CH: 7 The Atmosphere and Human Activities

The structure of the atmosphere:

• In the atmosphere, there are concentric layers of air. Each layer has different density

• The upper layers press down the lower ones

• So, the air of the lower layer is always heavier or denser, while the upper layers are thinner
or dense

• In this way about 90 percent of the mass of air lies within a height of about 20 km from the
surface of the earth

• On the basis of the characteristics of temperature and the air pressure there exists four
thermal layers of the atmosphere

• They are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere

• The thermosphere is divided into ionosphere and exosphere

Troposphere:

• The troposphere is the lowermost and densest layer

• Its height from the surface to 8 to 14.5 km

• 75 % of the atmosphere and 99 % of water vapour and aerosols is found in this layer and its
concentration decreases as we go higher from ground level

• The troposphere is also characterised by regular decrease in temperature with altitude

• This decrease in temperature is known as normal lapse rate

• Temperature decrease with height at 6.5˚C/km

• This temperature variation within the troposphere is responsible for much turbulence.

• As a result of these turbulence all weather phenomena take place in this layer

• The troposphere is heated more from below than from above

• The upper limit of the troposphere is known as tropopause

Stratosphere:

• This layer is above the troposphere

• There is total absence of water vapour in this layer

• It extends to a height of 14.5 - 50 km from sea level

• Temperature here is mostly constant to a great height in the lower part

• The air is thin, cold and dry

• The temperature is about -55˚ Celsius

 • The Ozone layer lies within the stratosphere

• Ozone is generally found between the altitudes 20 and 40 km

• The temperature remains constant in the lower level of the stratosphere

• It is because ozone absorbs and scatters the incoming ultraviolet solar radiation coming from
above ( protecting from harmful UV)

• The insolation received from the sun is equal to the lost by it

• That is why the temperature of the layer is constant

• In the higher levels, however, temperature increases with height

• The lower layer of stratosphere has a virtual absence of water vapour and has constant
temperature conditions, therefore, it is ideal for flying jet aircrafts

• The upper limit of the stratosphere is known as stratospause

• The temperature rises from -60˚ Cto 0˚ C at the base of the stratosphere

Mesosphere:

• This layer lies above the stratosphere and extends to a height of 90 km from ground level

• The temperature in this layer decreases with height and reaches a minimum of -110˚ C at
the altitude of about 90 km near the mesopause, the upper limit of this layer

• The coldest layer of the atmosphere

• Due to reflected sunlight from meteoric dust particles there are wispy clouds found in this
layer

• Ice clouds form here that are visible at sunset

• Meteors burn up in this layer

Thermosphere:

• Height : 85 – 600 km

• Temperature: rises continually up to 1000˚ C due to the absorbing of solar energy by

relatively few molecules and atoms

• This layer is so thin, that although the air molecules are hot, and to us it would be freezing

• The international space station orbits in this layer

• The high energy charge particles from the sun strike the atmosphere and form the beautiful
aurora seen in polar regions
Exosphere:

• It is the uppermost layer in the structure of the atmosphere

• It lies between 400 to 1500 km above the earth

• It merges gradually with interplanetary space

• This is where many satellites orbit the earth

• In this layer temperature increases with height

• We know very little about the atmosphere extending beyond 600 to 10 000 km height from
the sea level

• In the exosphere density becomes extremely low

• The temperature becomes 5568˚ C as its outer limit

• The main gases here are lighter ones like hydrogen and helium

The composition of the atmosphere:

• The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases and tiny solid particles

• A clean dry sample of air is made up of 78 % of nitrogen and 21% of oxygen (the most
abundant gases) with smaller proportions of gas like argon and traces of carbon dioxide,
neon, helium, methane, nitrousoxide and ozone

• The main components – nitrogen, oxygen and argon – remains relatively constant, whereas
the trace gases vary over time and by location

• Carbon dioxide is needed by plants for their survival

• Water vapour is responsible for all forms of precipitation and hence the circulation of fresh
water

