minerals

Article
Identification of Diagenetic Facies Logging of Tight Oil
Reservoirs Based on Deep Learning—A Case Study in the
Permian Lucaogou Formation of the Jimsar Sag, Junggar Basin
Ming Qi 1 , Changcheng Han 1,2, *, Cunfei Ma 3, *, Geng Liu 1 , Xudong He 1 , Guan Li 1 , Yi Yang 1 , Ruyuan Sun 1
and Xuhui Cheng 1

1 College of Geology and Mining Engineering, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830017, China;
[email protected] (M.Q.); [email protected] (G.L.); [email protected] (X.H.);
[email protected] (G.L.); [email protected] (Y.Y.); [email protected] (R.S.);
[email protected] (X.C.)
2 Xinjiang Key Laboratory for Geodynamic Processes and Metallogenic Prognosis of the Central Asian
Orogenic Belt, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830047, China
3 School of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
* Correspondence: [email protected] (C.H.); [email protected] (C.M.)

Abstract: As a typical tight oil reservoir in a lake basin, the Permian Lucaogou Formation of the
Jimsar Sag in the Junggar Basin has great potential for exploration and development. However,
at present, there are few studies on the identification of the diagenetic facies of tight oil reservoir
logging in the study area, and the control effect of diagenesis on tight oil reservoirs is not clear. The
present work investigates the diagenesis and diagenetic facies logging of the study area, making
Citation: Qi, M.; Han, C.; Ma, C.; Liu, full use of core data, thin sections, and logs, among other data, in order to understand the reservoir
G.; He, X.; Li, G.; Yang, Y.; Sun, R.; characteristics of the Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag. The results show that the
Cheng, X. Identification of Diagenetic Lucaogou Formation has undergone diagenetic activity such as compaction, carbonate cementation,
Facies Logging of Tight Oil quartz cementation, and clay mineral infilling and dissolution. The diagenetic facies are classified
Reservoirs Based on Deep according to mineral and diagenetic type, namely, tightly compacted facies, carbonate-cemented
Learning—A Case Study in the
facies, clay mineral-filling facies, quartz-cemented facies, and dissolution facies. The GR, RT, AC,
Permian Lucaogou Formation of the
DEN, and CNL logging curves were selected, among others, and the convolutional neural network
Jimsar Sag, Junggar Basin. Minerals
was introduced to construct a diagenetic facies logging recognition model. The diagenetic facies of a
2022, 12, 913. https://doi.org/
single well was divided and identified, and the predicted diagenetic facies types were compared with
10.3390/min12070913
thin sections and SEM images of the corresponding depths. Prediction results had a high coincidence
Academic Editor: Ricardo Ferreira rate, which indicates that the model is of a certain significance to accurately identify the diagenetic
Louro Silva
facies of tight oil reservoirs. Assessing the physical properties of the studied reservoirs, dissolution
Received: 19 June 2022 facies are the dominant diagenetic facies in the study area and are also the preferred sequence for
Accepted: 18 July 2022 exploration—to find dominant reservoirs in the following stage.
Published: 20 July 2022
Keywords: diagenetic facies; convolutional neural network; tight oil reservoir; Lucaogou Formation;
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
Junggar Basin
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.

1. Introduction
Tight oil refers to oil stored in reservoirs, such as tight sandstone and tight carbonate
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. rock reservoirs, with a permeability of ≤0.1 × 10−3 µm2 , or oil with a nonheavy oil flow of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
≤0.1 × 10−3 µm2 (mPa·s) [1,2]. Tight oil reservoirs are currently one of the most important
This article is an open access article
unconventional oil and gas resources in China’s oil- and gas-bearing basins [3–5]. Compared
distributed under the terms and
to conventional reservoirs, tight oil reservoirs have the characteristics of low porosity and
conditions of the Creative Commons
low permeability, and have great exploration and development potential [6–9]. In recent
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
years, the production of tight oil reservoirs in China’s Ordos and Junggar Basins has shown
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
large-scale growth [10,11]. Tight oil reservoirs are buried at great depths, undergoing
4.0/).

Minerals 2022, 12, 913. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12070913 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2022, 12, 913 2 of 22

a series of complex sedimentary and diagenetic processes during formation. Especially

for tight oil reservoirs where source and storage coexist, their diagenesis is complex, and
multiple diagenetic events can occur. Therefore, it is of great significance to know the
influence of diagenesis on the quality of tight reservoirs.
As a typical tight oil reservoir in the Jimsar Sag of the Junggar Basin, the Permian
Lucaogou Formation has seen significant breakthroughs in exploration and development in
recent years [12]. Different scholars have carried out a large number of studies on reservoir
characteristics, lithology types, sedimentary effects and sedimentary environments, source
rock potential, and reservoir exploration and development potential in this area [13–17].
However, there are currently few studies on the identification of diagenetic facies in tight
oil reservoir logging, and the control effect of diagenesis on tight oil reservoirs in the study
area remains unclear.
For the accurate definition of diagenetic facies, different scholars have different for-
mulations, but, in general, they all involve the diagenetic environment and diagenetic
products under the action of the diagenetic environment; thus, diagenetic facies are widely
used to evaluate reservoir quality [18–23]. Limited by the cost of cores, the study of dia-
genetic facies is relatively weak [24–26]. Considering the readability of logging data, an
interpretation model for logging diagenetic facies can be established by comparing the
diagenetic facies of the core well with the logging data to achieve accurate identification of
the diagenetic facies in the intervals lacking core control [24].
The proposed method of identifying logging diagenetic facies has gradually expanded
the prediction of diagenetic facies, from being in the intervals with core control to being
in the intervals lacking core control [27]. There are several common methods for logging
diagenetic facies: (1) Rendezvous diagram method: identification standards for different
diagenetic facies are established according to typical logging curves. The accuracy of
diagenetic identification is affected by the limitation of selecting the number of logging
curves [27,28]. (2) Spider diagram method: the logging response characteristics of different
diagenetic facies are projected onto the axis to achieve facies identification; the advantage
of this method is that it is relatively simple to apply [29]. (3) Diagenetic facies strength
calculation method: the quantitative characterization of diagenetic facies by calculation
of diagenetic strength parameters (compaction porosity loss, cementation porosity loss,
etc.) [30–32]. (4) Mathematical method: the identification of typical diagenetic facies by
summarizing the logging response characteristics of different types of diagenetic facies,
including principal component analysis, Fisher’s discriminant, neural network prediction,
etc. [18,33]. Compared with traditional linear prediction, Hinton first proposed deep
learning in 2006 to solve the problem of the local optimal solution in traditional neural
networks [34]. At present, deep learning includes a variety of evolutionary methods, such
as convolutional neural networks (CNNs), recurrent neural networks (RNNs), deep belief
neural networks (DBNs), etc. CNNs have been widely used in image processing, speech
recognition, and other fields [35,36]; CNNs are also widely used in earth science, including
lithology identification, seismic data processing, and reservoir quality evaluation, but it is
seldom used in logging diagenetic facies [37–39].
The purpose of this paper is to identify and predict the diagenetic facies in the intervals
lacking core control by a convolution neural network. Taking the Permian Lucaogou For-
mation in the Jimsar Sag as the research object, the diagenetic facies types in the study area
are divided according to mineral and diagenetic types. Based on the relationship between
diagenetic facies and logging curves, a prediction model is established by introducing the
convolutional neural network (CNN) to accurately predict the diagenetic facies in intervals
lacking well core control.
 Minerals 2022, 12, 913 3 of 22
FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24

2. Regional Geological Setting

The Jimsar
It is bounded by the Jimsar FaultSag is located
to the northinandthe the
eastern Junggar
Santai FaultBasin, in south,
in the a tectonic
withsetting which
a total
corresponds to the sub-primary depression of the eastern uplift of the Junggar Basin [13].
area of about 1500 km [40] (Figure 1). The Jimsar Sag underwent multistage tectonic
2
It is bounded by the Jimsar Fault to the north and the Santai Fault in the south, with
movements during its formation,
a total area of about mainly
1500 kmduring the Hercynian,
2 [40] (Figure Indochina,
1). The Jimsar and Yanshan
Sag underwent multistage
periods [13], withtectonic
the bottom-up
movementsdevelopment of Carboniferous,
during its formation, mainly during the Permian,
Hercynian,Triassic, andand
Indochina,
Jurassic strata [41,42] (Figure 2). The Permian Lucaogou Formation is the main unit Triassic,
Yanshan periods [13], with the bottom-up development of Carboniferous, Permian, for
tight oil exploration and development in the Jimsar area. It occurs across the entire de-unit
and Jurassic strata [41,42] (Figure 2). The Permian Lucaogou Formation is the main
for tight oil exploration and development in the Jimsar area. It occurs across the entire
pression, with a thickness
depression, that
withgenerally
a thicknessvaries from 200
that generally tofrom
varies 350200
m [43].
to 350The rock
m [43]. Thetypes thatthat
rock types
comprise the Lucaogou
comprise Formation
the Lucaogou areFormation
complex,are including dolomitic
complex, including siltstone,
dolomitic mudstone,
siltstone, mudstone,
and dolomite as the anddominant
dolomite aslithologic
the dominant units, with units,
lithologic generally fine grain
with generally finesizes. This This
grain sizes. makesmakes
it a typical tight oil reservoir, with good prospects for exploration
it a typical tight oil reservoir, with good prospects for exploration and development. and development.

Figure 1. (a) Location map1. of

Figure (a)the Junggar
Location map Basin in China,
of the Junggar (b)inlocation
Basin China, (b)map of the
location mapJimsar Sag in
of the Jimsar Sagthe
in the
Junggar Basin, and (c) regional structural map of Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag [40,41].
Junggar Basin, and (c) regional structural map of Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag [40,41].
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 4 of 22
Minerals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 24

Figure 2. Development characteristics of the Lucaogou Formation and its upper and lower strata in
Figure 2. Development
the Jimsar Sag [42]. characteristics of the Lucaogou Formation and its upper and lower strata in
the Jimsar Sag [42].

