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Physics 9th Edition Robert P. Masse Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Robert P. Masse
ISBN(s): 9781734244779, 1734244771
Edition: 9
File Details: PDF, 51.09 MB
Language: english
 Physics
Physics
The Nature of Physical Fields
and Forces
Subtitle Ninth Edition

Robert P. Massé

Lorem Ipsum
Dolor Facilisis
 Copyright © 2021 Robert P. Massé

All Rights Reserved

Ninth Edition 2021

ISBN: 978-1-7342447-7-9

Massé, Robert P.

Physics
The Nature of Physical Fields and Forces

i
Dedication
This book is dedicated to my beloved wife
Kay

whose loving and insightful support made

it possible

ii
Preface
“It’s a terrible mix-up, and you might say it’s a hopeless
mess physics has got itself worked into.”

Richard P. Feynman
QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter

iii
! There are only two long-range forces known to physics: Bay Library Consortium. I am very grateful to the personnel at
the force of gravity and the force of electromagnetism. For the Bonita Springs, Fort Myers Beach, and Tampa Public
many years now much has been known about the laws these Libraries for all their diligent efforts in obtaining research
physical forces follow. At the same time and on a more material.
fundamental level, however, much about the true nature of
these physical forces has remained a deep mystery. For ! Robert P. Massé
example, among the entities whose true nature still remains
virtually unknown to us are: gravity, mass, inertia, electricity, ! First Edition – March 21, 2006
and magnetism. Even more mysterious to us than the long- ! Second Edition – August 20, 2009
range forces of physics are the short-range nuclear forces
! Third Edition – June 15, 2012
acting within atoms. Nuclear forces exhibit complications that
have never been explained. ! Fourth Edition – May 30, 2014
! It is the purpose of this book to explore the long-range and
! Fifth Edition – July 20, 2015
short-range physical forces of our Universe together with their
associated physical fields. In the process, we will review some ! Sixth Edition – January 11, 2016
of the important experiments that have helped reveal the laws ! Seventh Edition – August 29, 2019
pertaining to these physical forces. Included in the subjects
! Eighth Edition – January 20, 2020
covered in this book are: gravitation, light, electromagnetism,
nuclear physics, and quantum mechanics. This then is a study ! Ninth Edition – March 16, 2021
of the foundations of physics.
! The research that forms the basis of this book could not
have been accomplished without the outstanding interlibrary
loan programs of Florida made available through the good
resources of the Lee County Library System and the Tampa

iv
 2! The Nature of Mass and of Inertia
Contents ! 2.1! Classical Concepts of Mass
! 2.2! Nature of Mass
1! The Nature of Gravity ! 2.3! Mass Types
! 1.1! Newton’s Force Law of Gravity
! 2.4! Derivation of Newton’s Laws of Motion
! 1.2! Poisson’s Field Equation of Gravity
! 2.5! Derivation of Conservation Laws
! 1.3! Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity
! 2.6! Nature of Inertia
! 1.4! Aether Field Equation of Gravity
! 2.7! Absolute Motions and Galilean Relativity
! 1.5! Continuity of Aether Density in a Vacuum
! 2.8! Inertial Forces
! 1.6! Force Density of Flowing Aether
! 2.9! Dark Matter
! 1.7! Equation of Motion for Flowing Aether
! 2.10! Applicability of Newton’s Law of Gravity
! 1.8! Gravitational Energy
! 2.11! Nonexistent Higgs Particles
! 1.9! Gravitational Energy Density Flux within a Vacuum
! 2.12! Summary
! 1.10! Irrotational Flow of Aether in a Gravitational Field
! 1.11! Vorticity
3! The Nature of Light
! 1.12! Circulation
! 3.1! Luminiferous Aether and Light
! 1.13! Generation of Vorticity in Aether
! 3.2! Elastic Properties of Aether within Free Space
! 1.14! Nature of Mechanical Force
! 3.3! Elastic Wave Equations for Aether within Free Space
! 1.15! Nature of Gravitational Force
! 3.4! Light Waves
! 1.16! Nonexistent Gravitons ! 3.5! Motion of Aether and of the Light Source or Light
! 1.17! Antigravity
! ! Receiver
! 1.18! Summary
! 3.6! Light Traveling through Material Media
! 3.7! Light Waves and Rotational Motion of the Earth

v
! 3.8! Light Waves and Orbital Motion of the Earth ! 4.10! Nature of Charge and Current
! 3.9! Gravity and the Deflection of Light ! 4.11! Historical Distinction between Electric and Magnetic
! 3.10! Gravitational Lenses ! ! Field Intensities
! 3.11! Time Delay of Light ! 4.12! Electromagnetic Energy Density within Material
! 3.12! Faster than Light ! ! Media
! 3.13! Black Holes ! 4.13! Force Density and Momentum Density of
! 3.14! Index of Refraction of a Gravitational Field ! ! Electromagnetic Waves
! 3.15! Summary ! 4.14! Lorentz Force Density
! 4.15! Polarization Vector and Magnetization Vector
4! The Nature of Electromagnetic Fields and Forces ! 4.16! Integral Form of Maxwell’s Field Equations for
! 4.1! Electric and Magnetic Aethers ! ! Material Media
! 4.2! Elastic Energy Density of Aether within Free Space ! 4.17! Scalar and Vector Potentials for Electromagnetic
! 4.3! Continuity of Elastic Energy Density of Transverse ! ! Fields
! ! Elastic Waves in Aether within Free Space ! 4.18! Basic Laws of Electricity and Magnetism
! 4.4! Poynting Vector for Transverse Elastic Waves in ! 4.19! Electromagnetic Circuit Parameters
! ! Aether within Free Space ! 4.20! Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic Waves
! 4.5! Maxwell’s Field Equations for Transverse Elastic ! 4.21! Electromagnetic Mass
! ! Waves in Aether within Free Space ! 4.22! Acceleration of a Charged Particle by
! 4.6! Nature of Electromagnetic Fields ! ! Electromagnetic Force
! 4.7! Maxwell’s Field Equations for Free Space ! 4.23! Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity
! 4.8! Electromagnetic Energy Density within Free Space ! 4.24! Electromagnetic Radiation
! 4.9! Derivation of Maxwell’s Field Equations for Material ! 4.25! Gravitational Waves
! ! Media ! 4.26! Nature of Electromagnetic Force

vi
! 4.27! Unified Field Theory for Gravitational and ! 5.18! The Gravitational Constant G
! ! Electromagnetic Forces ! 5.19! Summary
! 4.28! Poynting Vector for Gravitational Waves
! 4.29! Summary 6! The Nature of Quantum Mechanics
! 6.1! Blackbody Radiation
5! The Nature of Nuclear Fields and Forces ! 6.2! Planck’s Light Quanta
! 5.1! Particles ! 6.3! The Photoelectric Effect
! 5.2! Nature of the Neutron ! 6.4! Nature of the Photon
! 5.3! Nature of the Strong Nuclear Force ! 6.5! The Compton Effect
! 5.4! Nature of Electrons and Positrons ! 6.6! Two-Slit Experiments
! 5.5! Nature of the Proton ! 6.7! de Broglie Waves
! 5.6! Proton Mass ! 6.8! Schrödinger’s Wave Equation
! 5.7! Nature of the Weak Nuclear Force ! 6.9! Quantum Numbers
! 5.8! Antiparticles ! 6.10! Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
! 5.9! Nature of Neutrinos ! 6.11! Delayed-Choice Single Photon Experiment for Light
! 5.10! Nature of the Atomic Nucleus ! 6.12! EPR Experiments and Quantum Nonlocality
! 5.11! Mass Defect ! 6.13! The Stern-Gerlach Experiment
! 5.12! Radioactivity ! 6.14! Nature of Quantum Mechanics
! 5.13! Nature of Atoms ! 6.15! Exchange Forces/Mediating Particles
! 5.14! Unstable Particles and Aether Disturbance ! 6.16! Absence of Compressional Wave Generation in
! 5.15! Time Dilation and the Lifetime of Unstable Particles ! ! Aether
! 5.16! Nonexistent Quarks ! 6.17! Summary
! 5.17! Unified Field Theory for Nuclear Forces

vii
7! Tests of Gravitational Theories 8! The Nature of Space and Time
! 7.1! The Galileo Falling Body Experiments ! 8.1! Newton’s Space and Time
! 7.2! Accelerated versus Unaccelerated Motion ! 8.2! Einstein’s Space and Time of Special Relativity
! 7.3! Newton’s Laws of Motion ! 8.3! Minkowski’s Space-Time
! 7.4! Inertial Forces ! 8.4! Einstein’s Space-Time of General Relativity
! 7.5! Dark Matter ! 8.5! Nature of Space
! 7.6! Light Source Speed ! 8.6! Nature and Direction of Time
! 7.7! Gravitational Frequency Shift ! 8.7! Summary
! 7.8! Solar Deflection of Light
! 7.9! Time Delay of Light 9! The Nature of Our Universe
! 7.10! Without Infinities ! 9.1! Nature of the Big Bang
! 7.11! Derivation of Maxwell’s Field Equations for ! 9.2! Before the Big Bang
! ! Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space ! 9.3! Unification of Fields and Forces in Our Universe
! 7.12! Advance of Mercury’s Perihelion ! 9.4! Gravity and the Future of Our Universe
! 7.13! Strong and Weak Nuclear Forces ! 9.5! Aether and Our Universe
! 7.14! Nature of Quantum Mechanics ! 9.6! Physics of Material Body Structure
! 7.15! Unified Field Theory ! 9.7! Universal Constants of Nature
! 7.16! Why any Correct Results from the General Theory of ! 9.8! Conservation Laws of Our Universe
! ! Relativity? ! 9.9! Where Our Universe came from
! 7.17! Summary ! 9.10! Summary

viii
Appendix A! Vector Field Operations

Appendix B! The Greek Alphabet

Appendix C! Vector Identities

Appendix D! Helmholtz’s Vortex Theorems

Appendix E! Physical Constants

Appendix F! Reynold’s Transport Theorem for Aether

! in Free Space

Appendix G! Earnshaw’s Theorem

References

ix
Chapter 1
“But hitherto I have not been able to discover the cause
of those properties of gravity from phenomena, and I
frame no hypotheses; . . . And to us it is enough that
The Nature of Gravity gravity does really exist, and act according to the laws
which we have explained, and abundantly serves to
account for all the motions of the celestial bodies, and of
our sea.”