• Water vapour is added to atmosphere by evaporation from oceans, lakes and rivers,
transpiration from vegetation and respiration of animals

• Some particles like pollens from plants, dust from dust storms, ash from meteorites and
volcanic eruptions, smoke from fire and salt particles from seas are also present in lower
layer of atmosphere

• These particles act as nuclei for water vapour to form raindrops around them

• They also scatter the sun’s radiation during sunrise and sunset

The Green house effect:

• Some gases in the Earth’s atmosphere absorb/Trap(heat) energy from the sun(infrared
radiation- long wave) and stop heat radiating into space from the Earth. This is called the
greenhouse effect and the gases involved are called greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gases include:

• Methane

• Water vapour

• Carbon dioxide

• Other greenhouse gases are Nitrous oxide (crop farming using chemical fertilizers, exhaust
emissions from old trucks and buses, CFC (refrigeration and air conditioning, use of aerosol
sprays), Ozone….

• Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth surface would be about −18 °C
(0 °F),rather than the present average of 15 °C (59 °F)

• Excess accumulation of those gases are responsible for disturbing the energy balance and
thus increasing heat on the earth

• An increased greenhouse effect can lead to global warming and climate change.

• Fossil fuel based industries and the man’s lifestyle have resulted in an unprecedented rise of
the greenhouse gases

Global warming is causing the following problems:

• Melting polar ice caps, glaciers and permafrost rise in sea level

• causing flooding of low-lying land;

• Loss of land; forced migration

• Change weather conditions in some countries by increasing flooding or reducing rainfall;

 • Cause the extinction of some species that cannot survive at higher temperatures.

Ways to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions caused by humans:

Using bicycle,

Walk,

Alternative fuels,

Hybrid cars, switch off lights/appliances, taxing, subsiding idea

Atmospheric pollution:

• Relative to the mass of the earth, the atmosphere is very small

• Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, human activity has been impacting the
atmosphere

• Burning of fossil fuels, vehicle emissions and industrial processes are changing the
composition of the atmosphere and impacting human health and the environment

• Atmospheric pollution is having a detrimental effect on air quality in our cities, as well as
leading to

• acid rain

• depletion of the vital ozone layer

• climate change

Causes of smog:

• Smog is a term for visible air pollution that was first used in the early 20th century to describe
a mixture of smoke from burning coal and fog

• In 1952, over 12000 people died in a great smog event in London, when the city was
enveloped for four days in smog caused by a combination of stable air conditions, low winds
and excessive burning of coal

Many major cities experience smog today, although with a greater range of causes:

• Coal emissions

• Industrial emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

• Vehicle emissions

• Photochemical reactions

• Temperature inversions(reverse of normal behaviour of temperature)

When inverted pollutants cannot escape, because hot air stops cold air below it from rising,
so pollutants accumulate near ground; tend to happen in areas where lost of cars

• Much of the smog that effects cities like Beijing, Shanghai, Los Angeles and Mexico city is
caused by the photochemical reactions between sunlight, nitrogen oxides and VOCs
 • The nitrogen oxide is emitted from the vehicle exhausts, burning coal and from industrial
processes in factories

• VOCs are organic chemicals that easily enter the surrounding air

• Have a high vapour pressure results from low boiling point

• For example, from petrol, formaldehyde which evaporates from paints, scents and cleaning
products

• The sunlight causes a reaction and the creation of ground level ozone, which at this level is
harmful to humans

• Photochemical smog can become a significant threat to human health when it accumulates
due to temperature inversions

• These occur when the air next to the surface is colder than the air above trapping the colder,
dense air in place and preventing it from blowing away and dispersing

• A further cause of smog can be caused from uncontrolled burning of forests

• The smoke reduces air quality and in cities, reacts with other pollutants to create a haze

• This has been a significant problem in southeast Asia

Impact of smog:

• Although many cities monitor air quality levels, issue masks and in extreme cases close
schools, the smog can still enter buildings and affect people