3.3.Materials
Materialsand andMethods
Methods
3.1.Core
3.1. CoreTest
Testand
andGeophysical
GeophysicalLogging
LoggingDatabase
Database
Theidentification
The identificationofofdiagenesis
diagenesisand anddiagenetic
diageneticfacies
facieslogging
loggingmainly
mainlyuses
useslogging
logging
data and core analysis
data and core analysis data. There are 53 logging wells and 22 core wells in the
There are 53 logging wells and 22 core wells in the study study area.
A total of 174 samples from the core well were used for routine physical
area. A total of 174 samples from the core well were used for routine physical property property analysis,
and the and
analysis, samples selected selected
the samples for measuring porosity porosity
for measuring and permeability were core
and permeability cylinders
were core
with a diameter
cylinders of 2.5 cmofand
with a diameter 2.5 acmlength
and aoflength
5 cm. of
The cylinders
5 cm. were drilled
The cylinders werealong
drilledthe hori-
along
zontal
the methodmethod
horizontal of the core,
of theand
core,theand
physical properties
the physical of the reservoir
properties such as such
of the reservoir porosity
as
and permeability
porosity were measured.
and permeability The resistivity
were measured. log (RT),log
The resistivity gamma ray log ray
(RT), gamma (GR),logacoustic
(GR),
log (AC),
acoustic logcompensated neutronneutron
(AC), compensated log (CNL), and density
log (CNL), log (DEN)
and density from the
log (DEN) well
from logging
the well
logging
data weredataselected
were selected to demonstrate
to demonstrate diagenetic
diagenetic facies. facies.

3.1.1.
3.1.1.XRD
XRD
XRD
XRDwas
wasused
usedtotoquantitatively
quantitativelydetermine
determinethetherelative
relativemineral
mineralcontent
contentofof27
27repre-
repre-
sentative rock samples from the study area. A RINT-TTR3 X-ray diffraction
sentative rock samples from the study area. A RINT-TTR3 X-ray diffraction instrument instrument
(RINT-TTR3,
(RINT-TTR3,Rigaku
RigakuCorporation,
Corporation,Tokyo,
Tokyo,Japan)
Japan)was
wasused
usedfor
forX-ray
X-raydiffraction
diffractionwhole-
whole-
rock analysis, with a scanning speed of 0.25 ◦ /min and a scanning range of 2.5◦ ~60◦ . The
rock analysis, with a scanning speed of 0.25°/min and a scanning range of 2.5°~60°. The
rock
rocksamples
sampleswere
wereground
groundtoto200200mesh,
mesh,the
themineral
mineralpowder
powderwas wasseparated
separatedfrom
fromthe
theclay
clay
powder
powder and dried, and the mineral type and content were determined accordingtotothe
and dried, and the mineral type and content were determined according the
characteristic
characteristicpeak
peakintensity
intensityofofdifferent
differentminerals
mineralsininthe
thediffractogram.
diffractogram.
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 5 of 22

3.1.2. Thin Sections

Two kinds of thin sections were prepared for optical microscopy: fluorescent thin
sections of 36 samples and casting thin sections of 317 samples. The fluorescent thin
sections had a thickness of 0.05 mm without coverslips, and were studied using a Zeiss
Axio Image Z1 microscope (Axio Image Z1, Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany), which can
mainly distinguish pores from mineral types by their fluorescent color. The thickness of
the casting thin section was 0.03 mm; the sample holder was filled with blue epoxy resin
before microscopic observation, dyed with alizarin red and ferricyanide, and the pores and
carbonate cement in the rock (including calcite and dolomite cement) were clearly observed
after dyeing. The same microscope mentioned above was used to observe pore types and
carbonate minerals.

3.1.3. SEM
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) (FIB-SEM, Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) was
used to make observations of rock pore structure, mineral types, and diagenesis at the
micro-nanometer scale. A Zeiss SEM was used with a minimum resolution of 1.2 nm and a
magnification of 25 to 2000 k×. A total of 312 samples were analyzed by SEM. Samples
were pretreated before microscopic observation, polished with an argon ion beam, and
their surfaces were sprayed with Au to improve conductivity for optimal microscopic
observation.

3.1.4. Logging Curve Preprocessing

Different logging series cause errors during the establishment of the model due to
different dimensions. Therefore, the sample dataset and test dataset need to be normalized
before establishing different diagenetic facies log response databases to eliminate the
influence of dimensions between different logging series. Normalization of the selected
conversion function, such as Equation (1), can be mapped to [0~1]. The processed sample
dataset and the test dataset have independence, improving the accuracy of the model.

xi − xmin
Xi = (1)
xmax − xmin

Xi is normalized data; xi is the actual logging data; xmin is the minimum value of the
actual logging curve data; xmax is the maximum value of the actual logging curve data.

3.2. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)

CNN is a deep feedforward neural network. Compared with the traditional neural
network model, the increase in feature extractors in the combination of the convolutional
layer and pooling layer effectively reduces the parameters of the neural network, and
solves the problem of having too many model parameters and too much training time
when the number of hidden layers is too large [39]. The basic structure of a convolutional
neural network includes the input layer, the convolutional layer, the pooling layer, the fully
connected layer, and the output layer (Figure 3). Commonly, a 1D-CNN is used in the fields
of sequence modeling and natural language processing; a 2D-CNN is commonly used
in the fields of computer vision and image processing; and a 3D-CNN adds a temporal
dimension, which can extract temporal and spatial features at the same time, and is often
used in CT imaging, behavior recognition, video processing, etc. [44]. The problem studied
in this paper belongs to the sequence model; therefore, the 1D-CNN method was used
(Figure 3). In the most common convolutional neural networks, the convolutional layer
and pooling layer alternately set up connections. Each neuron in each feature plane in the
convolutional layer is locally connected to the input data of the previous layer, and the
input data is folded with the convolutional kernel plus the bias value; thus, such a neural
network is named a convolutional neural network.
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 6 of 22
Minerals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 24

Figure 3. Structure diagram of 1D-CNN.

Figure 3. Structure diagram of 1D-CNN.
(1) Convolutional layer: The convolutional layer is the most important part of the
(1) Convolutional layer: The convolutional layer is the most important part of the
convolutional neural network, which extracts the eigenvalues of the input data by com-
convolutional neural network, which extracts the eigenvalues of the input data by comput-
puting them with the convolutional kernel. The selection of the convolutional nuclei has
ing them with the convolutional kernel. The selection of the convolutional nuclei has an
an important impact on feature extraction [45].
important impact on feature extraction [45].
(2) Pooling layer: The pooling layer mainly reduces the amount of computation in
(2) Pooling layer: The pooling layer mainly reduces the amount of computation in
the training process by reducing the dimension of the input data, and further extracts the
the training process by reducing the dimension of the input data, and further extracts the
feature vectors [46]. Common methods include maximum pooling, mean pooling, and
feature vectors [46]. Common methods include maximum pooling, mean pooling, and
random pooling.
random (3)pooling.
Fully connected layer: The fully connected layer is generally located at the end of
the (3) Fully connected
convolutional neurallayer:
network,Theandfullytheconnected layer is generally
output information located at layer
of the convolution the end
or of
the convolutional neural
the pool layer is sorted out [35]. network, and the output information of the convolution layer or
the pool layer is sorted out [35].
This 1D-CNN consisted of an input layer, six convolution layers with the hyperbolic
This function
tangent 1D-CNNtanh consisted of antangent
(hyperbolic input layer, six convolution
function) as the activationlayers with the
function, hyperbolic
a pool layer
tangent function tanh (hyperbolic tangent function) as the activation
added after every two convolution layers to retain the main features, a full connection function, a pool layer
added
layer after
with every
softmax twoas convolution
the activationlayers to retain
function, and an theoutput
main features,
layer. Thea loss
full connection
function used layer
with
the cross-entropy loss function, and the optimizer was the Adam function. Tensorflowthe
softmax as the activation function, and an output layer. The loss function used
cross-entropy
was installed the lossinfunction,
Anaconda and the optimizer
software, Keras was was usedtheasAdam function.
the network Tensorflow
building tool, andwas
installed
the Python the programming
in Anaconda software,
language was Keras usedwasforused
1D-CNN as themodel
network building tool, and the
building.
Python programming language was used for 1D-CNN model building.
3.3. Use of Method Flows during Model Building
3.3. Use of Method Flows during Model Building
Based on logging and geological data of the study area, the main characteristics of
the Based
reservoiron oflogging and geological
the Permian Lucaogoudata of the study
Formation of thearea,
JimsartheSag
mainwere characteristics
studied, includ-of the
reservoir of the Permian Lucaogou Formation of the Jimsar Sag
ing rock types, physical properties, and pore types, among other characteristics. Thus, the were studied, including
rock types, diagenetic
dominant physical properties,
type in theand pore types,
formation of tightamong other characteristics.
oil reservoirs in the study area Thus,
wasthe
dominant diagenetic
clarified. Based on thetype in theofformation
definition diageneticof tightcombined
facies, oil reservoirs
with the in core
the study
analysisarea was
data
clarified.
of the thin Based
section,on the
thediagenetic
definitionfacies
of diagenetic
type of thefacies,
core wellcombined
section was withdetermined,
the core analysis
and
the of
data diagenetic
the thin facies type
section, thewas combined
diagenetic withtype
facies the typical logging
of the core wellcurve
sectionto establish a dia-
was determined,
genetic
and facies logging
the diagenetic faciesdatabase.
type wasThe selectedwith
combined diagenetic facieslogging
the typical type and logging
curve curve a
to establish
were usedfacies
diagenetic as training
logging samples
database.and The
model detection
selected samplesfacies
diagenetic the CNN,type and
andalogging
diageneticcurve
facies
were prediction
used model
as training of intervals
samples and lacking core well control
model detection samples wastheestablished.
CNN, and a diagenetic
facies prediction model of intervals lacking core well control was established.
4. Results
4.4.1.
Results
Basic Characteristics of the Reservoir
4.1. Basic
4.1.1. Characteristics
Petrological of the Reservoir
Features
4.1.1. Petrological Features
The lithologies of the tight oil reservoirs of the Lucaogou Formation are diverse (Fig-
ureThe lithologies
1b), and of the tight
the composition oil reservoirs
of minerals is complex of (Table
the Lucaogou Formation
1). The content of clay are diverse
minerals
(Figure 1b), and the
in the Lucaogou composition
Formation is low of minerals
(12.5%), and is thecomplex (Table 1). are
main components Thesmectite,
contentillite,
of clay
minerals
kaolinite, inchlorite,
the Lucaogou
and I/S.Formation
The illite andis low (12.5%),
smectite and the
contents are main
higher,components
accounting are smectite,
for 39.8%
illite,
and kaolinite, chlorite, and
22.23%, respectively. TheI/S. The illite
contents andI/S
of the smectite
mixed-layercontents
and are higher,
chlorite areaccounting
slightly
for 39.8%
lower, and 22.23%,
accounting respectively.
for 17.46% The contents
and 16.8%, respectively,of theandI/Sthemixed-layer
least abundant andofchlorite
the clayare
slightly
minerals lower, accounting
is kaolinite, for 17.46%
accounting for and10.5%16.8%,
of the respectively,
clay mineral and the (Figure
infill least abundant
4). The of
the clay minerals is kaolinite, accounting for 10.5% of the clay mineral infill (Figure 4). The
Lucaogou Formation has undergone diagenetic activity such as compaction, carbonate
 Minerals 2022, 12, 913 7 of 22