Isaac Newton
Principia

10
 The search for an understanding of the physical force gravitational forces based upon his studies of pendulums,
known as gravity has occupied philosophers and scientists for falling bodies, the orbits of planets, and the orbits of their
many centuries. Early concepts of force and matter developed moons. He found, for example, “that the forces by which the
in antiquity by Aristotle and other philosophers have come primary planets are continually drawn off from rectilinear motions,
down through the ages and influenced the work of scientists and retained in their proper orbits, tend to the Sun” and that these
such as Kepler, Galileo, Huygens, and Newton (see Jammer, forces “are reciprocally as the squares of the distances of the places of
1957, 1961). Advancement in science is, after all, an incremental those planets from the Sun’s center.” He also found that “there is a
process with new discoveries resting on the foundation of power of gravity tending to all bodies, proportional to the several
previous work. quantities of matter which they contain.”
Newton’s approach to the study of gravity was to use “the ! Newton had discovered the force law of gravity.
phenomena of motions to investigate the forces of nature, and then Moreover, he had discovered that this force law of gravity
from these forces to demonstrate other phenomena.” From various applies not only to objects on Earth, but also to objects in the
observations and experiments, Newton succeeded in heavens. For example, he found that the Earth’s gravitational
determining particular propositions that “are inferred from the force keeps the moon orbiting the Earth rather than flying off
phenomena and afterwards rendered general by induction.” This type into deep space.
of methodology works well in physics. ! A law in physics is a relation between physical entities
! In this chapter we will determine the nature of gravity. We that has been abstracted from empirical observations of these
will begin by examining the gravitational force law of Newton, entities. In formulating laws of physics, the assumption is made
and then proceed to consider some field theories of gravity. that the existence of identical physical circumstances will
always result in the occurrence of identical phenomena
1.1! NEWTON’S FORCE LAW OF GRAVITY (Poincaré, 1905b). A law in physics then denotes neither a
! Isaac Newton’s great Philosophiae Naturalis Principia requirement nor a prohibition, but only an observed pattern. In
Mathematica (known as Principia) was first published in 1687. other words, a law in physics does not govern nature; it only
In this work Newton derived mathematical expressions for
11
describes nature. Therefore a law in physics is perhaps better numerical value for G was made almost one hundred years
considered an effect rather than a cause. later by Boys (1894a, b, c, and d) using empirical procedures
developed by Cavendish. Since then many measurements of G
1.1.1! MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION have been made. The current estimate of G is:
! Bodies containing matter are, by definition, material ! G = 6.67408 × 10 −8 cm 3 sec-2 gm -1 ! (1.1-2)
bodies. Newton (1687) defined mass to be a measure of the
! Considering the force F on a material body of mass m
quantity of matter in a material body. Newton thus introduced
resulting from the gravitational pull of a material body of mass
the concept of mass into physics (Cohen, 2002). Note that
Newton did not state that mass is the same thing as matter, but M , we can rewrite equation (1.1-1) as:
only that mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. F M
! = −G 2 ! (1.1-3)
! Matter is the only entity in our Universe that possesses m r
gravity. Mass, being only a measure of the quantity of matter, In vector form, this can be written as:
cannot possess gravity. !
F M
! Newton’s force law of gravity for two material bodies of ! = − G 2 r̂ ! (1.1-4)
m r
masses m and M can be expressed in the form:
where r̂ is a unit vector that has its coordinate origin at the
mM
! F = −G 2 ! (1.1-1) center of the body of mass M and that is directed along the line
r
from this body to the body of mass m (see Figure 1-1). The
where F is the gravitational attractive force between the 
minus sign indicates that the force F acting on the body of
bodies, r is the distance between the bodies, and G is the mass m is in the opposite direction of r̂ and so is directed
gravitational constant of proportionality. The constant G was towards the body of mass M .
first measured implicitly by Cavendish (1798) using a torsion
balance to determine the density of the Earth by weighing the
world. He did not calculate a numerical value for G , however
(see Clotfelter, 1987; and Falconer, 1999). The first estimate of a
12
 having no intervening medium exert a physical effect on each
other across the empty space between them.
! Since time is not a parameter in equation (1.1-1), time does
not enter into Newton’s force law of gravity. We then have the
additional implication that the action-at-a-distance of gravity
occurs instantaneously. Therefore gravitational force appears to
propagate with infinite speed according to Newton’s force law
of gravity.
! On the basis of our everyday experience, this physical
interpretation of gravity does not appear plausible. As Dolbear
(1897) stated ". . . every body moves because it is pushed, and the
mechanical antecedent of every kind of phenomena is to be looked for
in some adjacent body possessing energy; that is, the ability to push or
produce pressure." It is hard to imagine how a force could act

Figure 1-1! Gravitational force F on a material body of mass over some large distance without an intervening medium. It is
m due to a material body of mass M . even harder to believe that this action could be instantaneous.
Therefore we must conclude that Newton’s force law of gravity
1.1.2! PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION expressed in the form of equation (1.1-1) does not lend itself to
! Newton’s force law of gravity given in equation (1.1-1) can a direct physical interpretation as to the cause of gravity. This
be interpreted physically to imply that some sort of action-at-a- prompts us to ask what Newton thought about the relation he
distance is occurring as each of the two material bodies exerts had discovered for gravitational forces.
an attractive force on the other; that is, the two material bodies ! Newton stated very clearly in his Principia that he
will tend to accelerate towards each other. Action-at-a-distance purposed “only to give a mathematical representation of those forces,
is defined here to mean that two bodies separated in space and without considering their physical causes and seats.” Newton also

13
noted that he used “the words attraction, impulse or propensity of
any sort towards a center, interchangeably, one for another; 1.1.3! PHYSICAL CAUSE OF GRAVITY
considering those forces not physically, but mathematically.” He was ! Newton did, however, attempt to find the cause of gravity.
not attempting “to define the kind or the manner of any action, the He was certain that gravity “must proceed from a cause that
causes or the physical reason thereof,” nor was he attributing penetrates to the very centers of the Sun and planets, without
“forces, in a true and physical sense, to certain centers (which are suffering the least diminution of its force; that operates not according
only mathematical points)” when he referred to ”centers as to the quantity of the surfaces of the particles upon which it acts (as
attracting, or as endued with attractive powers.” Moreover, Newton mechanical causes do), but according to the quantity of solid matter
(1693b) wrote that the very thought that “one body may act upon which they contain, and that propagates in all directions to immense
another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of any distances, decreasing always by the square of the distances.” He
thing else by and through which their action or force may be conveyed suspected that the ultimate cause of gravity was to be found in
from one to another is to me so great an absurdity that I believe no “an ethereal medium”, a physical nonmaterial medium thought
man who has in philosophical matters any competent faculty of to permeate all space (Newton, 1730; and Jammer, 1957). He
thinking can ever fall into it.” Newton clearly did not believe in thought that gravity was the result of this ethereal medium
action-at-a-distance. He felt the need for a medium that serves flowing with accelerated motion into material bodies and
to transmit force (Jourdain, 1915c). Therefore Newton’s theory then collecting within these bodies (Aiton, 1969). Newton
of gravity clearly does not postulate instantaneous action-at-a- thought the ethereal medium to be composed of distinct
distance. particles and to be mechanical in nature (see Hall and Hall,
! Newton realized that he was not defining the “physical 1960).
qualities of forces, but investigating the quantities and mathematical ! Nevertheless, Newton could not verify the cause of
proportions of them” in his Principia. Therefore we see that gravity, and he was not prepared to hypothesize on its physical
Newton considered his force law of gravity to be useful for cause in his Principia. He concluded that the “cause of gravity is
mathematically calculating gravitational forces, but not for what I do not pretend to know, and therefore would take more time to
determining their physical causes. consider of it“ (Newton, 1693a).

14
 force in the region. Faraday surmised that these lines of force
1.2! POISSON’S FIELD EQUATION OF exert an influence upon each other by transferring their action
GRAVITY from particle to contiguous particle of a physical medium.
! In 1813, more than one hundred years after Newton’s ! Considering these lines of force, Maxwell (1861a) stated
Principia was first published, Siméon Denis Poisson derived an "we cannot help thinking that in every place where we find these lines
equation that can be used to describe the gravitational field of force, some physical state or action must exist in sufficient energy
resulting from a material body. Using vector analysis methods, to produce the actual phenomena." Maxwell proceeded to "examine
we will now show how Poisson’s field equation of gravity can magnetic phenomena from a mechanical point of view" based upon
be obtained from Newton’s force law of gravity. Subsequently an interpretation of Faraday's concept of a physical medium of
we will consider the physical interpretation of this field contiguous particles.
equation. We will begin with a brief discussion of the concept of ! Contiguous particles are simply particles packed so
a physical field. closely together that there is essentially no space between them.
Faraday did not consider the contiguous particles of his
1.2.1! FIELD CONCEPT physical medium to be matter. He noted that “matter is not
! The concept of a physical field was developed first by essential to the physical lines of magnetic force any more than to a ray
Euler in the 1750s during his studies of the kinematics of fluids of light or heat.” Faraday employed the terms magnetic field to
(see Truesdell, 1954). It was James Clerk Maxwell, however, denote the distribution of magnetic forces in a region (see
who more generally introduced the field concept into physics in Gooding, 1980). Faraday’s ideas were used by Maxwell to
the 1860s. Maxwell derived his field concept from the magnetic formulate the concept of a continuous physical field in which
lines of force that Michael Faraday had proposed to explain all actions occur only between contiguous particles. We will
magnetic force patterns in space (Faraday, 1844, 1847, 1855). designate these contiguous particles as field particles.
! A magnetic line of force is a line having the direction of the ! A disturbance resulting from a change in the motion of a
magnetic force at each point along the line. The concentration field particle can then propagate to a distance only by a
of such lines in a given region indicates the intensity of the succession of actions between contiguous particles. Action-at-a-

15
distance is thereby reduced to actions between particles that are calculus on physical problems involving fields, and for using
contiguous. Some time duration is required for all these actions differential equations to describe changes in the fields.
to occur, and so field disturbances can only propagate with a Each point particle of the continuum always retains its
velocity that is finite. individual identity as well as all the physical properties
! We see then that the existence of a continuous physical (including the kinematical and dynamical properties) of its
field in a region requires the existence of a real physical corresponding field particle except for volume and extension (a
medium consisting of contiguous particles. We will designate point particle has neither). Nevertheless the same density and
this real physical medium as the field medium. The particles of pressure are assumed to exist in the continuum as in the field
the field medium must be small enough so that a large number medium.
of these field particles are contained within a volume element ! While a physical field requires contiguous field particles
that is considered infinitesimal relative to the volume of the capable of being abstracted to form a mathematical continuum,
entire region. this is not what defines a physical field. Rather, a physical field
These contiguous field particles can then be used to form a is some specific attribute associated with each of the field
continuous mathematical entity known as a continuum. This particles being abstracted to form the mathematical continuum.
continuum is obtained by abstracting the field particles of the A physical field is not a physical medium then, but is some
field medium to point particles, thereby allowing the field attribute of the contiguous field particles that form the real
medium to be treated as a mathematical continuum filling a physical medium. A physical field can never have an existence
region of space with no gaps between the points. The result is a independent of the field particles that constitute the field
one-to-one correspondence between point particles of the medium. A physical field is more therefore than simply a
continuum and geometrical points assigned to the field mathematical device used to solve a physical problem. Physical
particles in the region of space occupied by the field medium. fields are always real.
The mathematical continuum of abstracted physical particles ! Depending upon properties of the field particle attribute
provides justification for using the limiting process of the that is the physical field, several different types of physical
fields can be identified. When the field particle attribute is a
16
scalar quantity so that a scalar quantity is associated with each addition of two or more point vectors at any given point is
point of the mathematical continuum, these quantities together always valid, the superposition of different vector fields
form a scalar field. Similarly, when the field particle attribute is representing the same type of physical entity is always possible.
a vector quantity or a tensor quantity so that a vector quantity
or a tensor quantity is associated with each point of the 1.2.2! GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
mathematical continuum, these quantities form a vector field or ! We will now once again consider two material bodies of
a tensor field, respectively (in this book we will use the term masses M and m as shown in Figure 1-1. We will define a
tensor to refer to tensors of order two or higher). The material point particle to be a material body that has been
temperature in the Earth’s atmosphere is an example of a abstracted to an infinitesimal size so that “the distances between
physical scalar field, and the wind velocity in the atmosphere is its different parts may be neglected” as Maxwell (1877) suggested.
an example of a physical vector field. The real medium that is A material point particle can then be considered to have no
abstracted to a mathematical continuum in both these cases is volume or extension, and so it will occupy a single point in
air, and the field particles are extremely small air parcels. space. We will assume, nevertheless, that a material point
! A field that does not vary with time (is independent of particle has density and that this density is constant. We will let
time) is termed a stationary field or a steady-state field. A field the material body of mass m (see Figures 1-1 and 1-2) be a
that does vary with time is termed non-stationary. material point particle. Newton formulated his gravitational
! Since vector fields can, by definition, vary from point to theory in terms of such material point particles. We will specify

