're studying the sampling distribution of the mean, calculate the mean of
each sample.

5. Repeat the Sampling Process

 Repeat the process many times to obtain all possible samples (or a very large number of
samples).

 For practical purposes, a sufficiently large number of repetitions provides an approximation of

the sampling distribution.
6. Plot the Distribution of the Statistic

 Create a distribution (e.g., histogram) of the computed statistic from all the samples.

 Analyze its shape, central tendency, and variability.

Key Characteristics of Sampling Distributions

1. Mean of the Sampling Distribution (μx\mu):

o The mean of the sampling distribution of a statistic equals the mean of the population:
μx=μ\mu_x

o This property is known as being unbiased.

2. Standard Deviation of the Sampling Distribution (σx\sigma):

o The standard deviation of the sampling distribution (called the standard error) depends
on the population standard deviation and sample size: σx=σ\n

o Smaller sample sizes lead to greater variability in the sampling distribution.

3. Shape of the Sampling Distribution:

o For large sample sizes (n≥30n \geq 30n≥30), the Central Limit Theorem states that the
sampling distribution of the mean will be approximately normal, regardless of the
population distribution.

o For small sample sizes, the shape of the sampling distribution depends on the
population's distribution.

Illustrative Example

1. Population: Consider a population with μ=50\mu = 50 and σ=10\sigma = 10.

2. Sample Size: Choose n=25

3. Random Sampling: Draw 1,000 random samples of size 25.

4. Statistic Calculation: Calculate the mean for each sample.

5. Distribution: Plot a histogram of the 1,000 sample means.

o The resulting distribution will have a mean of 50 and a standard error of 10\sqrt25 = 2.
Applications of Sampling Distributions

 Confidence Intervals: Use the sampling distribution to estimate population parameters.

 Hypothesis Testing: Compare sample statistics to the null distribution to determine significance.

 Quality Control: Analyze variations in production processes.