cementation, quartz cementation, and clay mineral infilling and dissolution. Quartz, clays
(illite and authigenic chlorite), and carbonates are the major pore-filling constituents.

Table 1. XRD analysis of reservoir rocks in the Lucaogou Formation of Jimsar Sag.

Mineral Composition (%)

Name
Depth/m Potassium
Clay Dolomite Calcite Pyrite Quartz Anorthite Ankerite
Feldspar
J174 3217.98 20.0 15.2 14.0 — 3.0 17.7 30.1 —
J174 3259.65 7.5 44.5 0.3 — 4.0 22.5 21.2 —
J174 3283.38 12.4 17.7 7.4 — 4.9 17.5 40.1 —
J174 3285.57 11.8 31.3 — 0.5 5.8 18.3 32.3 —
J174 3295.85 17.0 23.5 2.2 0.6 6.5 20.6 29.6 —
, 12, x FOR PEER
J174REVIEW3335.41 10.8 8.0 41.1 11.0 1.3 10.1 9.8 7 of 24 —
J251 3614.10 8.7 28.9 11.4 2.4 3.7 28.1 16.8 —
J251 3632.13 7.7 11.7 33.0 3.4 14.4 18.8 11.0 —
J251 3773.12 13.2 25.4 12.2 — 1.7 25.6 21.9 —
J36-5 4348.70 33.1 — 2.2 0.8 —
Lucaogou Formation has undergone diagenetic activity such as compaction, carbonate 61.2 2.7 —
J36-5 4349.84 46.4 — 0.5 0.5 — 49.8 2.8 —
cementation, quartz cementation, and clay mineral infilling and dissolution. Quartz, clays
J36-5 4353.98 45.5 — 1.6 0.9 — 46.9 4.2 0.9
J36-4 (illite and authigenic
4340.35 4.9 chlorite),
— and carbonates
1.8 are
0.2 the major — pore-filling
30.0 constituents.
33.0 30.1
J36-4 The grain 5.5
4344.70 size of the —rock is fine,
0.4 and various
0.4 sedimentary6.0 structures
26.3 such30.4
as wavy 31.0
J36-4 4345.36 0.9 — 81.1 0.6 — 6.9
bedding and stylolite are developed (Figure 5a–c). The lithology of the reservoir is divided 8.9 1.5
J36-4 4346.47 28.5 — 34.9 — 1.5 14.4 11.3 9.5
J36-4 into mixed fine-grained
4347.74 5.5 rocks,
— clastic—rocks, and0.2carbonate6.7 rocks (Figure
26.0 5d–i). The
36.1 mixed 25.5
J36-4 fine-grained
4353.11 rocks
5.1 are mainly
— composed
29.0 of clastic
— rocks2.4(35.2%~47.5%)
20.0 and 17.6
carbonate 25.9
J36-4 4356.47
rocks 6.6
(52.5%~64.8%), — are characterized
and they 10.3 0.3
by lamellar8.3and massive 36.0 interactions
38.5 (Fig- —
J36-4 4358.24 1.3
ure 5d,e). The clastic rocks—mainly include
44.2 —
dolomitic 0.9
siltstone, 37.7
argillaceous 7.6
siltstone, fine 8.3
J36-4 4359.12 5.1 — 17.3 0.3 — 14.1 40.2 23.0
J36-4 calcareous
4362.32 sandstone,
7.6 and —fine argillaceous
7.3 sandstone.
13.8 Quartz
— clastic bands
28.0 and clay
33.4 veins 10.0
J36-4 are4363.71
mutually visible
3.1 in dolomite
— siltstone
13.6 (Figure
0.2 5f). Fine 4.0calcite grains
11.7 are distributed
47.8 19.6
J36-4 4368.11
across a large 6.2 —
area with irregular 37.1
edges 0.5 calcareous
in fine 1.7 sandstone37.5 (Figure15.7
5g). Car- 1.4
J36-4 4369.50 8.1 — 32.8 0.3 — 25.5 28.0 5.3
J36-4 bonate
4374.79rocks mainly
9.0 include
— limestone, 9.3 argillaceous
4.9 dolomite, — and argillaceous
21.3 limestone.
44.0 11.5
J36-4 The grain
4380.46 size of
5.8 rocks is generally
— fine,
33.6 with fine
0.6 carbonate — sandstones
26.1 and siltstones
21.3 as 12.7
the
Average main lithologies
12.5 (Figure
22.95h,i). 19.1 2.1 4.5 24.7 23.5 14.4

Figure 4. Clay mineral

Figureanalysis results analysis
4. Clay mineral of the Permian
results ofLucaogou Formation
the Permian Lucaogouin the Jimsar
Formation Sag.
in the Jimsar Sag.
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 8 of 22

The grain size of the rock is fine, and various sedimentary structures such as wavy
bedding and stylolite are developed (Figure 5a–c). The lithology of the reservoir is divided
into mixed fine-grained rocks, clastic rocks, and carbonate rocks (Figure 5d–i). The mixed
fine-grained rocks are mainly composed of clastic rocks (35.2%~47.5%) and carbonate
rocks (52.5%~64.8%), and they are characterized by lamellar and massive interactions
(Figure 5d,e). The clastic rocks mainly include dolomitic siltstone, argillaceous siltstone,
fine calcareous sandstone, and fine argillaceous sandstone. Quartz clastic bands and clay
veins are mutually visible in dolomite siltstone (Figure 5f). Fine calcite grains are distributed
across a large area with irregular edges in fine calcareous sandstone (Figure 5g). Carbonate
rocks mainly include limestone, argillaceous dolomite, and argillaceous limestone. The
grain size of rocks is generally fine, with fine carbonate sandstones and siltstones8asofthe
Minerals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24
main lithologies (Figure 5h,i).

Figure 5. Reservoir rock types of the Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag. (a) Gray cal-
Figure 5.
careous Reservoir
siltstone, rock types of
developmental the Permian
wavy bedding, Lucaogou
J36-4, 4346.13Formation in the
m; (b) gray Jimsar Sag.
sandstone, filled(a)calcite
Gray
calcareous
strip, siltstone, developmental
developmental wave layering, wavy bedding,
kneading J36-4,J10025,
structure, 4346.133567.5
m; (b)m;gray sandstone,
(c) green filled calcite
argillaceous silt-
stone,
strip, developmental
developmental stylolite, J10025, kneading
wave layering, 3618.1 m; structure,
(d) lamellar and blocky
J10025, 3567.5interaction
m; (c) green of argillaceous
mixed fine-
grained rock,
siltstone, J36-4, 4373.46stylolite,
developmental m, PPL;J10025,
(e) lamellar
3618.1mixed
m; (d)fine-grained
lamellar and rock, J36-4,interaction
blocky 4376.48 m,of PPL;
mixed(f)
lamellar dolomitic
fine-grained siltstone,
rock, J36-4, J36-4,
4373.46 m, 4340 m, lamellar
PPL; (e) PPL; (g)mixed
block-like, fine, calcareous
fine-grained rock, J36-4,sandstone,
4376.48 m,J36-4,
PPL;
4369.5 m, PPL;
(f) lamellar (h) block
dolomitic limestone,
siltstone, J36-4,
J36-4, 43404345.36
m, PPL;m,(g)
PPL; (i) lamellar
block-like, fine,argillaceous dolomite, J36-4,
calcareous sandstone, J36-4,
4353.33 m. PPL: plane-polarized light.
4369.5 m, PPL; (h) block limestone, J36-4, 4345.36 m, PPL; (i) lamellar argillaceous dolomite, J36-4,
4353.33 m. PPL: plane-polarized light.
4.1.2. Reservoir Physical Property Characteristics
The results of a conventional physical property analysis show that the porosity of the
tight oil reservoirs was 2.42%–18.2%, with an average of 8.92%, and had a permeability of
0.004 mD–0.75 mD, with an average of 0.064 mD. This shows that the overall physical
properties of the reservoir were poor, reservoir densification was high, and the correlation
between reservoir porosity and permeability was good (Figure 6).
 Minerals 2022, 12, 913 9 of 22