point, the vectors associated with a vector field are known as the location of this particle in space by the position vector r
point vectors. They are defined for and occupy only a single that has its coordinate system origin in the center of the body of
point. Point vectors and line vectors are not the same then since mass M , but that is located only at the single point having the

all nonzero line vectors occupy more than a single point and coordinates of r (see the unit vector r̂ shown in Figure 1-2).
can be slid over many points. Therefore the magnitude of a ! In order to avoid the action-at-a-distance concept of force,
point vector cannot be equated with the length of the vector, we will now consider that at all points in space surrounding the
unlike the magnitude of a line vector. Finally, since the material body of mass M a gravitational acceleration field due

17
 
to the matter in this body exists. This gravitational acceleration will define F m to be the gravitational field intensity or
 
field of the material body of mass M exists in space whether or gravitational field g . A vector quantity g can be associated
not any material point particle is present at a particular point in therefore with each point of space surrounding the material
space to experience the acceleration. body of mass M .

The vector g is the acceleration that a material point
particle of mass m will experience due to the gravitational pull
of the matter of mass M if the point particle is placed at a point
 
in space specified by the position vector r . Since g is a real
physical vector quantity that can be measured, we can conclude

that the vector field g surrounding the body of mass M is a
real physical vector field.
! Using Newton’s law of gravity as given in equation
 
(1.1-4), we can then determine F m (and so g ) for all points in
space about the body of mass M :
!
F ! M
! ≡ g = − G 2 r̂ ! (1.2-1)
m r
where the unit vector r̂ is given by:
! !
r r
 ! r̂ = ! = ! (1.2-2)
Figure 1-2! Gravitational force F on a material point particle r r
of mass m due to a material body of mass M . 
Equation (1.2-1) shows that the acceleration g of a body of mass
 m due to the gravitational pull of a material body of mass M is
The vector quantity F m in equation (1.1-4) has the
dimensions of acceleration and represents the gravitational a function of M , but is independent of m .
acceleration existing around the material body of mass M . We
18
! If the material body of mass M is stationary, its Since for a material body mass has been found to be a measure

gravitational field g will also be stationary. A material point of the quantity of matter, we have:
particle of mass m placed within such a stationary field will

instantaneously experience the gravitational acceleration F m
! Qm =
∫∫∫ ρ dV ≈ M !
V
(1.2-4)

of the field. We see now that the reason gravitational force

where M is the mass of the material body. In fact, mass “serves
appears to propagate with infinite speed according to Newton’s
for measuring a portion of matter so well that matter and mass appear
force law of gravity is that this law effectively assumes the
to be synonyms” as noted by Rougier (1921). However, mass and
gravitational field is stationary, and so gravitational force
matter are not the same type of thing (see Section 2.2). For
already exists at all points within the field. The gravitational
example, some particles do not contain matter but still have
force that is associated with a stationary gravitational field will
mass (see Section 5.4.6). Only for a free neutron does the mass
always be constant (not a function of time) at any given point
of a material body exactly equal the quantity of matter of the
within the field. It is then not correct to state that Newton’s law
body (see Section 5.11).
of gravity assumes that gravitational force propagates with an
! Instead of considering the entire material body of mass
infinite speed.
M , we will now consider only a single very small volume
1.2.3! MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION element ΔV of this body. The matter density ρ of this volume
element can be taken as constant since the dimensions of ΔV
! The density of a substance is defined as the quantity of
are taken to be very small. The mass ΔM of the matter
the substance per unit volume. If ρ is matter density and Qm
contained within ΔV is then given by:
is quantity of matter, then matter density must be Qm per unit

∫∫∫ ∫∫∫
volume, and so for a material body: ! ΔM = ρ dV = ρ dV = ρ ΔV ! (1.2-5)
ΔV ΔV
! Qm =
∫∫∫ ρ dV !
V
(1.2-3)
!
 
To obtain the gravitational field g at a point r in space
due to the gravitational pull of only the matter of mass ΔM
where V is the volume of the material body. It is important to
contained within the volume element ΔV , we can use
notice that matter density ρ is not defined in terms of mass.
19
  
equations (1.2-1) and (1.2-5) to express the gravitational field g field g due to matter of mass ΔM and density ρ contained
as: within a very small volume element ΔV .
! The law of gravitation defined by Newton’s force law of
∫∫∫
! r̂
! g = −Gρ dV ! (1.2-6) 
ΔV r2 gravity is linear. Therefore the gravitational field g due to each
volume element of a material body can be calculated
The factor r̂ r 2 is under the integral sign since the coordinate
 individually using Newton’s force law of gravity, and then a
origin of the position vector r is taken to be in the volume
 vector summation can be performed to determine the total
element ΔV . The divergence of the gravitational field g is then
gravitational field of the entire material body. In other words,
determined by the relation: 
the gravitational field at a point r due to a body of mass M can
! ! ! r̂  
! ∇ • g! = − G ρ ∇ •
∫∫∫ ∫∫∫
r̂
dV = − G ρ ∇ • 2 dV ! (1.2-7) be obtained by summation of g at the point r for all the
ΔV r2 ΔV r
volume elements ΔV in the body of mass M . If this body is
as is shown in Appendix A (the matter density ρ is constant). 
located far from the point r , it is possible to use equation
From vector analysis we have: (1.2-10) directly for the entire mass M with ρ representing the
! r̂ average density of the body.
! ∇ • 2 = 4 π δ (r ) ! (1.2-8)
r ! For a stationary gravitational field resulting from matter of
where δ ( r ) is the Dirac delta function (see Appendix A), and so mass ΔM contained in a volume element ΔV , we can define
we can rewrite equation (1.2-7) as: the Newtonian stationary gravitational potential ϕ at a point

r by:
! !
! ∇• g = − G ρ
∫∫∫ 4 π δ (r ) dV
ΔV
! (1.2-9)
! ϕ ≡G
ΔM
r
! (1.2-11)
We then have finally:
  We then have:
! ∇ • g = − 4π G ρ ! (1.2-10) ! ΔM
! ∇ϕ = − G 2 r̂ ! (1.2-12)
This equation, which is known as Gauss's law of gravity or as r
Gauss's flux theorem of gravity, describes the gravitational
20
and so, for matter of mass ΔM contained in a volume element equation of gravity and Newton’s force law of gravity must be
ΔV , we can use equations (1.2-1) and (1.2-12) to write the mathematically equivalent for a stationary gravitational field.

stationary gravitational field g in the form:
! ΔM ! 1.2.4! PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION
! g = − G 2 r̂ = ∇ϕ ! (1.2-13)
r ! The physical interpretation of Poisson’s field equation of
gravity (1.2-15) is, however, very different from the physical
We see therefore that it is possible to express a stationary
 interpretation of Newton’s force law of gravity (1.1-1). Rather
gravitational field g in terms of the gradient of a scalar
than the action-at-a-distance interpretation of gravity obtained
potential function ϕ . From equations (1.2-10) and (1.2-13) we
from Newton’s force law of gravity, Poisson’s field equation is
have:
! ! ! ! based upon and must be interpreted in terms of the continuous
! ∇ • g = ∇ • ∇ϕ = − 4 π G ρ ! (1.2-14)

gravitational field g that exists in space about any material
or
body.
! !  
! ∇ • g = ∇ 2ϕ = − 4 π G ρ ! (1.2-15) ! Since g is a physical field, g must be an attribute of real

which is Poisson’s field equation of gravity for matter of mass field particles of a real field medium. Since g is a vector
ΔM and density ρ contained within a volume element ΔV . acceleration field, this attribute of the particles must be
! Poisson’s field equation describes the gravitational field acceleration. We can conclude then that, at each point of the
existing around a material body of matter density ρ. gravitational field, real particles must be in accelerated motion.
Mathematically we must obtain the same results from Poisson’s We can also conclude, therefore, that a real physical medium
field equation of gravity (1.2-15) as from Newton’s force law of must exist in space and that some flowing motion must be
gravity (1.1-1) since, as just shown, Newton’s force law can be occurring within this medium to produce the observed
used to derive Poisson’s gravitational field equation. Moreover, gravitational acceleration.
since Newton’s force law of gravity is not a function of time, ! This is analogous to observing the effects of wind velocity,
Poisson’s field equation of gravity (1.2-15) only applies to which is a vector velocity field, and concluding that a real
gravitational fields that are stationary. Therefore Poisson’s field physical medium (air) must exist and must be in motion. For

21
example, when we observe through a closed window the vector analysis, we know that a vector equation in the form of
!
autumn leaves blowing about, we know that air is in motion equation (1.2-10) can always be written for a vector field ϒ
although we cannot directly see the air. having a source or a sink. We have then:
! The real physical medium whose flowing motion ! !
! ∇ • ϒ = ± 4π K ρ ! (1.2-16)
produces the gravitational field must be consistent with
Poisson’s field equation (1.2-15). We will refer to this real field where the left side of this equation is the divergence of a vector
!
medium as aether for historical reasons to be discussed in field ϒ (vector attribute of field particles), and where the right

Section 1.2.7. Aether particles are then the field particles of side of this equation has a positive sign for a source and a

gravitational fields. The mathematical continuum for the negative sign for a sink. The parameter K is a constant required

gravitational acceleration field is abstracted from aether to make the units consistent. The strength density ρ is a scalar

particles with each aether particle corresponding to a point in that is the strength of the source or sink per unit volume, and

the gravitational field. The acceleration of aether particles is the so is a measure of the effect the source or the sink has on the
!
attribute of the field particles that is the gravitational field. vector field ϒ .

Since the gravitational field is a real physical acceleration field, ! For the special case where the attribute that constitutes the

we can conclude that the field medium, aether, is real. vector field is a kinematic flow property (flow velocity or flow
acceleration) of the field medium, sources and sinks of the
1.2.5! VECTOR FIELD SOURCES AND SINKS vector field can be interpreted as places where this real physical

! A physical vector field consists of some vector attribute field medium is being continuously created and continuously

associated with the field particles of a real field medium as was destroyed, respectively (Lamb, 1879; and Granger, 1985). For

noted in Section 1.2.1. If within the region of the vector field such cases, we will designate any source as a field flow source

there exists an entity that produces a discontinuity in the and any sink as a field flow sink. When the rate at which a

particular particle attribute that is the vector field, then such an source continuously creates a field medium (or a sink

entity is known as a source or a sink for the field (see Kellogg, continuously destroys a field medium) is constant, the source

1929). Only vector fields have field sources and sinks. From (or sink) is referred to as steady.