Common effects are

• Burning eyes and throat

• Shortness of breath, wheezing and coughing

• Chest pain when inhaling

• Asthma attacks

• Risks of respiratory diseases

• Pulmonary inflammation( inflammation in the tissues of lungs)

• Increased risks of heart attack

• Heavy smog results in a low production of the crucial natural element vitamin D leading to
cases of rickets among people

• Causes premature deaths

• These effects will vary depending on a range of factors, such as the length of time the smog
lasts and the level of pollution

• There are groups of people who are more sensitive: children, adults who are active
outdoors, people with breathing diseases like asthma and elderly people
 • Globally, air pollution is a significant health risk, and the WHO has described it as the single
biggest environmental health risk

• Outdoor air pollution kills over 3 million people each year and is rising

Strategies to reduce air pollution:

 Increased use of public transport

 Insulation or domestic energy saving measures and Car sharing

Impact of Acid rain:

• When atmospheric water mixes with sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide – emitted from
thermal power stations, vehicle pollution(Cars)and factories/industry – they are converted
into sulfuric and nitric acid, which can fall as rain

• Natural source of a gas: emissions from volcanoes, bacterial action in soil/vegetation,

lightning

Causes significant damage to the environment: (The effects of Acid rain)

Weathering/erosion of buildings:

Sculptures and marble monuments affected (lacks detail) by acid rain

Acidification of bodies of water:

• When acidic rainwater enters streams, lakes and marshes it often carries Aluminium that it
has leached from the soil

• This, along with sulfuric acid and nitric acid, damages ecosystems by harming the most
sensitive species and destroying food chains

• For example, frogs can survive a more acidic environment than their sources of food, so a
mildly acidic environment will still harm them

• The acidic water has a significant impact on aquatic plants and fish populations, as well as
the non- aquatic species that rely upon them in the ecosystem

Effect on fish populations:

• below pH 5 fish eggs cannot hatch and with increasing acidity will kill adult fish or their
sources of food

• Kills larvae that fish feeds on

• Damage fish gills

• The net result is a reduction in fish population numbers and a loss of some species, reducing
biodiversity

• Those that are sensitive but not killed might suffer from lower body weight and smaller size
Damage to crops and vegetation:

• Forests can be destroyed when the acidic water destroys soil nutrients and damages roots

• This leads to loss of leaves and needles

• The acidic rainwater reduces soil fertility by increasing the acidity

• This lowers agricultural productivity by reducing the types of crop that can grow

• Acid rain leaches the magnesium and calcium from soil and damage leaves

• Eventually Al, Mn and heavy metals such as Fe and Cd come into solution and may reach
toxic concentrations, causing damage to tree roots

• This decrease the capacity of the tree to take up water and nutrients

Reduce the impacts of acid rain:

• Increase the PH values in the water bodies such as lakes by adding calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) – adding lime to water bodies

• Reduce emissions of SO2 and CO2

• Installing scrubber/Filter in the chimneys in power stations by using CaCO3 and water which
converts SO2 into CaSO4 this is flue gas desulphurisation

• Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)- converting nitrogen oxides with the help of a catalyst
and urea or ammonia into diatomic nitrogen and water

• Nitrogen oxides produces by car engines can be removed by catalytic converters fitted to
the exhaust system

• Use of alternative energy

Countries need to work together to solve the problem of acid rain because, the gases can be
moved long distances/ atmosphere is not a barrier to gas movement by winds

Ozone layer depletion:

• The layer of ozone in the stratosphere shields the earth from harmful ultraviolet B radiation

• Ozone is highly reactive

• It is produced by the action of high energy radiation from the sun striking some molecules of
oxygen and converting into ozone

• Industries that manufacture things like insulating foams, solvents, soaps, cooling things like
Air Conditioners, Refrigerators and ‘Take-Away’ containers use something called
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons (firefighting)
 • These substances are heavier than air, but over time, (2-5years) they are carried high into
the stratosphere by wind action.

• Depletion begins when CFC’s get into the stratosphere.

• Ultra violet radiation from the sun breaks up these CFCs.

• The breaking up action releases Chlorine atoms.