4.1.2. Reservoir Physical Property Characteristics

The results of a conventional physical property analysis show that the porosity of the
tight oil reservoirs was 2.42%–18.2%, with an average of 8.92%, and had a permeability
of 0.004 mD–0.75 mD, with an average of 0.064 mD. This shows that the overall physical
Minerals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
properties of the reservoir were poor, reservoir densification was high, and the correlation
between reservoir porosity and permeability was good (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Relationship between porosity and permeability of the Permian Lucaogou Formation.
Figure 6. Relationship between porosity and permeability of the Permian Lucaogou
4.1.3. The Types of Storage Space
Both
Table primary
1. XRD and secondary
analysis poresrocks
of reservoir exist in
in the
the Lucaogou
reservoir space of the study
Formation area Sag.
of Jimsar
(Figure 7a–i). Secondary pores mainly include secondary dissolution pores, intergranular
pores, microcracks, etc. Primary pores include primary
Mineral intergranular
Composition (%)pores and residual
Name intergranular pores.
Potassium
Depth/m Clay(1) Dolomite Calcite
Secondary dissolution pores Pyrite Quartz Anorthite
Feldspar
Secondary dissolution pores were the main reservoir spatial types developed in the
J174 3217.98 20.0 Lucaogou 15.2
Formation and14.0 were present in—different lithologies
3.0 (Figure 7a,b).
17.7The degree of30.1
J174 3259.65 7.5 development
44.5 of secondary dissolution
0.3 pores
— is mainly related
4.0 to the dissolution
22.5 of unstable
21.2
components such as feldspar, tuff components, and rock fragments [47]. Potassium feldspar,
J174 3283.38 12.4 albite feldspar,
17.7 and other7.4 feldspars and— their alteration4.9 17.5 eroded by
products are strongly 40.1
J174 3285.57 11.8 acid circulation,
31.3 forming secondary
— 0.5
dissolution pores. 5.8 18.3 32.3
J174 3295.85 17.0 (2) Intergranular
23.5 pores 2.2 0.6 6.5 20.6 29.6
J174 3335.41 10.8 8.0 types of intergranular
Various 41.1 11.0were developed
pores 1.3 in the Lucaogou
10.1 Formation,9.8
J251 3614.10 8.7 mainly between
28.9 clay minerals,
11.4 feldspar, quartz,
2.4 calcite, and3.7 dolomite (Figure 7c–e). Dolomite
28.1 16.8
and calcite intergranular pores were the most common types of intergranular pores in the
J251 3632.13 7.7 study area.
11.7 33.0 3.4 14.4 18.8 11.0
J251 3773.12 13.2 (3) Microcracks
25.4 12.2 — 1.7 25.6 21.9
J36-5 4348.70 33.1 —
Microcracks 2.2 fractures0.8
are structural that cut through— mineral grains61.2
in the rock, com-2.7
J36-5 4349.84 46.4 monly through
— high-angle microcracks,0.5
0.5 with jagged morphologies.
— Nonstructural
49.8 cracks2.8
mainly communicate intergranular pores, which are often filled with asphaltene. The study
J36-5 4353.98 45.5 area mainly
—developed diagenetic
1.6 0.9
micro-fractures — carbonate 46.9
filled with minerals and had4.2
J36-4 4340.35 4.9 fewer structural
— cracks (Figure 1.8 7f,g). 0.2 — 30.0 33.0
J36-4 4344.70 5.5 — 0.4 0.4 6.0 26.3 30.4
J36-4 4345.36 0.9 — 81.1 0.6 — 6.9 8.9
J36-4 4346.47 28.5 — 34.9 — 1.5 14.4 11.3
J36-4 4347.74 5.5 — — 0.2 6.7 26.0 36.1
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 10 of 22

(4) Primary pores

Primary pores mainly refer to residual intergranular pores remaining after a series of
diagenetic processes (compaction, cementation, dissolution) experienced by the reservoir
during formation [39]. The thin sections and SEM images mainly showed primary pores
that were not filled with heterogeneous materials or cement, organic matter, and the
remaining intergranular pores after being filled with clays and authigenic minerals. Pore
Minerals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24
boundaries were clear and often unevenly distributed (Figure 7h,i).

Figure 7. Reservoir space types of the Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag. (a) Gray
Figure 7. Reservoir
argillaceous siltstone,space types of the
development Permian Lucaogou
of dissolution pores in the Formation
matrix, in the3334.68
J174, Jimsar m,Sag.SEM;
(a) Gray
(b)
argillaceous siltstone,
gray, argillaceous, development
silty of dissolution
sandstone, dissolution of pores in thefeldspar
potassium matrix, grains
J174, 3334.68 m, SEM; (b)
and dissolution gray,
pores
in the matrix,silty
argillaceous, J174,sandstone,
3333.76 m,dissolution
SEM; (c) gray marl rock,feldspar
of potassium intragranular
grainsdissolution pores pores
and dissolution and inter-
in the
granular
matrix, pores,
J174, J174, m,
3333.76 3182.43
SEM;m, (c)SEM;
gray (d)
marlgray calcareous
rock, siltstone,
intragranular dolomitepores
dissolution intercrystalline pores,
and intergranular
J174 3144.84
pores, m, fluorescence
J174, 3182.43 m, SEM;thin(d)section; (e) gray marl,
gray calcareous calcitedolomite
siltstone, intercrystalline pores, J174,
intercrystalline 3112.09
pores, J174
m, PPL; (f) gray dolomitic siltstone, developmental microcracks, J251, 3777.44 m, PPL; (g) gray marl,
3144.84 m, fluorescence thin section; (e) gray marl, calcite intercrystalline pores, J174, 3112.09 m,
developmental microcracks, J31, 2712.85 m, PPL; (h) gray, fine, calcareous sandstone, residual in-
PPL; (f) graypores
tergranular dolomitic siltstone,
containing developmental
calcite microcracks,
cement, J31, 2725.16 m, PPL;J251, 3777.44
(i) gray m, PPL;
calcareous (g) gray
siltstone, marl,
resid-
developmental microcracks, J31, 2712.85 m, PPL; (h) gray, fine, calcareous sandstone,
ual intergranular pores containing pyrite, J174, 3142.13 m, PPL. Cal: calcite; Q: quartz; F: feldspar; residual
intergranular poresPPL:
Py: pyrite; P: pores; containing calcite cement,
plane-polarized J31,
light. Red 2725.16
arrows m, PPL;
indicate (i) graypores,
dissolution calcareous siltstone,
intergranular
pores. intergranular pores containing pyrite, J174, 3142.13 m, PPL. Cal: calcite; Q: quartz; F:
residual
feldspar; Py: pyrite; P: pores; PPL: plane-polarized light. Red arrows indicate dissolution pores,
4.2. Diagenetic
intergranular Facies Classification
pores.
The theoretical basis of diagenetic facies research is diagenesis, and the main basis
for the classification and naming of diagenetic facies is the study of diagenetic minerals
[48]. Classifying diagenetic facies requires determining the type and intensity of diagene-
sis experienced by the sediment, on the basis of which special minerals are indicative in
the diagenetic process. These are observed by studying the thin section of the core well.
In this paper, diagenetic facies are divided and named according to the principle of min-
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 11 of 22

4.2. Diagenetic Facies Classification

The theoretical basis of diagenetic facies research is diagenesis, and the main basis for
the classification and naming of diagenetic facies is the study of diagenetic minerals [48].
Classifying diagenetic facies requires determining the type and intensity of diagenesis
experienced by the sediment, on the basis of which special minerals are indicative in the
diagenetic process. These are observed by studying the thin section of the core well. In
this paper, diagenetic facies are divided and named according to the principle of mineral
type and diagenetic type. Compaction is the main factor controlling reservoir quality.
However, due to the influence of other factors, the intensity of compaction in space is
uneven. The ZTR index of heavy minerals ranges from 0.2 to 10.1, with an average of
2.8. This shows that the Lucaogou Formation has low composition maturity, low reservoir
resistance to compaction, and a greater influence on compaction. Therefore, the rocks in
areas where compaction is relatively strong are relatively dense and have poor physical
properties—these are classified as tightly compacted facies. Dissolution can effectively
improve total porosity, and dissolved components are mainly unstable minerals such as
feldspar, rock fragments, and tuff components—the areas dominated by dissolution are
classified as dissolution facies. Quartz overgrowths fill pores, and reduce porosity and
reservoir quality—facies with this feature are classified as quartz-cemented diagenetic
facies. Carbonate cementation is widely developed in the study area, found in mainly
calcite, iron calcite and ankerite, with the mass fraction of 1%~32% and with an average
of 7.22%. Carbonate cement and clay cement influence porosity to a different degree. For
instance, clay cement mainly appears in the form of pore filling. The two main diagenetic
control areas are each classified as diagenetic facies, and are named carbonate-cemented
facies and clay mineral-filling facies, respectively. Thus, the Lucaogou Formation can be
divided into five types of diagenetic facies: tightly compacted facies, carbonate-cemented
facies, clay mineral-filling facies, quartz-cemented facies, and dissolution facies. Logging
curves that are sensitive to diagenetic facies-type indications mainly include the gamma
ray log (GR), resistivity log (RT), acoustic log (AC), density log (DEN), and compensated
neutron log (CNL) [18,49]. Therefore, when establishing the diagenetic facies logging
database, the differences between the five logging curves of different diagenetic facies types
were considered. Characteristics of the well log response for identifying five diagenetic
facies were summarized, and the well log parameters of different diagenetic facies were
provided (Table 2, Figure 8).

Table 2. Characteristics of different diagenetic logging responses.