22
! If the vector field does not consist of a kinematic flow 1.2.6! MATTER AS A FIELD FLOW SINK FOR
attribute of the field medium, then the source and sink will not AETHER
represent places where the field medium is, respectively, ! The field medium for a gravitational field is aether, and
created and destroyed. That is, they will not represent a field the attribute of aether that is the gravitational field is
flow source or a field flow sink. Rather, both source and sink acceleration. Gravitational acceleration is a kinematic flow
will produce in the field medium the attribute constituting the property of aether: flow acceleration. From equations (1.2-15)
vector field. The only constraint is: when a source and a sink of and (1.2-16), we see that since the density of a material body is
this type and of equal strength come together, they can nullify ρ > 0 and since the sign is negative on the right side of
each other. We will designate this type of source as a field non- equation (1.2-15), ρ must represent the strength density of a
flow source and the corresponding sink as a field non-flow sink for the gravitational field. Since ρ is the density of matter
sink. Since a field non-flow sink is really just another kind of within the volume element ΔV of a material body, the sink for
source, we will also designate a field non-flow source to be a the gravitational field is then matter. Therefore matter is a field
field positive source and a field non-flow sink to be a field flow sink for aether. Poisson’s equation (1.2-15) for the
negative source (recognizing that non-flow sources and sinks gravitational field is then an equation describing the
can nullify each other). Such non-flow sources and sinks will be accelerating flow of aether into matter.
discussed in Sections 4.10 and 5.4.4. We can summarize by ! While matter is a field flow sink for a gravitational field,
noting that there exist two types of vector field sources and, there is no known entity that is a field flow source for a
correspondingly, two types of vector field sinks: gravitational field. Other fields such as electromagnetic fields
1.! Field flow sources and field flow sinks. do have both source and sink entities (as will be discussed in
Chapters 4 and 5). It has sometimes been thought that material
2.! Field non-flow sources and field non-flow sinks
particles are inconsistent with field theory (e.g., Einstein, 1950).
(field positive sources and field negative
sources). We now see, however, that material particles simply represent
discontinuities (sinks) in the field medium (aether), and so are
consistent with field theory.
23
 aether provided the means by which light is propagated.
1.2.7! AETHER Following Descartes, Huygens (1690a, b) postulated aether as
! The concept of a real physical medium called aether (or the nonmaterial physical medium in which light waves
ether) is not new. The origins of aether as a metaphysical propagate. Newton (1693b) thought that “It is inconceivable, that
concept can be traced back to antiquity. The word ‘aether’ is inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something
from a Greek word meaning ‘the upper purer air’. Aether was else, which is not material, operate upon and affect other matter
considered by Aristotle (c. 384 BCE to 322 BCE) to be the without mutual contact, . . .” He considered aether to be the cause
“primary” substance of the Universe and the substance that fills of gravity and of certain wave-like properties evident in the
up all empty parts of space. He made aether his quintessence reflection and refraction of light.
(fifth essence) of the Universe, completing the essences of air, ! Since then many scientists have supported the concept of a
water, fire and earth. physical nonmaterial medium called aether. The basis for this
! The scientific concept of aether has existed for almost four support was often one of the following: to avoid the action-at-a-
hundred years, beginning in the seventeenth century with distance explanation of physical forces (such as gravitational,
Kepler (1620) and Descartes (1637, 1638, 1644). Kepler thought electrical, and magnetic forces), or to provide a real medium for
that the space between planets is filled with aether, whereas light waves to propagate in. These are the historical reasons we
Descartes thought that aether permeates the entire Universe, are calling the physical medium introduced in the previous
filling all voids where matter does not exist. Descartes believed section ‘aether’.
that particles of aether form a continuum, everywhere pressing ! After the existence of aether as a physical medium was
upon other particles of aether except in the very few places first proposed, numerous aether theories were developed to
where ordinary matter exists. He conceived of aether as a explain various physical phenomena. Nevertheless the physical
medium that can move very rapidly towards Earth. He thought properties and the functions of aether remained unclear and,
that aether is capable of transmitting force so that all action-at- for most of the twentieth century, the very existence of aether
a-distance can be explained as the result of forces acting was doubted for reasons which will be discussed later in this
between contiguous aether particles. He also considered that book.

24
! Before considering the nature of aether, we need to
provide a definition of a fluid. A fluid can be defined as a 1.2.7.2! AETHER IS UBIQUITOUS AND CONTINUOUS
physical medium that will flow continuously under any shear ! A gravitational field is always associated with matter, and
stress. A solid can be defined as a physical medium that so the field medium of gravity (aether) must exist wherever
maintains a definite shape and volume due to large cohesive there is matter. Moreover, aether must be continuous down to
internal forces. A solid is the frozen state of a fluid. All some very small dimension since the gravitational field appears
material media can flow at some temperature, and so all to be continuous. We can conclude therefore that aether must
material media have a fluid state. be ubiquitous and continuous in our Universe. Only at
! Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance dimensions approaching the size of the aether particles is the
to flowing due to some internal cohesion. A fluid having no aether discontinuous. We will designate an aether particle as an
viscosity is known as an inviscid fluid, and the flow of such a aetheron.
fluid is known as inviscid flow. ! As J. J. Thomson (1909) noted, matter occupies “but an
insignificant fraction of the universe, it forms but minute islands in
1.2.7.1! AETHER IS AN INVISCID FLUID the great ocean of the ether, the substance with which the whole
! Using our interpretation of Poisson’s field equation of universe is filled.” Lodge (1925a) also noted: “The first thing to
gravity as describing the accelerating flow of aether into matter, realise about the ether is its absolute continuity.” While some
we are now able to determine some of the physical properties scientists around the beginning of the 20th century thought that
of aether. For aether to be the physical medium whose motion aether was not discontinuous at any dimension (see Doran,
results in the observed gravitational field, aether must be able 1975), aether actually consists of extremely small physical
to flow rapidly. Aether is therefore a fluid. The flow of aether particles.
associated with gravity appears to be inviscid since there is no
evidence of internal friction in aether (see Section 3.2). No 1.2.7.3! AETHER IS HOMOGENEOUS
internal cohesion then exists within aether. Sir Oliver Lodge ! Since matter, which is a field flow sink for aether, exists in
(1923) noted that “ether has nothing of the nature of viscosity.” the form of nucleons (protons and neutrons), aether must
25
appear continuous at the dimensions of nucleons. This requires bodies without any apparent resistance. We recall Newton's
particles of aether to have dimensions that are orders of words for the cause of gravity: “penetrates to the very centers of
magnitude smaller than nucleons. Moreover, since all protons the Sun and planets, without suffering the least diminution of its
are identical and all neutrons are identical, aether must also be force“ (see Section 1.1.3).
homogeneous in composition. As Dalton (1808) noted, “the
ultimate particles of all homogeneous bodies are perfectly alike.” If 1.2.7.6! AETHER IS NEARLY INCOMPRESSIBLE
aether were not homogeneous, we would expect variations to ! Since aether consists of extremely small contiguous
be observed in both protons and neutrons since they are field particles and so is an extremely dense medium, aether is nearly
flow sinks for aether. incompressible. The compressibility of a physical substance is
a measure of the relative change in volume that occurs in the
1.2.7.4! NUCLEONS ARE STEADY SINKS FOR AETHER substance as a result of an applied force. The physical
! Since nucleons do not vary with time, they must constitute properties of aether causing it to be nearly incompressible
steady sinks for the field medium, aether. Therefore aether generally lead to the flow of aether being incompressible. In
must flow continuously and uniformly into matter. fluid dynamics, incompressibility describes fluid flow in which
no change in fluid volume occurs. When the flow of a fluid is
1.2.7.5! THE FLUID AETHER HAS HIGH DENSITY incompressible, the fluid’s density remains constant.
! Given the continuity of aether and the very small size of
aetherons, we can conclude that the density of aether must be 1.2.7.7! AETHER IS NONMATERIAL
extremely high (see Section 5.3.1). In comparison, the density of ! We can also conclude that aether must be entirely different
any material body is very low. The distances between the nuclei from matter since matter is a field flow sink for aether. The
of atoms in a material body are very great relative to the existence of aether must then be independent of matter. We see
dimensions of aetherons. Moreover, wherever there are therefore that aether is not a material medium; aether is
nucleons, the aether flows into these nucleons. This explains nonmaterial. Nevertheless, aether is a real physical medium.
how aether can be very dense and yet flow through material
26
 particles are contiguous with other aether particles. Any given
1.2.7.8! AETHER HAS RIGIDITY aether particle has almost no room to move relative to other
! While aether has the flow properties of a perfectly aether particles since very little void space exists between
frictionless fluid, it also has the elastic properties of a perfectly aether particles. Aetherons are held in place then, not by
elastic solid. This is evident since light waves, which are electromagnetic forces, but by neighboring aetherons that are
transverse elastic waves, propagate in aether (see Chapter 3). contiguous.
Transverse waves can only propagate in a medium that has ! We see therefore that the mere possession of rigidity by a
rigidity (which is defined as resistance to relative motion medium is not a sufficient criterion to indicate whether the
between particles of the medium). Therefore aether must have medium is a fluid or a solid. The physical cause of the rigidity
rigidity. must also be considered. When this is done we see that,
! The rigidity of material solid bodies is due to the force of although aether has rigidity (a property previously thought to
electromagnetism binding atoms together (while their nuclei characterize only solids), aether is a fluid and not a solid.
remain widely separated by a vacuum). This binding force Material fluids do not possess rigidity, but the nonmaterial
generally prevents material solid bodies from flowing (it fluid, aether, does. This explains why it is that when relative
provides the mechanism whereby material bodies can exist in displacements of contiguous aether particles occur, the fluid
the frozen state known as solid). aether acts as a perfectly elastic solid. The rigidity of aether
! For aether to possess a frozen state would require that a causes elastic restoring forces to result when any displacement
binding force exist between aether particles. Since aether is of the aether from an equilibrium position occurs.
perfectly elastic (see Chapter 3) and flows easily, no binding
forces can exist between aether particles. Without such binding 1.2.7.9! AETHER FLOW IS FRICTIONLESS
forces aether cannot have a frozen state, and so aether does not ! Given the cause of aether rigidity, it is clear that no
exist as a solid. Therefore the rigidity of aether is not due to internal resistance exists for the flowing motion of aether (since
aether being in a frozen state. Rather, the rigidity of aether must there is then no relative motion between contiguous aetherons).
be due to its extremely high density whereby all aether Therefore aether has zero viscosity and so is inviscid.
27
Moreover, aether has no internal friction, and so the flow of (see discussion of optical density in Section 3.6.2). The flow of
aether is frictionless or ideal. When there exists a void into aether will then be incompressible when not in proximity of
which aether particles can flow without any relative motion nucleons, and nearly incompressible when in proximity of
occurring between contiguous aether particles, aether will flow nucleons. As the flow of aether converges into a nucleon, the
freely (uniformly) from a region of high pressure to a region of near incompressibility of aether causes an increase in the flow
low pressure. Because the flow of aether is always inviscid, if it velocity of aether so that the quantity of aether flowing per unit
is also incompressible, then aether will act as a ideal fluid. No time can remain constant. It is just this increasing flow rate of
deformation will occur, and so no stresses resulting from elastic aether as it approaches matter that creates the observed
restoring forces will be present. gravitational acceleration field (see the discussion in Section
1.5.3 on the continuity of aether flow).
1.2.8! PHYSICAL CAUSE OF GRAVITY We can conclude then that the gravitational acceleration
! Gravitational acceleration is the acceleration of aether field of a material body is caused by three factors:
flowing into matter. Matter is required for the generation of a
1.! Aether being ubiquitous in our Universe.
gravitational field. Since matter is a gravitational field flow
2.! Matter being a field flow sink for aether.
sink, matter is a sink into which the gravitational field medium
(aether) is actually flowing. For a spherical material body, the 3.! Aether being nearly incompressible.
direction of aether flow into the body is vertical across the
! If we once again consider the material body of mass M
entire surface of the body. Aether does not flow out of matter
shown in Figure 1-1, we can conclude that aether must flow
because matter is not a field flow source for aether. Therefore
continuously into the body from all directions. This aether flow
aether must be consumed at a steady rate by any nucleon.
will draw towards the body of mass M the aether that exists in
! Since aether has extremely high density and is nearly
the surrounding region. A negative pressure gradient in the
incompressible, the density of aether can be expected to remain
aether will result (see Section 1.6), and this negative pressure
constant during the flow of aether into matter, except in
gradient will cause a continuous flow of aether into the region
proximity of nucleons where the density of aether will increase