• Chlorine atoms react with Ozone, starting a chemical cycle that destroys the good ozone in
that area.

• One chlorine atom can break apart more than 100,000 ozone molecules.

• The greatest depletion of ozone can be found in the polar regions, due to the seasonal
impact of prolonged darkness in winter followed by constant sunlight in summer, with
Antarctica having the greatest losses

Impact of ozone (hole) depletion :( exposure to UV radiation causes)

• Mutation: skin cancer cases in affected regions

• Increase in the reported cases of cataracts in eyes ( a clouding of the eye lens) sight
problems

• Immune system depression

• sunburn

• Damage to plant tissues and reduction in plant growth

• Damage to ecosystems and food webs due to changed insect behaviour

Montreal protocol:

• It is a global agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone layer

• By agreeing to limit the production and use of ozone depleting substances

• The treaty was originally signed in 1987 in Montreal municipality- Canada,

• The protocol has proven innovative and successful

Managing Atmospheric pollution:

Strategies that can be used to reduce the effects of atmospheric pollution:

Reduction of carbon footprint CO2:

• By using public transport

• Flying less

• Using less energy and switching sources (for example, installing solar panels)

• Eating more locally produced food

• Driving less, walking more

• Repairing not replacing, reducing waste, reusing materials, recycling

Reduced used of fossil fuels:

• Wasting energy leads to greater demand and therefore greater use of fossil fuels

• It is possible for individuals to become significantly more energy- efficiently at home by

installing smart meters, new boilers, and insulation or cooling building design

• Reducing lighting, shutting down elevators and turning off air conditioning temporarily

Carbon capture and storage:

• One solution to this is to capture and store the carbon as it is released from large sources,
such as coal- fired power stations

• The common process is to separate the carbon from the air in the waste gas produced from
burning coal

• The captured carbon can then be transported by pipeline to suitable storage sites in
geological formation

• In addition, carbon can be captured by planting forests or by injecting it into lakes with
bacteria present that break down the carbon dioxide

• This is a developing technology that has not yet been built on a large enough scale
Transport policies:

• Governments are able to introduce transport policies to reduce vehicle emissions and
reduce smog

• This has been particularly effective in Singapore where a combination of higher vehicle tax,
electronic road pricing (ERP) and an efficient, cheap mass rapid transport (MRT) system has
reduced cars on the road

International agreement and policies:

In the 2016 Paris Agreement, 117 countries have committed to the following:

• Limit global temperature increase to below 2˚ C above pre- industrial levels

• Increase global adaptation to a changing climate and to lower greenhouse gas emissions

• Finance low greenhouse gas development

• Cap greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible

CFC replacement:

• Another example of international agreement was the 1989 Montreal protocol on substances
that deplete the ozone layer

• The highly successful agreement led to the phasing out then eventual ban of CFCs

• The ban has meant that there has been a reduction in ozone depletion

Catalytic converters:

• Cars are now fitted with catalytic converters, which convert toxic pollutants from petrol
engines into less toxic pollutants such as CO2 and water vapour

• They do not remove CO2, which is released into the atmosphere

 • They are effective at reducing carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides released, but do not
eliminate them entirely

Flue- gas desulfurization:

• Installing scrubber in the chimneys in power stations by using CaCO3 and water which
converts SO2 into CaSO4 this is flue gas desulphurisation

Reforestation and afforestation:

• Replanting of forests and planting new forest area are effective strategies to reduce
atmospheric pollution, as trees take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen

• They also increase biodiversity, provide habitats and slow water down – reducing the risks
of floods

Taxation:

• Governments are able to introduce green taxes that encourage people to change behaviours

• For example – taxing holder, more polluting cars while reducing tax on newer efficient cars
will encourage a shift to newer cars

• Equally, reducing tax on public transport keeps prices lower and should encourage greater
use and an associated reduction in vehicle emissions

• Furthermore, taxing emissions of carbon forces polluting industries to develop methods of

carbon capture or to shift to renewable energy resources(Hydropower, Geothermal, Wind,
solar)