Diagenetic Facies GR/API AC/µs·ft−1 DEN/g·cm−3 RT/Ω·m CNL/%

67.5~138.8 66.7~78.4 2.3~2.6 6.1~40.3 18.6~30.3
Tightly compacted facies
(101.2) (72.4) (2.5) (14.8) (23.7)
58.5~97.5 72.5~94.6 2.0~2.5 10.9~74.0 18.5~35
Carbonate-cemented facies
(75.7) (78.6) (2.4) (36.3) (22.9)
61.6~112.5 67.4~87.5 2.17~2.5 14.4~83.8 18.9~36.4
Quartz-cemented facies
(88.3) (74.6) (2.4) (31.5) (25.2)
73.8~111.9 76.6~94.6 2.2~2.5 10.7~73.9 26~41.9
Clay mineral-filling facies
(89.7) (84.6) (2.36) (41.2) (32)
38.0~87.9 70.1~93.8 2.1~2.6 112.7~273.1 22.7~40.8
Dissolution facies
(65.6) (80) (2.3) (177.9) (30.4)
 Minerals 2022, 12, 913 12 of 22
Minerals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 24

Figure 8. Different diagenetic facies and their well log values. Plots of gamma ray log (GR) versus
Figure 8. Different diagenetic facies and their well log values. Plots of gamma ray log (GR) versus
(a) density log (DEN), (b) acoustic log (AC), (c) compensated neutron log (CNL) and (d) resistivity
(a) density log (DEN), (b) acoustic log (AC), (c) compensated neutron log (CNL) and (d) resistivity
log (RT) values.
log (RT) values.
5. Discussion
5. Discussion
5.1. Different Diagenetic
5.1. Different Facies Types
Diagenetic andTypes
Facies Theirand
Logging
Their Response Characteristics
Logging Response Characteristics
The study Theofstudy
different diagenetic
of different facies mainly
diagenetic faciesrelies
mainly onrelies
core observation and thinand thin
on core observation
section identification results toresults
section identification determine whether whether
to determine the difference in the petrological
the difference and
in the petrological and
mineralogical characteristics of the diagenetic facies led to a difference in the response
mineralogical characteristics of the diagenetic facies led to a difference in the response
characteristics of the logging
characteristics curve [50].
of the logging curve The core-to-log
[50]. depth depth
The core-to-log matching was performed
matching was performed by
by correlating the density
correlating logging
the density (DEN)
logging signature
(DEN) signaturewithwith
the the
corecore
experiment,
experiment,and a dia-
and a diagenetic
genetic facies
faciesrecognition
recognition model
model waswas established
established by analyzing the logging logging response
response characteristics
char-
acteristics
ofof different
different diageneticfacies
diagenetic faciestotoachieve
achieveaccurate
accurateidentification
identificationofofdiagenetic
diageneticfacies
fa- using
cies using logging
logging data.
data.

5.1.1. Dissolution Facies

Dissolution is a constructive diagenetic effect, which mainly dissolves various types
of feldspars, rock fragments, and volcanic tuff components in skeletal grains (Figure 9a,b),
which can significantly increase the pore space of the reservoir and improve reservoir
quality. The feldspar content in Lucaogou is high, which is conducive to the formation of
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 13 of 22

5.1.1. Dissolution Facies

Dissolution is a constructive diagenetic effect, which mainly dissolves various types
of feldspars, rock fragments, and volcanic tuff components in skeletal grains (Figure 9a,b),
which can significantly increase the pore space of the reservoir and improve reservoir
quality. The feldspar content in Lucaogou is high, which is conducive to the formation of
dissolution pores. The development of dissolution pores made the DEN values of these
diagenetic facies low (average 2.3 g/cm3 ). AC values were high (>70 µs/ft), and CNL values
ranged from 22.7% to 40.8%; dissolution facies had lower GR values (38.0 API~87.9
Minerals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 ofAPI)
24
and higher RT values (>112 Ω·m) due to their high oil potential (Table 2, Figures 8 and 10).

Figure 9. Different types of diagenesis in the Permian Lucaogou Formation of the Jimsar Sag. (a)
Figure 9. Different
Dissolution typescalcareous
of fine, gray, of diagenesis in the and
sandstone Permian Lucaogou
dissolution Formation
of feldspar of J31,
grains, the 2725.36
Jimsar Sag.
m,
(a)
PPL;Dissolution of fine,
(b) dissolution ofgray, calcareous
tuff sludge, a tuffsandstone
component and dissolution
dissolution of feldspar grains,
phenomenon, J31, 2725.36
J174, 3269.74 m, PPL;m,
PPL; (b) dissolution ofgray
(c) calcite-cemented tuff mudstone,
sludge, a tuff J174,component
3199.99 m, dissolution
PPL; (d) grayphenomenon, J174, 3269.74
carbonate-cemented m, PPL;
siltstone,
calcite
(c) cement, J251, gray
calcite-cemented 3759.40 m, PPL; (e)
mudstone, J174,compacted,
3199.99 m, gray,
PPL;calcareous siltstone. Plastic deformation
(d) gray carbonate-cemented siltstone,
of mica
calcite affected
cement, by 3759.40
J251, compaction, J174,
m, PPL; (e)3268.48 m, PPL;
compacted, (f)calcareous
gray, compacted,siltstone.
dark gray, argillaceous
Plastic dolo-of
deformation
mite. Directional arrangement of illite, J30, 4144.86 m, SEM; (g) fine, siliceous-cemented
mica affected by compaction, J174, 3268.48 m, PPL; (f) compacted, dark gray, argillaceous dolomite. siltstone
(argillaceous), quartz overgrowths, J172, 2927.9 m, SEM; (h) clay mineral cementation, dark gray
Directional arrangement of illite, J30, 4144.86 m, SEM; (g) fine, siliceous-cemented siltstone (argilla-
dolomite mudstone, I/S distributed in the matrix, J22, 2553.92 m, SEM; (i) clay mineral cementation,
ceous), quartz
silty-sandy overgrowths,
mudstone, J172, 2927.9
vermiform kaolinite,m, SEM; (h) clay
J25, 3412.54 m,mineral
SEM. Mi: cementation, dark gray
mica; Cal: calcite dolomite
cementation;
mudstone, I/S distributed in the matrix, J22, 2553.92 m, SEM; (i) clay mineral cementation,
I/S: mixed-layer illite/smectite; Kao: kaolinite; Q: quartz; F: feldspar; IL: illite; P: pores; PPL: plane- silty-sandy
mudstone,
polarized vermiform
light. kaolinite, J25, 3412.54 m, SEM. Mi: mica; Cal: calcite cementation; I/S: mixed-layer
illite/smectite; Kao: kaolinite; Q: quartz; F: feldspar; IL: illite; P: pores; PPL: plane-polarized light.
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 14 of 22
Minerals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24

Figure10.
Figure 10. Characteristics
Characteristics of
of different
differentdiagenetic
diageneticfacies
facieslogging
loggingcurves and
curves corresponding
and thinthin
corresponding sec-
tions and SEM images.
sections and SEM images.

5.1.5.Carbonate-Cemented
5.1.2. Clay Mineral-Filling Facies
Clay
The mineral cements
identification resultsmainly include
of the rock honeycomb
slices I/S cement,
of 36 samples filamentary
in the study illite, that
area showed flaky
cement, fluffy
carbonate ball authigenic
cementation is widely chlorite,
developed andin other minerals
the study (Figure through
area, mainly 9h,i). The Lucaogou
calcite, iron
Formation
calcite, mainly
and iron developed
dolomite, withwith
a masstwo-stage
fraction clay
frommineral
1% to 32% cementation,
and with an where the pri-
average of
7.22%. Carbonate
mary pores and thecements, such as in
flaky chlorite calcite and dolomite,
the dissolution poresdeveloped
reduced in thedissolved reservoir
connectivity of the
pores
pore while blocking
roar, and pore space
the presence and
of the I/Sreducing
mixed-layer reservoir
filled quality
the pores[51,52]. Therefore,
[52,54,55]. Compared the
carbonate cementcompacted
with the tightly facies is destructive, and mineral-filling
facies, the clay the cement produced by multistage
facies had lower mineralcarbonate
content
cementation fills the
and, therefore, tectonicGR
moderate cracks, increasing
values (average the85.4
damage
API).toThethe presence
physical properties of the
of clay minerals
reservoir (Figure 9c,d). The presence of carbonate cement resulted in
made DEN values relatively low (average 2.36 g/cm ), AC values were high (average 84.6
3 the diagenetic facies
having
μs/ft), medium-high
and there were RThigh
values
CNL (average
values 36.3 Ω·m),32%)
(average high(Table
DEN values (average
2, Figures 8 and2.410).g/cm ),
3

and lower AC values (average 78.6 µs/ft), in addition to lower CNL values (average 22.9%)
(Table 2, Figures
5.2. Impact 8 and 10).
of Diagenetic Facies on Reservoir Quality of Tight Oil
Different diagenetic facies combinations lead to different porosity characteristics and
5.1.3. Tightly Compacted Facies
physical properties of reservoirs. The differences in different diagenetic facies types are
Compaction
mainly reflected occurs throughout the
in the composition entire diagenetic
of diagenetic process
minerals; andinfluence
thus, the is considered to be
of different
destructive diagenesis. Mechanical compaction in the Lucaogou Formation is common,
diagenetic facies types on reservoir quality can be determined by analyzing the main dia-
and the pressure solution is less developed. The ZTR index of heavy minerals shows that
genetic minerals.
the Lucaogou Formation has a greater influence on compaction, resulting in the destruction
Carbonate cementation in the study area was generally developed as calcite, but also
of a large number of primary pores and poor reservoir properties [51,52]. The content of
included iron calcite and (iron) dolomite. The relationship between pore content and ce-
plastic grains in siltstone is high, and it has evident characteristics of strong compaction
ment content established by Houseknecht can indicate the effect of compaction and ce-
effects such as plastic particle deformation, particle line contact, and mineral orientation
mentation on reservoir porosity reduction, and clearly reveals the primary and secondary
arrangement (Figure 9e,f). In the tightly compacted facies, the presence of clay minerals,
causes of reservoir densification [56]. Carbonate cement content has a clear negative correla-
soft rock, and micas led to the highest GR values (average 101.2 API), high DEN values
tion with porosity; therefore, carbonate cementation can be considered to be the main factor
in the decrease in porosity of tight oil reservoirs in the Lucaogou Formation (Figure 11a).
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 15 of 22

(average 2.5 g/cm3 ), lower AC values (72.4 µs/ft), high CNL values (average 23.7%), and
low RT values (average 14.8 Ω·m) as important indicators for identifying compacted facies
(Table 2, Figures 8 and 10).