28
surrounding the body of mass M to replace the aether it any material body within the flow. This answers the age-old
constantly disappearing into the body. question of how matter can appear to act where it is not. Matter
! If a second material body of mass m is within this region acts through the aether it disturbs.
as shown in Figure 1-1, the aether flow into both the bodies of ! From Poisson’s field equation (1.2-15), we see that the flow
mass M and mass m will draw towards the bodies the aether of aether into a material body of mass M is proportional to the
that exists between them. As a result a negative pressure matter density ρ of the body. Matter density is the field flow
gradient will be created in the aether between the bodies sink strength density for the field medium aether. Obviously
causing the bodies to be pushed closer together. Moreover, the the greater the matter density of a body, the greater will be the
converging flow of aether into each body will result in an acceleration in the flow of aether into the body.
increase in velocity of the aether, and so also of the two material ! Since mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in a
bodies. In other words, the acceleration of aether towards the material body, mass is a measure of field flow sink strength.
material bodies results in the acceleration of the two material The acceleration of aether flowing into a body of mass M can
bodies towards each other. This is gravitational attraction. The then be expressed as a function of M . We also see that the
force of gravity, therefore, is the action of contiguous particles acceleration of a body of mass m resulting from the body being
of aether, and is not some action-at-a-distance. Lodge (1908) drawn along by aether flowing into a body of mass M will be
was correct when he stated: “Matter acts on matter only through dependent on the mass M , but not on the mass m . The
the ether.” acceleration of the body of mass m is due entirely to (and is
We also see that two material bodies do not directly equal to) the acceleration of the aether flowing towards the
attract each other; the apparent attraction is due to the flow of body of mass M .
aether into matter creating a pressure differential. As Lodge ! Therefore aether flow very simply explains what is
(1908) noted, “when the mechanism of attraction is understood, it perhaps the most fundamental property of gravity: why the
will be found that a body really only moves because it is pushed by acceleration experienced by a body in a gravitational field is not
something from behind.” Without the physical medium aether, a function of the quantity of matter in the body. In other words,
gravitational force would not exist. Flowing aether carries with the flow of aether explains the results of Galileo Galilei’s

29
famous experiments with free falling bodies from which he remains a field flow sink itself as it moves toward the field flow
determined that the gravitational acceleration of a body is sink of mass M .
independent of the body’s mass and composition. From his The aether that flows continually into matter is consumed
experiments, Galileo came to the conclusion “that in a medium and does not flow out. Aether flowing into matter must then
totally devoid of resistance all bodies would fall with the same replace lost energy since matter is in equilibrium with the flow
speed” (Galilei, 1638). of aether into it (we know from observation that the quantity of

! Because the gravitational acceleration g experienced by all matter in a material body does not increase nor decrease with
bodies is independent of their mass, we see from equation time if the body is left undisturbed).

(1.2-1) that gravitational force F will always be proportional to ! We can conclude, therefore, that matter by simply existing
the mass m of the body on which it acts. Since matter is a field expends energy continuously. For matter to exist in the form of
flow sink and not a field flow source for aether, the nucleons, a continuous and steady flow of aether into matter
gravitational acceleration field associated with a material body must be required. This can also be inferred from the fact that
is always directed towards and never away from the body. matter can be defined as a field flow sink for aether. We see

Therefore gravitational force F will always be attractive. then that gravitation reveals some aspects of the essence of
! The aether flow into a material body of mass M can be matter. Without aether no material bodies could exist in our
visualized as a liquid flowing towards a drain. The motion of a Universe.
material body of mass m towards the body of mass M is in ! A physical cause of gravity involving sinks or sources of
some ways similar to a cork floating in the liquid, and being aether has previously been suggested in a number of studies
drawn towards the drain. Obviously the motion of the cork will [for example, Riemann, 1853; Thomson, 1870 (as discussed by
be independent of the cork’s mass. The increase in fluid speed Ball, 1892); Pearson, 1891; and Ellis, 1973, 1974]. Riemann was
as it approaches the drain will cause the floating cork to aware that gravity could be explained by the continuous flow
accelerate towards the drain. This analogy is not perfect since of aether into every material particle, and that this requires
the body of mass M is entirely surrounded in all directions by material particles to be aether flow sinks. Pearson showed that
aether flowing into it. Moreover, a material body of mass m an inverse distance-squared law of attraction could be obtained

30
by simply considering ‘negative’ matter to be a field flow sink ! First we note that vectors and tensors are invariant under
for aether, and matter to be a field flow source of aether (see coordinate system transformation for all coordinate systems not
Kragh, 2002). Also Kirkwood (1953, 1954) noted that the in motion relative to each other. This invariance is assured since
acceleration field of gravity is “strongly suggestive of the flow of a vectors and tensors are defined in a manner such that they
fluid medium,” and he considered this fluid medium to be remain unchanged under a rotation of coordinate axes. When a
aether. change in coordinate system is made, the components of all
! In summary, from Poisson’s field equation of gravity we vectors and tensors change in such a way as to leave the vectors
have determined that matter is a field flow sink for aether and and tensors invariant. As a result, any vector or tensor equation
that the acceleration of flowing aether particles constitutes the valid in one coordinate system will also be valid after

gravitational acceleration field g . This provides a very simple transformation to any other coordinate system not moving
physical cause for gravity. Since gravitational acceleration is relative to the first. Although the choice of a general curvilinear

real, the field medium, aether, and the field flow sink for aether, coordinate system to represent the vector gravitational field g
matter, must both also be real. We see too that the laws of fluid is arbitrary, in practice this choice is usually made so as to
dynamics as applied to an inviscid fluid are appropriate for simplify the form of the resulting equations for the given field.
describing the mechanism of gravitation. For example, the spherical coordinate system is a logical choice
for the case of the two material bodies shown in Figure 1-1.
1.2.9! GRAVITATIONAL FIELD EXPRESSED IN
GENERAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 1.2.9.1! REFERENCE FRAMES
! We will now briefly consider some results that can be ! Spatial position and motion can only be defined relative to
obtained by using a general curvilinear coordinate system some real physical entity. Such a physical entity is known as a
( ) 
x1, x 2 , x 3 to represent the gravitational field g of a material reference frame or a frame of reference. Coordinate systems
body of mass M . This review will be useful as we proceed to are geometrical definitions or concepts that are extremely
the following sections. useful mathematical constructions for describing physical
entities. Coordinate systems are not physical entities in

31
 
that ( ds ) is invariant as expected. The differential dr is given
2
themselves, however. A coordinate system cannot then be a
reference frame. Moreover, a coordinate system cannot interact by:
with physical fields and forces. A coordinate system can, of ! ! ! !
! ∂r i ∂r 1 ∂r ∂r
! dr = i dx = 1 dx + 2 dx + 3 dx 3 !
2
(1.2-18)
course, be placed within a frame of reference for use in ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
describing parameters of the physical entities interacting with ! The metric tensor can be used to define coordinate space.
the reference frame. For example, a Riemannian space ( R )
N
is a coordinate space
specified by N real coordinates and by the fundamental metric
1.2.9.2! THE METRIC TENSOR
form given by equation (1.2-17). Euclidean coordinate space is
! The metric tensor gi j provides information concerning
that part of Riemannian space containing the Cartesian
properties of any general curvilinear coordinate system being
coordinate system. For orthogonal coordinate systems, we
used. The metric tensor also provides the necessary information
have:
for translating measurements from one coordinate system to
another. It does this by relating an invariant differential
! gi j = 0 ! (i ≠ j ) ! (1.2-19)

distance ds (which describes an invariant physical quantity) to For the rectangular Cartesian (Euclidean) coordinate system,
i
differentials dx along the coordinate curves: we have:

! ( ds )2 = dr! • dr! = gi j dx i dx j ! (1.2-17) ! gi j = δ i j ! (1.2-20)

  where δ i j is the Kronecker delta defined as:
where dr is the differential of the position vector r , and where
the Roman indices i and j assume values of 1, 2, and 3. We are
⎧⎪ 0 for i ≠ j
using the Einstein summation convention (Einstein, 1916a) ! δi j = ⎨ ! (1.2-21)
which specifies that any index appearing twice in a term is ⎪⎩ 1 for i = j
summed over its entire range unless otherwise noted. Since a Equation (1.2-17) then becomes:
scalar product is invariant to coordinate transformation, we see
( ds )2 = δ i j dx i dx j = dx i dx i = ( dx1 ) ( ) + ( dx ) !
2 2 3 2
! + dx 2 (1.2-22)

32
From equations (1.2-17) and (1.2-18) we can write: 
! Information concerning the gravitational field g has been
! ! ! ! introduced into equation (1.2-24) resulting in equation (1.2-27).
! ! ∂r i ∂r ∂r ∂r
! dr • dr = i dx • j dx = i • j dx i dx j = gi j dx i dx j
j
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x Equations (1.2-24) and (1.2-27) must then be equivalent. This
! ! (1.2-23) shows that, for any coordinate system being used to describe a

The metric tensor gi j can be written therefore as a function of gravitational field g , it is possible to express the metric tensor
 
the position vector r : gi j at any point in terms of the gravitational field g at the same
! ! ! ! 
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r point. The field g is determined using Newton’s force law of
! gi j = i • j = • = gj i ! (1.2-24)
gravity in the form of equation (1.2-1).
∂x ∂x ∂x j ∂x i
! Obviously, it is also possible to express the metric tensor
and so the metric tensor is symmetrical.
gi j in terms of any other vector field (such as an electro-
1.2.9.3! THE METRIC TENSOR IN TERMS OF THE magnetic field). Therefore the gravitational field is not unique
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD in its ability to specify components of the metric tensor. Any