5.1.4. Quartz-Cemented Facies

Siliceous cement is generally developed in reservoirs of the Lucaogou Formation,
mainly in the form of quartz overgrowths (Figure 9g). Feldspar grains produce a large
amount of SiO2 during the dissolution process, thus providing an adequate source of mate-
rial for quartz overgrowths; therefore, this process is often accompanied by the dissolution
of feldspar grains. Because of the low solubility of SiO2 in the closed system composed
of sand and mudstone, there is basically no external ion source in the siliceous cement of
the Lucaogou Formation. Therefore, the endogenous source becomes the only material
source of siliceous cement, mainly through the transformation of clay minerals and the
dissolution of feldspar grains. The higher the quartz content in the mineral composition,
the more obvious the phenomenon of siliceous cementation is, and the more common the
phenomenon of quartz overgrowths becomes [52,53]. Compared with the relatively high
GR values of the tightly compacted facies, the GR values of the quartz-cemented facies
were lower (average 88.3 API), DEN values were medium and high (average 2.4 g/cm3 );
and AC values were lower (average 74.6 µs/ft) (Table 2, Figures 8 and 10).

5.1.5. Clay Mineral-Filling Facies

Clay mineral cements mainly include honeycomb I/S cement, filamentary illite, flaky
cement, fluffy ball authigenic chlorite, and other minerals (Figure 9h,i). The Lucaogou
Formation mainly developed with two-stage clay mineral cementation, where the primary
pores and the flaky chlorite in the dissolution pores reduced the connectivity of the pore
roar, and the presence of the I/S mixed-layer filled the pores [52,54,55]. Compared with
the tightly compacted facies, the clay mineral-filling facies had lower mineral content and,
therefore, moderate GR values (average 85.4 API). The presence of clay minerals made
DEN values relatively low (average 2.36 g/cm3 ), AC values were high (average 84.6 µs/ft),
and there were high CNL values (average 32%) (Table 2, Figures 8 and 10).

5.2. Impact of Diagenetic Facies on Reservoir Quality of Tight Oil

Different diagenetic facies combinations lead to different porosity characteristics and
physical properties of reservoirs. The differences in different diagenetic facies types are
mainly reflected in the composition of diagenetic minerals; thus, the influence of different
diagenetic facies types on reservoir quality can be determined by analyzing the main
diagenetic minerals.
Carbonate cementation in the study area was generally developed as calcite, but
also included iron calcite and (iron) dolomite. The relationship between pore content
and cement content established by Houseknecht can indicate the effect of compaction
and cementation on reservoir porosity reduction, and clearly reveals the primary and
secondary causes of reservoir densification [56]. Carbonate cement content has a clear
negative correlation with porosity; therefore, carbonate cementation can be considered
to be the main factor in the decrease in porosity of tight oil reservoirs in the Lucaogou
Formation (Figure 11a). Carbonate cements can fill the primary intergranular pores and,
therefore, reduce the porosity of reservoirs [30]; when the carbonate cement completely fills
the pore space, the quality of the reservoir becomes so poor that it may become the seepage
barrier of fluid flow. Carbonate cement causes obvious pore loss in the carbonate cement
phase, which becomes an obvious destructive diagenetic facies.
 Minerals2022,
Minerals 2022,12,
12,913
x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of
16 of2224

Figure 11. (a)

Figure11. (a) Porosity and carbonate
carbonate cement
cement content.
content.(b)
(b)Porosity
Porosityand
and quartz
quartz cement
cement content.
content. (c)
Porosity
(c) and
Porosity andillite content.
illite (d)(d)
content. Porosity and
Porosity authigenic
and authigenicchlorite content.
chlorite content.

The phenomenon of quartz overgrowths can be observed in the rock samples, indi-
cating that siliceous cementation is also an important diagenetic process in the tight oil
reservoirs in the Lucaogou Formation. The transformation of clay minerals and the disso-
lution of feldspar grains provide a source of SiO2 for quartz precipitation; thus, siliceous
cement usually occurs in the section of sandstone reservoirs that is rich in quartz grains [57].
The silica gel junction easily reduces the primary porosity of the reservoir, and quartz over-
growths can also reduce the width of the roar between clastic grains. The presence of quartz
cement often leads to obvious bulges, and bulges between the clastic grains. Siliceous
cement blocks the transport channel of the pore fluid so that the pores of the reservoir are
reduced and the physical properties of the reservoir become worse (Figure 11b). Quartz
cement has an influence on reservoir quality and belongs to the process of destructive
diagenesis.
The presence of authigenic clay minerals has a destructive effect on diagenesis. Illite
and I/S are fibrous, flaky, and honeycomb-like under SEM. These two minerals usually
block the pore throat, affecting the quality of the reservoir (Figure 11c). Authigenic chlorite
can protect the reservoir’s primary pores to a certain extent, as chlorite rims can increase
the reservoir’s ability to resist compaction. On the other hand, reducing the width of the
throat channel has a certain protective effect on the primary pores, and the cement content
Figure 12. Diagram of the relationship between feldspar content and porosity.
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 17 of 22

of chlorite has a clear positive correlation with the porosity of the reservoir. It is shown that
authigenic chlorite cementation can effectively protect the primary intergranular pores of
tight oil reservoirs (Figure 11d).
Therefore, the filling phase of clay minerals related to illite is usually regarded as the
damage factor of tight reservoirs. On the contrary, the clay mineral-filling phase related
to authigenic chlorite usually has a relatively high porosity, which is the result of the
retention of authigenic porosity and resistance to mechanical compaction [52]. Therefore,
the relationship between the clay mineral cementation phase and reservoir properties
cannot be clearly proved.
The Lucaogou Formation underwent the alternating dissolution of acid-base fluids [58],
and feldspar grains and tuff components were dissolved to varying degrees. Chemically
unstable feldspar grains in rock skeletons are susceptible to dissolution by acidic fluids
(mainly atmospheric precipitation and organic acids) [30,59], and alkali tuff components
may improve the quality of the reservoir through secondary pore formation by dissolution.
The dissolution of feldspar grains can significantly improve the porosity of the reservoir
during its formation, and secondary pores formed due to the dissolution effect are basically
not affected by mechanical compacting in the later stage. The existence of secondary pores
greatly improves the porosity of the reservoir. Thus, dissolution has a contributing effect
on the improvement of reservoir quality (Figure 12). The dissolution facies of unstable
components belongs to the process of constructive diagenesis, which can promote the
improvement
Figure 11. (a) of reservoir
Porosity andquality.
carbonate cement content. (b) Porosity and quartz cement content. (c)
Porosity and illite content. (d) Porosity and authigenic chlorite content.

Figure
Figure 12.12. Diagram
Diagram ofof the
the relationship
relationship between
between feldspar
feldspar content
content and
and porosity.
porosity.

5.3. Prediction of Diagenetic Facies and Favorable Reservoirs

The diagenetic facies of Well J174 in the tight oil reservoirs of the Lucaogou Formation
was predicted by the established logging identification of the convolution neural network
model. The type of single-well diagenetic facies in the study area was finally determined,
and the vertical distribution law of single-well diagenetic facies was predicted according to
the high vertical resolution of the logging curves.
The vertical distribution of the diagenetic facies in a single well shows that the study
area mainly develops dissolution facies, carbonate cementation facies, and dissolution
facies, whereas quartz cementation facies and clay mineral-filling facies are less developed.
Comparing the predicted diagenetic facies types with the corresponding depth of thin
sections and SEM images, the predicted results have a high coincidence rate, which indicates
that the model has a certain guiding significance for the accurate identification of diagenetic
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 18 of 22

facies in tight oil reservoirs (Figure 13). From the conclusion of comprehensive logging
interpretation, it can be seen that the dissolution facies develop in the interval whose
mineral composition is mainly quartz and feldspar, as well as the interval with nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) porosity and measured porosity, which has a high oil saturation
value and is a favorable interval for reservoir development. Minerals are mainly composed
of carbonate rocks because the cementation of carbonate rocks has a great influence on
reservoir porosity; thus, the NMR porosity and the measured porosity of the reservoirs are
both small and the oil saturation value is relatively low. Therefore, the reservoir physical
properties corresponding to carbonate cementation facies-developed layers are the worst.
Because of compaction, the NMR porosity is smaller than the measured porosity, and the
oil content is poor. The physical properties of the reservoirs corresponding to the interval
Minerals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24
where quartz cementation facies and clay mineral-filling facies are developed are poor.

Figure 13. Well J174—single-well diagenetic facies prediction columnar diagram.

Figure 13. Well J174—single-well diagenetic facies prediction columnar diagram.
6. Conclusions
(1) Based on core analysis data, casting thin section observations, SEM analysis, and
other data from the study area, diagenetic facies were divided and named according to
the principle of mineral and diagenesis type, and can be classified into five diagenetic
facies: tightly compacted facies, carbonate-cemented facies, clay mineral-filling facies,
quartz-cemented facies, and dissolution facies.
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 19 of 22

6. Conclusions
(1) Based on core analysis data, casting thin section observations, SEM analysis, and
other data from the study area, diagenetic facies were divided and named according to
the principle of mineral and diagenesis type, and can be classified into five diagenetic
facies: tightly compacted facies, carbonate-cemented facies, clay mineral-filling facies,
quartz-cemented facies, and dissolution facies.
(2) The selected GR, AC, DEN, RT, and CNL were sensitive to diagenetic facies, and
were used to summarize the logging response characteristics of different types of diagenetic
facies and to establish a diagenetic facies logging database. The convolution neural network
model was introduced to build a logging identification model of diagenetic facies in the
study area.
(3) On the basis of constructing the convolution neural network diagenetic facies
model, taking Well J174 as an example, the diagenetic facies of this well were identified
and divided, and the accuracy of the diagenetic facies prediction model was evaluated.
The prediction results of the diagenetic facies were in good agreement with the micro-
scopic observation results, and different types of diagenetic facies can be developed
in different intervals. Combined with the relevant physical property analysis data, it
shows that the intervals with poor reservoir physical properties and poor oil content in
the study area were related to carbonate cementation facies, compacted tight diagene-
sis facies, quartz cementation facies and clay mineral-filling facies. The dissolution of
unstable components corresponded to the main high-quality reservoirs and oil-bearing
reservoirs of tight oil reservoirs in the study area, and the dominant diagenetic facies
belt in the study area was also a favorable interval for finding the dominant reservoirs in
the following stage.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.Q.; funding acquisition, C.H.; methodology, C.H.,

C.M., G.L. (Geng Liu) and X.H.; software, G.L. (Geng Liu) and X.H.; supervision, C.H. and C.M.;
validation, G.L. (Guan Li); writing—original draft, M.Q., Y.Y., R.S. and X.C.; writing—review and
editing, M.Q., C.H., C.M., Y.Y., R.S. and X.C. All authors were informed about each step of the
manuscript process, including submission, revision, revision reminder, etc., via emails from our
system or the assigned Assistant Editor. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was jointly supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Xinjiang Uygur
Autonomous Region (Grant No. 2020D01C037), the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grant No. 42062010), the Opening Fund of Key Laboratory of Deep Oil and Gas (20CX02114A) and
the Tianshan Innovation Team Program (2020D14023).
Acknowledgments: We are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their insightful and constructive
comments for improving the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Hu, S.-Y.; Zhu, R.-K.; Wu, S.-T.; Bai, B.; Yang, Z.; Cui, J.-W. Profitable exploration and development of continental tight oil in
China. Pet. Explor. Dev. 2018, 45, 737–748. [CrossRef]
2. Milliken, K.L.; Curtis, M.E. Imaging pores in sedimentary rocks: Foundation of porosity prediction. Mar. Pet. Geol. 2016, 73,
590–608. [CrossRef]
3. Wang, M.; Lu, S.; Huang, W.; Liu, W. Pore characteristics of lacustrine mudstones from the Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation,
Songliao Basin. Interpretation 2017, 5, T373–T386. [CrossRef]
4. Wang, J.-L.; Feng, L.-Y.; Steve, M.; Tang, X.; Gail, T.E.; Mikael, H. China’s unconventional oil: A review of its resources and
outlook for long-term production. Energy 2015, 82, 31–42. [CrossRef]
5. Zou, C.-N.; Zhang, G.-S.; Yang, Z.; Tao, S.-Z.; Hou, L.-H.; Zhu, R.-K.; Yuan, X.-J.; Ran, Q.-Q.; Li, D.-H.; Wang, Z.-P. Geological
concepts, characteristics, resource potential and key techniques of unconventional hydrocarbon: On unconventional petroleum
geology. Pet. Explor. Dev. 2013, 40, 385–399. [CrossRef]
6. Sonnenberg, S.A.; Pramudito, A. Petroleum geology of the giant Elm Coulee field, Williston Basin. AAPG Bull. 2009, 93, 1127–1153.
[CrossRef]
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 20 of 22

7. Sun, L.; Tuo, J.; Zhang, M.; Wu, C.; Chai, S. Pore structures and fractal characteristics of nano-pores in shale of Lucaogou formation
from Junggar Basin during water pressure-controlled artificial pyrolysis. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2019, 140, 404–412. [CrossRef]
8. Clarkson, C.R.; Wood, J.M.; Burgis, S.E.; Aquino, S.D.; Freeman, M. Nanopore-Structure Analysis and Permeability Predictions
for a Tight Gas Siltstone Reservoir by Use of Low-Pressure Adsorption and Mercury-Intrusion Techniques. SPE Reserv. Eval. Eng.
2012, 15, 648–661. [CrossRef]
9. Pollastro, R.-H. Total petroleum system assessment of undiscovered resources in the giant Barnett Shale continuous (uncon-
ventional) gas accumulation, Fort Worth Basin, Texas. AAPG Bull. 2007, 91, 551–578. [CrossRef]
10. Zha, M.; Wang, S.; Ding, X.; Feng, Q.; Xue, H.; Su, Y. Tight oil accumulation mechanisms of the Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar
Sag, NW China: Insights from pore network modeling and physical experiments. J. Southeast Asian Earth Sci. 2018, 178, 204–215.
[CrossRef]
11. Yang, Y.; Qiu, L.; Wan, M.; Jia, X.; Cao, Y.; Lei, D.; Qu, C. Depositional model for a salinized lacustrine basin: The Permian
Lucaogou Formation, Jimsar Sag, Junggar Basin, NW China. J. Southeast Asian Earth Sci. 2018, 178, 81–95. [CrossRef]
12. Du, J.-H.; Hu, S.-Y.; Pang, Z.-L.; Lin, S.-H.; Hou, L.-H.; Zhu, R.-K. The types, potentials and prospects of continental shale oil in
China. China Pet. Explor. 2019, 24, 560–568.
13. Pang, H.; Pang, X.-Q.; Dong, L.; Zhao, X. Factors impacting on oil retention in lacustrine shale: Permian Lucaogou Formation in
Jimusaer Depression, Junggar Basin. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2018, 163, 79–90. [CrossRef]
14. Su, Y.; Zha, M.; Ding, X.; Qu, J.; Gao, C.; Jin, J.; Iglauer, S. Petrographic, palynologic and geochemical characteristics of source rocks
of the Permian Lucaogou formation in Jimsar Sag, Junggar Basin, NW China: Origin of organic matter input and depositional
environments. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2019, 183, 106364. [CrossRef]
15. Lin, M.; Xi, K.; Cao, Y.; Liu, Q.; Zhang, Z.; Li, K. Petrographic features and diagenetic alteration in the shale strata of the Permian
Lucaogou Formation, Jimusar sag, Junggar Basin. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2021, 203, 108684. [CrossRef]
16. Pan, Y.; Huang, Z.; Guo, X.; Li, T.; Zhao, J.; Li, Z.; Qu, T.; Wang, B.; Fan, T.; Xu, X. Lithofacies types, reservoir characteristics, and
hydrocarbon potential of the lacustrine organic-rich fine-grained rocks affected by tephra of the permian Lucaogou formation,
Santanghu basin, western China. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2021, 208, 109631. [CrossRef]
17. Cao, Y.-C.; Zhu, N.; Zhang, S.-M.; Xi, K.-L.; Xue, X.-J. Diagenesis and Reserving Space Characteristics of Tight Oil Reservoirs of
Permian Lucaogou Formation in Jimusar Sag of Junggar Basin, China. J. Earth Sci. Environ. 2019, 41, 253–266.
18. Cui, Y.-F.; Wang, G.-W.; Jones, S.J.; Zhou, Z.; Ran, Y.; Lai, J.; Li, R.; Deng, L. Prediction of diagenetic facies using well logs—A case
study from the upper Triassic Yanchang Formation, Ordos Basin, China. Mar. Pet. Geol. 2017, 81, 50–65. [CrossRef]
19. Bjørlykke, K. Relationships between depositional environments, burial history and rock properties. Some principal aspects of
diagenetic process in sedimentary basins. Sediment. Geol. 2014, 301, 1–14. [CrossRef]
20. Ran, Z.; Wang, G.-W.; Lai, J.; Zhou, Z.-L.; Cui, Y.-F.; Dai, Q.-Q.; Chen, J.; Wang, S.-C. Quantitative Characterization of Dia-genetic
Facies of Tight Sandstone Oil Reservoir by Using Logging Crossplot: A case study on Chang 7 tight sandstone oil res-ervoir in
Huachi area, Ordos Basin. Acta Sedimentol. Sin. 2016, 34, 694–706.
21. Karim, A.; Pe-Piper, G.; Piper, D. Controls on diagenesis of Lower Cretaceous reservoir sandstones in the western Sable Sub-basin,
offshore Nova Scotia. Sediment. Geol. 2009, 224, 65–83. [CrossRef]
22. Munawar, M.-J.; Lin, C.-Y.; Cnudde, V.; Bultreys, T.; Dong, C.-M.; Zhang, X.-G.; De, B.-W.; Zahid, M.-A.; Wu, Y.-Q. Petro-graphic
characterization to build an accurate rock model using micro-CT: Case study on low-permeable to tight turbidite sandstone from
Eocene Shahejie Formation. Micron 2017, 109, 22–33. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. Okunuwadje, S.E.; Bowden, S.A.; Macdonald, D.I. Diagenesis and reservoir quality in high-resolution sandstone sequences:
An example from the Middle Jurassic Ravenscar sandstones, Yorkshire CoastUK. Mar. Pet. Geol. 2020, 118, 104426. [CrossRef]
24. Lai, J.; Fan, X.-C.; Pang, X.-J.; Zhang, X.-S.; Xiao, C.-W.; Zhao, X.-J.; Han, C.; Wang, G.-W.; Qin, Z.-Q. Correlating diagenetic facies
with well logs (conventional and image) in sandstones: The Eocene Suweiyi Formation in Dina 2 Gasfield, Kuqa de-pression of
China. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2018, 174, 617–636. [CrossRef]
25. Wang, J.; Cao, Y.; Liu, K.; Liu, J.; Kashif, M. Identification of sedimentary-diagenetic facies and reservoir porosity and permeability
prediction: An example from the Eocene beach-bar sandstone in the Dongying Depression, China. Mar. Pet. Geol. 2017, 82, 69–84.
[CrossRef]
26. Li, Y.; Chang, X.; Yin, W.; Sun, T.; Song, T. Quantitative impact of diagenesis on reservoir quality of the Triassic Chang 6 tight oil
sandstones, Zhenjing area, Ordos Basin, China. Mar. Pet. Geol. 2017, 86, 1014–1028. [CrossRef]
27. Shi, Y.-J.; Xiao, L.; Mao, Z.-Q.; Guo, H.-P. An identification method for diagenetic facies with well logs and its geological
sig-nificance in low-permeability sandstones:A case study on Chang 8 reservoirs in the Jiyuan region, Ordos Basin. Acta Pet. Sin.
2011, 32, 820–828.
28. Zhang, X.-X.; Zou, C.-N.; Tao, S.-Z.; Xu, C.-C.; Song, J.-R.; Li, G.-H. Diagenetic Facies Types and Semiquantitative Evaluation
of Low Porosity and Permeability Sandstones of the Fourth Member Xujiahe Formation Guangan Area, Sichuan Basin. Acta
Sedimentol. Sin. 2010, 28, 50–57.
29. Lai, J.; Wang, G.-W.; Wang, S.-N.; Xin, Y.; Wu, Q.-K.; Zheng, Y.-Q.; Li, J.-D.; Cang, D. Overview and research progress in logging
recognition method of clastic reservoir diagenetic facies. J. Cent. South Univ. (Sci. Technol.) 2013, 44, 4942–4953.
30. Lai, J.; Wang, G.; Wang, S.; Cao, J.; Li, M.; Pang, X.; Zhou, Z.; Fan, X.; Dai, Q.; Yang, L.; et al. Review of diagenetic facies in tight
sandstones: Diagenesis, diagenetic minerals, and prediction via well logs. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2018, 185, 234–258. [CrossRef]
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 21 of 22