! The gravitational field g is, of course, also a function of physical vector field can be represented in terms of geometry.

the position vector r . From equations (1.2-13) and (1.2-2), we ! Using equation (1.2-25), we can write equation (1.2-27) in
can write for a material body of mass M : terms of the gravitational potential ϕ :
! !
! ! M M ! ∂ ⎡ 3
∇ ϕ ⎤ ∂ ⎡ 3
∇ ϕ ⎤⎦
! g = ∇ϕ = − G 2 r̂ = − G 3 r ! (1.2-25) 1 ⎣ r ⎦ ⎣ r
r r ! gi j = • ! (1.2-28)
[G M ]2 ∂x i ∂x j
and so 
In general curvilinear coordinates, ∇ϕ is given by:
! r3 ! r3 !
! r =− g=− ∇ϕ ! (1.2-26) !
GM GM ∂ϕ !
! ∇ϕ = k e k ! (1.2-29)
Therefore from equations (1.2-26) and (1.2-24) we obtain: ∂x
!
! ! where e k is a reciprocal base vector. From equations (1.2-28)
1 ∂ ⎡⎣ r g ⎤⎦ ∂ ⎡⎣ r 3 g ⎤⎦
3

! gi j = • ! (1.2-27) and (1.2-29), we see that the metric tensor gi j can be expressed
[G M ]2 ∂x i ∂x j

33
as a function of the first and second derivatives of the of gravity (Einstein, 1915a, b, c, d). He obtained his field
gravitational potential ϕ . equation of gravity as a result of his ingenious efforts to extend
his special theory of relativity so that it would also encompass
1.2.9.4! GEODESICS
gravity. Einstein referred to his work on gravity as the general
! Finally, we will consider a material point particle traveling
theory of relativity.
in a straight line. In a rectangular Cartesian (Euclidean)
! The special theory of relativity (which will be discussed in
coordinate system, the equation of the straight line is given by:
Chapter 4) is founded on two postulates (assumptions):
2 i
d x
! = 0! (1.2-30) 1.! There is no preferred non-accelerating reference
ds 2
frame, and so physical laws described with
where the distance differential ds can be expressed in terms of respect to one non-accelerating reference frame
time. In a general curvilinear coordinate system, the equation of will have the same form when described using
any other non-accelerating reference frame.
the straight line is:
2.! The speed of light in vacuum is a constant
d 2x i j
i dx dx
i
! + Γjk = 0! (1.2-31) independent of the state of motion of its source.
ds 2 ds ds
where Γ ji k are the Christoffel symbols of the second kind. ! The general theory of relativity is based upon the
Equation (1.2-31) also represents geodesics in a curvilinear assumption that a uniform acceleration field and a spatially
coordinate system. Since a geodesic is a stationary value, uniform gravitational field have an equivalent effect on a non-
equation (1.2-31) can then represent either a minimum or a rotating material body (Einstein, 1907a). This assumption is
maximum path. known as the weak equivalence principle. By making this
assumption, Einstein was in effect assuming that the inertial
1.3! EINSTEIN’S GENERAL THEORY OF mass and the passive gravitational mass of material bodies
RELATIVITY must be identical (see Section 2.3.5).
! In 1915, more than one hundred years after Poisson ! Another form of the equivalence principle known as the
derived his field equation, Einstein published his field equation strong equivalence principle assumes that locally (in an
34
infinitesimal region of space in which the gravitational field is medium. Therefore the general theory of relativity is not a true
uniform), all laws of physics will follow the postulates physical field theory.
(assumptions) of special relativity in some non-rotating freely- ! Because the gravitational field at each point is effectively
falling reference frame. transformed away in general relativity, the special theory of
! From these initial assumptions, Einstein constructed his relativity should be valid within each very small freely falling
general theory of relativity. Based upon his principle of reference frame. According to the theory of general relativity
equivalence, he found that he could replace gravity locally then, the speed of light is constant only within vanishingly
(essentially at each point) by a uniformly accelerating frame of small non-accelerating reference frames. For more realistic
 
reference. Each different point r in the gravitational field g will physical reference frames, the speed of light is no longer a
generally require a differently accelerating reference frame in constant (Einstein, 1916b; and Cook, 1994), and light no longer
order to eliminate gravity. The acceleration of these reference must travel in a straight line. Therefore in a very real sense the
frames is such that the reference frames are freely falling and so theories of special relativity and general relativity are not
will experience no gravitational force (since a freely falling compatible. As Pauli (1921) noted, “the special theory of relativity
body is weightless). By transforming to such freely falling can only be correct in the absence of gravitational fields.” Dingle
reference frames (which are essentially infinitesimal parts of the (1972) observed that “Einstein’s general theory does not include the
gravitational field itself), the gravitational force at each point is second postulate of the special theory but depends only on a
eliminated. A theory of gravitation can then be developed generalization of the first postulate.”
based upon the geometric structure of reference frames as
1.3.1! MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION
revealed in the transformation properties of the coordinate
! In an effort to incorporate the assumptions of special
systems used to represent these reference frames.
relativity into his general theory of relativity, Einstein (1916b)
! In the theory of general relativity then, the gravitational
followed Minkowski (1908, 1909) in expressing the space-time
field is not defined so as to be a true physical field; that is, it
differential ds using four-dimensional coordinates in the form:
does not represent some attribute of real particles of a physical
! ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 − c 2 dt 2 ! (1.3-1)

35
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and dt is the time compared to the three-dimensional rectangular Cartesian
differential. The constraint that the speed of light in a vacuum coordinate system equation (1.2-22).
is a constant is included in equation (1.3-1) in the form of a ! To transform to a quasi-Euclidean coordinate system
fourth dimension. For a light ray we must have: (associated with a freely falling reference frame) from a general
! ds = 0 ! (1.3-2) curvilinear coordinate system (associated with a reference
frame in which gravitational forces are acting), ( ds ) can be
2
since
2 2 2 ! ! 2 2 written in the form:
⎛ dx ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞ ⎛ dz ⎞ dr dr ⎛ dr ⎞ ⎛ ds ⎞
! c =⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ =
2
• = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ! (1.3-3)
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ dt dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ! ( ds )2 = gα β dxα dx β ! (1.3-8)
! To obtain equation (1.3-1) in quasi-Euclidean form, where the Greek indices α and β assume values of 1, 2, 3, and
Minkowski (and then Einstein) made the replacement: 4. As a result of this transformation, space and time dimensions
! c dt → i c dt ! (1.3-4) become intertwined as space-time and are no longer separate
for many curvilinear coordinate systems. Coordinates therefore
where i 2 = −1 so that equation (1.3-1) becomes:
lose their expected geometric and temporal interpretation.
! ds = dx + dy + dz + c dt !
2 2 2 2 2 2
(1.3-5)
! To obtain the mathematical equations that reflect a change
Equation (1.3-1) can then be written in the form of a four- from a reference frame in which gravity is acting to a freely
dimensional quasi-Euclidean coordinate system: falling reference frame in which gravity is not acting, an

( ds )2 = ( dx1 ) ( ) + ( dx ) + ( dx ) !
2 2 3 2 4 2
appropriate coordinate system must first be selected and
! + dx 2 (1.3-6)
associated with the gravitational field. Then the corresponding
where transformation relations can be developed. Einstein (1916a)
! dx 4 = i c dt ! (1.3-7) noted that the metric tensor components gα β are “to be regarded

The term dx 4 now acts like a spatial coordinate (although it from the physical standpoint as the quantities which describe the

remains a different type of entity). Equation (1.3-6) can be gravitational field in relation to the chosen system of reference.” The

36
equivalent statement for Poisson’s field equation of gravity is equation in the limit of a weak gravitational field, κ is found to
given by equation (1.2-27). be given by:
! Einstein knew that if an analog of Poisson’s equation 8π G
! κ= ! (1.3-10)
exists for the general theory of relativity, then this equation c4
could be written in terms of both the metric tensor gα β and the and so equation (1.3-9) becomes:
gravitational potential. He assumed that the metric tensor 1 8π G
! Rαβ − gα β R = − 4 Tα β ! (1.3-11)
would, in fact, play the role of the gravitational potential in his 2 c
general theory of relativity. This assumption led him to select ! Equation (1.3-11) is Einstein’s field equation of gravity
the Riemann tensor Rαµ β γ as the differential part of Poisson’s from the general theory of relativity (see Einstein, 1916b; de
equation since the Riemann tensor contains second derivatives Sitter, 1921; Eddington, 1921b; McVittie, 1956; Synge, 1960;
of the metric tensor. For the sink/source term of Poisson’s Bergmann, 1962b; Adler et al., 1965; Rindler, 1969; Ehlers, 1973;
equation, Einstein chose the stress-energy tensor Tα β which Kilmister, 1973; Atwater, 1974; Dirac, 1975; Geroch, 1978;
includes not only gravitational energy, but also electromagnetic Clarke, 1979; Bose, 1980; Jones, 1981; Wald, 1984; Schutz, 1985;
energy. Based partly upon symmetry considerations, Einstein Martin, 1988b; Hughston and Tod, 1990; Kenyon, 1990; Foster
then decided that the stress-energy tensor Tα β must be related and Nightingale, 1995; Kriele, 1999; Ludvigsen, 1999; Callahan,
to Rαβ , a contracted form of the Riemann tensor R αµ β γ , by the 2000; Hartle, 2003; Carroll, 2004; Capria, 2005; Dalarsson and
equation: Dalarsson, 2005; Khriplovich, 2005; Hobson et al., 2006;
1 Plebanski and Krasinski, 2006; Ferraro, 2007; Grøn and Hervik,
! Rα β − gα β R = −κ Tα β ! (1.3-9)
2 2007; Walecka, 2007; Woodhouse, 2007; Chow, 2008; Lieber,
where R is the Ricci curvature and κ is a constant. This 2008; Choquet-Bruhat, 2009; Ryder, 2009; and Ni, 2015).
equation states that variations in the geometry of space-time are ! Finally we note that before any results obtained using
proportional to the stress-energy of the source of the variations. equation (1.3-11) can be interpreted, it is necessary to transform
By constraining equation (1.3-9) to be identical to Poisson’s the differential i c dt back using:

37
! i c dt → c dt ! (1.3-12) the presence of matter and energy. The nature of space-time in a
We also note that ( ds )2 given by equation (1.3-1) in four- given region is then determined by the presence of matter and
dimensional coordinates is not the result of a scalar product as the type of physical processes occurring in the vicinity.
is ( ds ) 2
given by equations (1.2-22) and (1.2-17) in three-
dimensional coordinates. This can be seen by writing equation 1.3.3! PHYSICAL CAUSE OF GRAVITY
(1.3-1) in the form: ! In the general theory of relativity, gravitational force is
eliminated and gravitational effects are explained in terms of
! ( ds )2 = dr! • dr! − c2 dt 2 ! (1.3-13)
the curvature of space-time. Gravity is then not really a force at
Therefore ( ds ) in four-dimensional coordinates will generally
2
all, but the result of the space-time geometry through which a
not be invariant to coordinate transformation. In fact, only for material body moves. Gravitational acceleration results then
coordinate transformations of the type known as Lorentz not from force, but by space-time changing in a nonlinear
transformations will ( ds ) be invariant. We will see that the
2
manner. A force-free material point particle responds to the
Lorentz transformations modify both displacement and time so curvature of space-time by moving along a geodesic of space-
that they become functions of velocity (Section 4.23.1). Both time as defined by:
displacement and time are then dependent upon the velocity of
the frame of reference being used. !
∫
δ ds = 0 ! (1.3-14)

where δ indicates variation. Therefore the shape of space-time

1.3.2! PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION
affects the motion of material point particles. Or, as Misner et
! The physical interpretation proposed by Einstein for his
al. (1970) state, “space acts on matter, telling it how to move. In
field equation (1.3-11) is that the existing distribution of matter
turn, matter reacts back on space, telling it how to curve.” A material
and energy in our Universe influences the geometry of space-
point particle that moves along a geodesic is free of any force.
time. In other words, the existence of a relation between the
 Force is only required to cause a particle to deviate from a
gravitational field g and the metric tensor gαβ is taken to
geodesic.
indicate that space and time are being modified (warped) by

38
 where the functions A ( r ) and B ( r ) depend only upon the
1.3.4! THE SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION radial coordinate r . He used the field equation of general
! No general solution to Einstein’s field equation of gravity relativity to obtain the two radial functions A ( r ) and B ( r ) . The
has ever been found, and such a solution may, in fact, not even solution Schwarzschild (1916a, b) derived can be written in
exist (Torretti, 1983). Immediately after Einstein published his spherical coordinates as:
equations of general relativity in 1915, Schwarzschild, from the
1 ⎡ GM ⎤
battlefield of World War I, was able to determine an exact ! ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 dθ 2 + r 2 sin 2 θ dφ 2 − ⎢1− 2 2 ⎥ c 2 dt 2
⎡ GM ⎤ ⎣ c r⎦
solution to the field equation for the special case of a stationary ⎢1− 2 ⎥
⎣ c2 r ⎦
gravitational field surrounding a large spherical material body ! ! (1.3-16)
in a vacuum. Einstein was surprised that such an exact solution
where M is the mass of the large spherical material body that is
of his field equation could be formulated.
the source of the gravitational field. The differential ds given by
! Schwarzschild (1916a, b) knew that the solution for this
equation (1.3-16) is known as the Schwarzschild solution or
case must have spherical symmetry, and so only time and
the Schwarzschild metric.
radial distance will be modified by gravity. Moreover, he knew
! Birkhoff (1923) showed that the Schwarzschild solution
that the solution of Einstein’s field equation of gravity must
(1.3-16) of the general relativity field equation (1.3-11) is the
provide the line element of space-time ds which, in turn,
most general solution having spherical symmetry. Adler et al.
provides the space-time curvature that is gravity. At great
(1965) noted that the Schwarzschild solution “must be considered
distances from all matter, a material point particle is thought to
to be the main achievement of general relativity theory in the field of
move in a straight line; at infinity the metric must then become
celestial mechanics; it is an exact solution, which corresponds
Euclidean. Therefore Schwarzschild assumed that the solution
historically to Newton’s treatment of the 1 r 2 force law of classical
in spherical coordinates to Einstein’s field equation of gravity
gravitational theory.”
has the form:

! ds 2 = A ( r ) dr 2 + r 2 dθ 2 + r 2 sin 2 θ dφ 2 − B ( r ) c 2 dt 2 ! (1.3-15)

39
 flowing towards the matter within ΔV . We will abstract this
1.4! AETHER FIELD EQUATION OF very small parcel of aether to an infinitesimal size, making it a
GRAVITY fluid point particle. Note that a fluid point particle of aether is
! With the insight into the physical cause of gravity not an aetheron but is an abstraction of many aetherons. Since
obtained from Poisson’s field equation of gravity, we will now in this section we will be describing fluid flow by tracing the
develop a new gravitational field equation. This field equation, dynamical history of a single fluid point particle of fixed
based upon the concept of flowing aether, provides more identity in its trajectory, we will be using a Lagrangian
detailed information concerning the physical processes that specification of the flow.
produce gravitational fields. ! We will define aether density ζ as the quantity of aether
per unit volume. Aether density ζ is then analogous to matter
1.4.1! MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION density ρ (see Section 1.2.3). Therefore aether momentum per

We will define a fluid point particle to be a very small unit volume or aether momentum density ζ υ is analogous to
fluid parcel that has been abstracted to an infinitesimal size so the momentum density of matter. The change with time in
that its dimensions can be neglected. A fluid particle can then aether momentum density for a fluid point particle of aether as

be considered to have no volume or extension. Unlike a it flows along is ∂(ζ υ ) ∂t .
material point particle, however, the density of a fluid point ! Since the gravitational force due to matter within ΔV is
particle is not necessarily constant. proportional to ΔM , the time derivative of the momentum
! We will now consider matter of mass ΔM and density ρ density of aether flowing through the surface area ΔS of ΔV
contained within a very small spherical volume element ΔV . must also be proportional to ΔM . This is consistent with the
We will take the matter in ΔV to be the reference frame. Aether following facts:

at a point r outside of ΔV is flowing continuously towards the 1.! Matter within ΔV is a field flow sink for aether.
 
matter within ΔV with a flow velocity υ that is a function of r ,
2.! Nearly incompressible inviscid flow of aether
the position vector whose origin is centered in the matter
towards this sink causes fluid point particles of
within ΔV . We will focus on a very small parcel of the aether aether to accelerate as they approach the sink.
40
 Their momentum will change with time in Since ΔV is arbitrary, we must have:
proportion to the strength of the sink.
 ∂ 
! ∇ • (ζ υ ) = − 4 π G k ρ ! (1.4-5)
3.! Mass ΔM is a measure of the quantity of matter ∂t
(strength of the sink) within ΔV .
Taking the time derivative, we obtain:
We can therefore write: ! ⎡ ! ∂ζ ! ⎤
! ∇ • ⎢ζ α + υ ⎥ = − 4 π G k ρ ! (1.4-6)
∂ !
∫∫ ⎣ ∂t ⎦
! −
∂t
(ζ υ ) • n̂ dS = 4 π G k ΔM ! (1.4-1)
ΔS  
where α is the time variation ∂υ ∂t of the aether flow velocity.
where n̂ is the outward directed unit normal vector to the This equation can also be written as:
spherical surface area ΔS . The constant of proportionality in ! ! ! ! ! ⎡ ∂ζ ! ⎤
this equation is taken to be 4 π G k where G is the gravitational ! ζ ∇ • α + α • ∇ζ + ∇ • ⎢ υ ⎥ = − 4 π G k ρ ! (1.4-7)
⎣ ∂t ⎦
constant of proportionality from Newton’s force law of gravity
! To determine the constant k , we will now assume that the
given in equation (1.1-1), and k is an undetermined constant. 
gravitational field is stationary. We will consider a point r that
Using equation (1.2-5), we can also write equation (1.4-1) as:
is not in proximity of nucleons and that is on the trajectory or
∂ !
! −
∫∫ΔS ∂t
(ζ υ ) • n̂ dS = 4 π G k ∫∫∫
ΔV
ρ dV ! (1.4-2) path of a given fluid point particle of aether. As was noted in
Section 1.2.8, the flow of aether in a gravitational field is
From Gauss’s theorem given in equation (C-59) of Appendix C, incompressible when not in proximity of nucleons. Therefore
we can rewrite the left side of equation (1.4-2) as: the density of aether in such a flow will be constant:

∂ ! ! ∂ ! ∂ζ
! −
∫∫ΔS ∂t
(ζ υ ) • n̂ dS = − ∫∫∫
ΔV
∇ • (ζ υ ) dV ! (1.4-3)
∂t
!
∂t
=0! (1.4-8)

and so equation (1.4-2) becomes:  

! ∇ζ = 0 ! (1.4-9)
! ∂
∫∫∫ ∫∫∫
!
! ∇ • (ζ υ ) dV = − 4 π G k ρ dV ! (1.4-4) Equation (1.4-7) can then be written as:
ΔV ∂t ΔV

41
 ! !
! ζ ∇ •α = − 4π G k ρ ! (1.4-10) 1 ! ⎡ ! ∂ζ ! ⎤ ! !
! ∇ • ⎢ζ α + υ ⎥ = ∇ • g ! (1.4-17)
ζ ⎣ ∂t ⎦
Using equation (1.2-10), equation (1.4-10) becomes:
! ! ! ! 
Equations (1.4-16) and (1.4-17) describe the gravitational field g
! ζ ∇ •α = k ∇ • g ! (1.4-11) 
at a point r completely in terms of properties of the aether at

! At any point r not in proximity of nucleons, the aether this point. Since equations (1.4-14) through (1.4-17) are simply
flow acceleration toward the matter of mass ΔM will simply different forms of the same equation, each of these equations

equal α because of the relations given in equations (1.4-8) and can be considered to be the aether field equation of gravity.

(1.4-9). Since the gravitational acceleration g is just the aether ! Equation (1.4-4) can now be written as:
flow acceleration, we must therefore have:
∂ !
∫∫∫ ∫∫∫
!
!
 
α = g! (1.4-12) ! ⎡⎣∇ • (ζ υ ) ⎤⎦ dV = − 4 π G ζ ρ dV ! (1.4-18)
ΔV ∂t ΔV

and so the constant k is: where we have interchanged the time and space differential
! k =ζ ! (1.4-13) operations and have used the equality k = ζ . We note that the
volume flux of an entity is defined to be a scalar that specifies
Equations (1.4-5) and (1.4-6) can then be written as:
the quantity of the entity flowing per unit time per unit
1 ! ∂ !  
! ∇ • (ζ υ ) = − 4 π G ρ ! (1.4-14) volume. In equation (1.4-18), the term ∇ • (ζ υ ) is the aether flux
ζ ∂t
(quantity of aether flowing per unit time per unit volume) into
ΔV . The aether field equations of gravity (1.4-14) and (1.4-16)
1 ! ⎡ ! ∂ζ ! ⎤
! ∇ • ⎢ζ α + υ ⎥ = − 4 π G ρ ! (1.4-15) can be written in terms of aether flux:
ζ ⎣ ∂t ⎦
1 ∂ ! !
Using equation (1.2-10), we can also write equations (1.4-14) ! ⎡⎣∇ • (ζ υ ) ⎤⎦ = − 4 π G ρ ! (1.4-19)
ζ ∂t
and (1.4-15) as:
1 ! ∂ ! ! !
1 ∂ ! ! !
! ∇ • (ζ υ ) = ∇ • g ! (1.4-16) !
!
⎡⎣∇ • (ζ υ ) ⎤⎦ = ∇ • g ! (1.4-20)
ζ ∂t ζ ∂t
42
The units of G are cm 3 sec-2 gm -1 as given in equation (1.1-2). medium, aether, into matter. The same physical interpretation
These units can be seen to be correct and perhaps more pertains to Poisson’s field equation of gravity. This agreement
intuitive from equation (1.4-19) than from equation (1.1-1). in interpretation is to be expected since the aether field
! The flux vector of an entity is defined to be a vector equation of gravity is based upon knowledge obtained from
representing the momentum density of the entity (the entity Poisson’s field equation of gravity.
 