31. Ozkan, A.; Cumella, S.P.; Milliken, K.L.; Laubach, S.E. Prediction of lithofacies and reservoir quality using well logs, Late
Cretaceous Williams Fork Formation, Mamm Creek field, Piceance Basin, Colorado. AAPG Bull. 2011, 95, 1699–1723. [CrossRef]
32. Wang, C.-W.; Ma, D.-X.; Tian, B.; Liang, J.-S.; Wang, Q.; Liu, T.-S. Diagenetic Evolution and Facies of Shanxi Formation in LX Area
of Ordos Basin. Acta Sedimentol. Sin. 2016, 34, 594–605.
33. Zhu, P.; Lin, C.-Y.; Wu, P.; Fan, R.-F.; Wang, D.-R.; Liu, X.-L. Logging quantitative identification of diagenetic facies by using
principal component analysis: A case of Es3x1 in Zhuang 62-66 Area, Wu Hao-zhuang Oil field. Prog. Geophys. 2015, 30,
2360–2365.
34. Hinton, G.E.; Osindero, S.; Teh, Y.W. A fast learning algorithm for deep belief nets. Neural Comput. 2006, 18, 1527–1554. [CrossRef]
35. Sungil, K.; Kyungbook, L.; Minhui, L.; Taewoong, A.; Jaehyoung, L.; Hwasoo, S.; Ning, F.-L. Saturation Modeling of Gas Hydrate
Using Machine Learning with X-Ray CT Images. Energies 2020, 13, 5032.
36. Wang, P.; Cao, Y.; Shen, C.; Liu, L.; Shen, H.T. Temporal Pyramid Pooling-Based Convolutional Neural Network for Action
Recognition. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol. 2016, 27, 2613–2622. [CrossRef]
37. Shan, L.-Q.; Liu, Y.-C.; Tang, M.; Yang, M.; Bai, X.-Y. NN-BiLSTM hybrid neural networks with attention mechanism for well log
prediction. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2021, 205, 108838. [CrossRef]
38. Wu, H.; Li, Z.; Liu, N.; Zhang, B. Improved seismic well tie by integrating variable-size window resampling with well-tie net.
J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2021, 208, 109368. [CrossRef]
39. Zhang, Y.; Zhang, C.; Ma, Q.; Zhang, X.; Zhou, H. Automatic prediction of shear wave velocity using convolutional neural
networks for different reservoirs in Ordos Basin. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2021, 208, 109252. [CrossRef]
40. Zhang, Z.-H.; Tian, J.-J.; Han, C.-C.; Zhang, W.-W.; Deng, S.-W.; Sun, G.-X. Reservoir characteristics and main controlling factors
of Lucaogou Formation in Jimsar Sag, Jungger Basin. Lithol. Reserv. 2021, 33, 116–126.
41. Shao, Y.; Yang, Y.-Q.; Wan, M.; Qiu, W.-L.; Cao, Y.-C.; Yang, S.-C. Sedimentary Characteristic and Facies Evolution of Permian
Lucaogou Formation in Jimsar Sag, Junggar Basin. Xinjiang Pet. Geol. 2015, 36, 635–641.
42. Qiu, Z.; Zou, C.; Dong, D.; Lu, B.; Shi, Z.; Tao, H.; Zhou, J.; Lei, D.; Zhang, C. Petroleum system assessment of conventional-
unconventional oil in the Jimusar sag, Junggar basin, Northwest China. J. Unconv. Oil Gas Resour. 2016, 16, 53–61. [CrossRef]
43. Ma, K.; Hou, J.-G.; Liu, Y.-M.; Shi, Y.-Q.; Yan, L.; Chen, F.-L. The sedimentary model of saline lacustrine mixed sedimentation in
Permian Lucaogou Formation, Jimsar sag. Acta Pet. Sin. 2017, 38, 636–648.
44. Wang, Y.; Teng, Q.; He, X.; Feng, J.; Zhang, T. CT-image of rock samples super resolution using 3D convolutional neural network.
Comput. Geosci. 2019, 133, 104314. [CrossRef]
45. Lima, R.-P.-D.; Duarte, D.; Nicholson, C.; Slatt, R.; Marfurt, K.-J. Petrographic microfacies classification with deep convolu-tional
neural networks. Comput. Geosci. 2020, 142, 104481. [CrossRef]
46. Cunha, A.; Pochet, A.; Lopes, H.; Gattass, M. Seismic fault detection in real data using transfer learning from a convolutional
neural network pre-trained with synthetic seismic data. Comput. Geosci. 2019, 135, 104344. [CrossRef]
47. Zha, M.; Su, Y.; Gao, C.-H.; Qu, J.-X.; Wang, X.-L.; Ding, J.-X. Tight reservoir space characteristics and controlling factors:
An example from Permian Lucaogou formation in Jimsar sag, Junggar basin, northwest China. J. China Univ. Min. Technol. 2017,
46, 85–95.
48. Lai, J.; Wang, G.-W.; Wang, S.-N.; Zheng, Y.-Q.; Wu, H.; Zhang, Y.-C. Research Status and Advances in the Diagenetic Facies of
Clastic Reservoirs. Adv. Earth Sci. 2013, 28, 39–50.
49. Li, P.; Liu, Z.-D.; Chen, Y.-M.; Zhao, J.-H. Summarization of application for identifying diagenetic facies in low porosity and low
permeability reservoirs using well-logging information. Prog. Geophys. 2017, 32, 183–190.
50. Lai, J.; Wang, G.; Chai, Y.; Ran, Y. Prediction of Diagenetic Facies using Well Logs: Evidences from Upper Triassic Yanchang
Formation Chang 8 Sandstones in Jiyuan Region, Ordos Basin, China. Oil Gas Sci. Technol.—Rev. D’ifp Energ. Nouv. 2015, 71, 34.
[CrossRef]
51. Dutton, S.-P.; Loucks, R.-D. Diagenetic controls on evolution of porosity and permeability in lower Tertiary Wilcox sandstones
from shallow to ultradeep (200–6700 m) burial, Gulf of Mexico Basin, U.S.A. Mar. Pet. Geol. 2010, 27, 69–81. [CrossRef]
52. Wu, D.; Liu, X.; Du, Y.; Jiang, L.; Cheng, Z. Predictive distribution of high-quality tight reservoirs of coarse clastic rocks by linking
diagenesis to sedimentary facies: Evidence from the upper Sha 4 Member in the northern Bonan Sag, Bohai Bay Basin, eastern
China. Interpretation 2018, 6, T413–T429. [CrossRef]
53. Higgs, K.; Crouch, E.; Raine, J. An interdisciplinary approach to reservoir characterisation; an example from the early to middle
Eocene Kaimiro Formation, Taranaki Basin, New Zealand. Mar. Pet. Geol. 2017, 86, 111–139. [CrossRef]
54. Henares, S.; Caracciolo, L.; Cultrone, G.; Fernández, J.; Viseras, C. The role of diagenesis and depositional facies on pore system
evolution in a Triassic outcrop analogue (SE Spain). Mar. Pet. Geol. 2014, 51, 136–151. [CrossRef]
55. Luo, L.; Meng, W.; Gluyas, J.; Tan, X.; Gao, X.; Feng, M.; Kong, X.; Shao, H. Diagenetic characteristics, evolution, controlling
factors of diagenetic system and their impacts on reservoir quality in tight deltaic sandstones: Typical example from the Xujiahe
Formation in Western Sichuan Foreland Basin, SW China. Mar. Pet. Geol. 2019, 103, 231–254. [CrossRef]
56. Houseknecht, D.W. Assessing the Relative Importance of Compaction Processes and Cementation to Reduction of Porosity in
Sandstones. AAPG Bull. 1987, 71, 633–642. [CrossRef]
57. Worden, R.H.; Mayall, M.; Evans, I.J. The Effect of Ductile-Lithic Sand Grains and Quartz Cement on Porosity and Permeability
in Oligocene and Lower Miocene Clastics, South China Sea: Prediction of Reservoir Quality. AAPG Bull. 2000, 84, 345–359.
Minerals 2022, 12, 913 22 of 22

58. Wang, J.; Zhou, L.; Liu, J.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, F.; Zhang, B. Acid-base alternation diagenesis and its influence on shale reservoirs in
the Permian Lucaogou Formation, Jimusar Sag, Junggar Basin, NW China. Pet. Explor. Dev. 2020, 47, 962–976. [CrossRef]
59. Lai, J.; Wang, G.; Ran, Y.; Zhou, Z.; Cui, Y. Impact of diagenesis on the reservoir quality of tight oil sandstones: The case of Upper
Triassic Yanchang Formation Chang 7 oil layers in Ordos Basin, China. J. Pet. Sci. Eng. 2016, 145, 54–65. [CrossRef]