density multiplied by the entity velocity), and so is the ! The gravitational field g at a point r is completely
quantity of the entity flowing per unit time through a unit determined by properties of the aether at this point as can be
!
area. The gravitational flux vector Λ G is then the quantity of seen from equations (1.4-16) and (1.4-20). The energy of
aether flowing per unit time through a unit area and is given gravitational fields must then reside entirely within the aether.
by:
! ! 1.4.3! PHYSICAL CAUSE OF GRAVITY
! ΛG = ζ υ ! (1.4-21)
! Gravitational acceleration is caused by aether flow that is
and equations (1.4-19) and (1.4-20) can be written as:
accelerating towards matter. As we have seen, this accelerating
1 ∂ ! ! flow of aether results from matter being a field flow sink for the
! ⎡∇ • Λ G ⎤⎦ = − 4 π G ρ ! (1.4-22)
ζ ∂t ⎣ nearly incompressible aether. We will designate all aether flow
(incompressible and nearly incompressible) resulting from
1 ∂ ! ! ! !
! ⎡⎣∇ • Λ G ⎤⎦ = ∇ • g ! (1.4-23) aether flowing into matter as gravitational aether flow.
ζ ∂t
! Matter has an associated gravitational acceleration field
Bridgman (1941) stated that the need in physics for a only because there is an accelerated flow of aether into matter
gravitational flux vector is imperative. resulting from matter being a field flow sink for aether. The
field particles for gravitational fields are aetherons, and the
1.4.2! PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION flow acceleration of aetherons is the attribute of the field
! The aether field equation of gravity can be interpreted particles that is the gravitational field. Finally, we note that the
physically as describing the flow acceleration of a real physical aether field equation of gravity is completely consistent with

43
both Newton’s force law of gravity and Poisson’s field equation in fluid mechanics (see Granger, 1985), and the open surface of
of gravity. Moreover the aether field equation of gravity shows the control volume is known as the control surface.
us that the gravitational field is linear. The quantity of aether Q in the volume element ΔV of
! For a large material body such as the Earth, the flow of vacuum is:
aether from outside the body into the body will always be
vertical. There is then no aether flow tangential to the surface
! Q=
∫∫∫ ΔV
ζ dV ! (1.5-1)

of the Earth.
where ζ is the aether density. This equation can be compared
! If aether flow is accelerating without the presence of
with equation (1.2-3). Because the volume element ΔV itself is
matter, an acceleration field will still exist. We will denote such
not a function of time, the rate of any increase of the total
an acceleration field as an aether acceleration field, and we will
quantity of aether Q within the volume element ΔV is given
reserve use of the term gravitational acceleration field for
by:
accelerations resulting from gravitational aether flow.
∂Q ∂ζ
1.5! CONTINUITY OF AETHER DENSITY
!
∂t
=
∫∫∫ ΔV ∂t
dV ! (1.5-2)

IN A VACUUM Since we are considering a region of space that has no field flow
! We will now consider the flow of aether in a region of sinks for aether, and since no field flow sources of aether are
space having no field flow sinks for aether. Such a region of known to exist in our Universe, there will be no sinks or
space contains a vacuum since matter is the only field flow sink sources for aether flow within ΔV . Therefore ∂Q ∂t must equal
for aether, and absence of matter defines a vacuum. We will the rate of influx of aether through the surface area ΔS
describe the aether flow in the vacuum of this region of space bounding ΔV :
by considering a very small volume element ΔV of vacuum. ∂Q ! !
∫∫ ∫∫
!
! =− ζ υ • n̂ dS = − ζ υ • dS ! (1.5-3)
We will let the volume element ΔV itself remain constant with ∂t ΔS ΔS

time, although aether can flow freely through the surface of the
where n̂ is the outward directed unit normal vector to the
element. Such a volume element is known as a control volume 
surface area ΔS , and υ is the velocity of aether flowing into
44
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Demon and Review Words
On page 65 is given another list of “demons” prepared by the
authors. The sixth grade teacher should hold herself responsible for
this list. Keep on urging and testing until each child has mastered his
particular demons. Remember that they are an individual affair and
that no two pupils have the same difficulties.
A special review list of common words is also given on pages 84
and 85. This list should be tested from time to time, and a very high
percentage of accuracy may reasonably be expected.
 Vocabulary
The vocabulary at the end of the work for the grade serves four
purposes:
1. It shows the teacher all the words which are in the text.
2. It enables the pupil to find the word which has occurred in the
year’s work.
3. The asterisk shows which words have been previously taught.
4. It gives a list of words with which to test the pupils at the end of
the year’s work.
 SUGGESTIONS FOR SEVENTH YEAR

The Story
The work of each book begins with a story intended to impress the
children with the importance of seeing the word exactly, hearing the
word correctly, and pronouncing the word accurately. “The Efficient
Guide” emphasizes these points together with the necessity of
learning to spell the word correctly the first time. The right use of the
story will help to impress upon the children the fact that in spelling,
as in the industrial world, there is no second chance. A thing is right
or it is wrong.
 Roots and Derivatives
The Aldine Speller has emphasized throughout its text the
importance of developing a “spelling consciousness.” A simple list of
words is inadequate to accomplish this. The work of the seventh
grade continues this development by emphasizing the importance of
roots and derivatives. Teachers have been repeatedly urged to
present all derivatives whenever the root word has been given. The
formal study of roots and derivatives is a large part of the work of the
seventh grade. Emphasis should always be given to the part which is
already familiar, at the same time calling attention to any changes in
the vowel or in the consonant through the formation of the
derivative.
 Troublesome Endings
On page 15 will be found a group of words ending in or, er, and ar.
These should be taught in groups until they are thoroughly fixed.
Mnemonics may help to establish the correct form. Remind the pupil
of the spelling and pronunciation of authority and he will remember
that author ends in or. Likewise factory, inventory, oratory,
similarity, etc., help to show him the correct spelling of the shorter
word. Following this drill review the entire page.
 Synonyms
Much of the work of the seventh grade consists of a careful study
of synonyms. Spelling is closely correlated with language and one of
the results of good spelling teaching should be not only an ability to
spell common words correctly, but a normal and continuous growth
in the written and spoken vocabularies of the children. This growth
can be increased very materially by the study of derivatives and
synonyms. This study also furnishes the very best exercises in the use
of the dictionary for which the pupils have been prepared in
preceding grades.
 Dictionary Work
Not only does the work in synonyms in this grade provide excellent
dictionary work, but there are still other opportunities for the teacher
to give the right kind of practice in the use of that book. No lessons
on antonyms have been given, but it is an excellent practice to have
pupils look up antonyms as well as synonyms. Many additional
paragraphs may be dictated by the teacher and the pupils required to
look up both synonyms and antonyms.
Nothing more wooden or deadening can be conceived than the
practice of requiring the pupils to look up every word in the
dictionary and to write a definition for each and every one. This
monotonous practice should never be followed. Put life and interest
into the lesson by variety, and let the children see that the building
up of a vocabulary can be an exciting game.
 The Teacher’s Opportunity
Perhaps with no class has the seventh grade teacher a greater
opportunity for a fine and helpful influence than she has with the
spelling class. Her pupils will be judged, in later years, by their
speech. She may, by careful teaching, expand their vocabularies so
that they have a broad range, and she may likewise secure an
accuracy in enunciation which will reflect great credit on her
teaching. However, this training must carry over into all other class
work in the grade to attain its greatest effectiveness.
 Reviews
A review of many troublesome words previously taught is given at
the beginning. Many reviews should be given during the year. These
should be determined by the teacher and should emphasize all words
that have presented difficulty to the class or to individuals.
 Proper Names
In the class work in Geography and History the pupil is confronted
with a great many proper names. Fortunately most of these are
spelled as they sound. For a pupil who has been properly taught such
words present no difficulties. The important point is to see that they
are correctly pronounced when first used. There are, however, many
proper names that have spelling peculiarities. The great importance
of impressing these upon the pupil’s mind is quite obvious. This
should be done in connection with the regular class work as they
have occasion to use the names. The seventh grade teacher should be
especially vigilant and see that all proper names are correctly spelled,
particularly with regard to the capital letter.
 Vocabulary
The alphabetical vocabulary may be used for review lessons and
for looking up words. Its use helps to encourage the dictionary habit.
 SUGGESTIONS FOR EIGHTH YEAR

Review
The eighth grade teacher should read carefully the directions for
the seventh grade. She should know what has been done and what
has been left undone. In many schools she completes the teaching of
spelling. While wasting no time in unnecessary reviews, she may
wisely give a careful test at the beginning and learn her problems.
The work in word building, by means of synonyms and derivatives,
should be continued.
 Prefixes and Suffixes
The work of the eighth grade continues the work of the seventh
grade in word building by a careful study of prefixes and suffixes.
The addition of a prefix or a suffix makes a longer word and, because
it is longer, the word becomes harder to visualize as a whole. It is
highly important that the root part of the word should be pointed
out, and it will be found that in most cases it is a familiar word.
When this is true the prefix or the suffix becomes the part which
needs to be drilled upon and emphasized. On pages 48 to 54 are
given a list of words having troublesome endings. On pages 48, 49,
and 50, for example, are words ending in ent, ant, ence, and ance.
These should be taught by groups and, after the whole page has been
carefully taught and studied, drill lessons and reviews should be
given until the pupil has the endings learned. These reviews will tax
the ingenuity of the teacher that they may be interesting and not
merely a mechanical word drill. Attention may well be called to the
fact that the plural of nouns ending in ant and ent have the same
pronunciation as the corresponding words ending in ance and ence.
If given in a sentence the meaning will clearly show him which one is
meant. Care must be used that confusion does not result. Thoughtful
teaching is important.
 Review of Rules
During the work of the preceding grades the important rules for
spelling have been developed. On pages 54, 56, and 57, they are given
for review with many illustrations. In addition, Lessons 30, 38, and
39, give some exceptions to these rules. These lessons should be
thoroughly reviewed until the correct spelling is established.
 Words Having Two Pronunciations
At the close of the year’s work is given a list of 28 words spelled
alike but accented differently. The difference in meaning should be
emphasized, each word used in a sentence to impress the correct
pronunciation, and the pupils taught to discriminate as to the form
that should be used.
 Vocabulary
As in previous grades much use may be made of the alphabetical
vocabulary for purposes of review and reference.
 Appendix

Following the vocabulary the teacher will find some special lists,
placed there for reference. They will provide some very interesting
supplementary lessons. They are:
1. A list of words used in medicine, and the names of diseases.
Many of these present difficulties. Their teaching is optional with the
teacher.
2. A list of words having more than one correct spelling. The
simpler spelling is usually the one to be preferred.
3. A list of words frequently mispronounced. The teacher should
know this list and by it check the pupil’s pronunciation.
4. A list of foreign words which have come into more or less
frequent use in our language. The correct pronunciation should be
noted.
5. Two lists of foreign words and phrases, chiefly from the French
and Latin. Though only a small percentage of the pupils will use
these in writing they occur with such frequency in the books which
they will read that it is desirable that they shall have access to them.
6. A list of common abbreviations. These need to be learned since
their use is frequent.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in
spelling.
2. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained
as printed.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEARNING TO
SPELL: A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS USING THE ALDINE SPELLER ***

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