Psychology 1000

Chapter 5: Consciousness:
Expanding the Boundaries
of Psychological Inquiry
Outline
 What is Consciousness
 Sleep
 Biology of Sleep
 Dreams

 Drugs and Consciousness

 Other alterations of consciousness
Our
subjective
experience
of the onsciousness
world, our
bodies, and
our mental
perspectives
Consciousness

 Sleep paralysis, locked-in syndrome, out-of-body, near-

death, and mystical experiences are all alterations of
normal consciousness
Encounters
 Approximately 20% of college students endorsed the
belief that extraterrestrial aliens communicate with us
through our dreams
 Almost 10% of people claim to have experienced or met
an alien
 Some individuals even report alien abductions – why?
Alien Abductions
 Most “abductees” have a The painting, The
history of sleep paralysis Nightmare, by Henry
 State of being unable to Fuseli
move just after falling
asleep or right before
waking up
 Often associated with
anxiety/terror, feeling
vibrations, or feeling like
there is a menacing
presence in the room
Source: SuperStock/Superstock
SLEEP
Why do we need sleep?
 Learning, long-term memory formation, and remembering
emotional information
 Critical for the immune system
 Promoting insight and problem-solving
 Neural development and neural connectivity
 Energy conservation
The Biology
of Sleep
The Circadian Rhythm:
The Cycle of Everyday Life
Biological clock: Circadian rhythm:
Term for the Cyclical changes that occur
suprachiasmatic nucleus on a roughly
(SCN) in the 24-hour basis in many
hypothalamus that’s biological processes. Sleep
responsible for and wakefulness vary in
controlling our response to a circadian
levels of rhythm
alertness Includes hormone release
and body temperature
Disruption of Circadian Rhythms
 Key role of melatonin in
regulating circadian rhythms.
 Falling asleep triggered by
increase in melatonin
 Jet lag

 The more times zones passed

through, the longer it takes the
body’s clock to reset
 Late work shifts
 Increase risk of injuries, fatal
accidents, health problems
 How Much Sleep Do
We Need?
 Most of us: 7-10 hours.
 Newborns: ~ 16 hours
College and university
ZZZ
students: 9 hours
 People with D EC2 mutation
(<1%): ~ 6 hours
 Elderly individuals get less
sleep (~6 hours)
 likely reflects disrupted
sleep rather than
reduced sleep need
 Sleep Deprivation
 One night:
Edginess, irritability, poor
concentration the next day
 Multiple nights:
Often experience depression,
difficulties in learning and
attending, slowed reaction times

 More than four days of severe

deprivation:
Can hear voices or see things
 Over time can lead to:
Weight gain, risk for high blood
pressure, heart problems
Sleep Deprivation
 Building up a sleep debt can have numerous negative
consequences
 Weight gain
 Depression
 Increased risk for cardiovascular problems
 Decreased immune system
Stages of Sleep
 We cycle through five stages of sleep in roughly 90
minute cycles
 Stages1-4 is non-REM sleep
 No eye movements, fewer dreams
 Stage 5 is REM sleep
 Vivid dreams and quick eye movements
 Non-REM Sleep Stages 3 and 4:
Stage 2: Large-amplitude delta
Stage 1: Brain waves and heart rate waves become more
Very drowsy, slow down, body temperature frequent. Crucial for
transition decreases, muscles relax; sleep feeling rested (more
quickly to stage spindles and K-complexes common in children
2; theta waves (~ 65% of sleep) vs elderly)
REM Sleep

Stage of sleep during which:

 The brain is most active
 Vivid dreaming most often
occurs
Also called paradoxical sleep
(body largely inactive)
Sleep Stages vs. Wakefulness
 Stages of Sleep in a Typical Night

Source: Based on Dement, W. C. (1974). Some must watch while some must sleep. San Francisco: W.
H. Freeman.
Sleep Disorders
 Widespread and costly problem
 $63 billion/year cost in the U S alone
 30-50% of population experiences at some point
 Most common is insomnia (9-20% of people)
 Difficulty falling sleep, difficulty staying asleep or early
waking
 Co-morbid with depression, pain and other conditions
 Treated with psychotherapy and/or hypnotic drugs (e.g.
Lunesta, Ambien)
 Concern about tolerance and side effects
Disorders of Sleep
Insomnia: Narcolepsy: Sleep apnea:
Difficultyfalling Rapid and Caused by a
or staying asleep often blockage of the
Co-morbid with unexpected airway during
depression, pain onset of sleep sleep
and other Linked to low Results in
conditions orexin daytime fatigue
production and other health
issues
 Sudden
waking
episodes
characterized
by screaming,
perspiring,
and confusion ight Terrors
followed by a
return to a
deep sleep
Sleepwalking

Walking while fully asleep

 Most frequent in childhood
 Almost always occurs
during non-REM
 Some 15 to 30 percent of
children and 4 to 5
percent of adults
sleepwalk occasionally
Dreams
Dreams
 NREM dreams
 Shorter
 More thought-like
 Repetitive
 Concerned with daily tasks
 REM dreams
 More dreams
 Emotional, illogical
 Prone to plot shifts
 Biologically crucial
REM Facts

 Paradoxical because our bodies are paralyzed but brains

are active
 REM rebound occurs when we miss REM sleep for
several nights
 Function of the eye movements during REM is unknown
 Muscles in middle ear are also active during REM
 Believed to be important, but effects of REM deprivation
on humans are unclear
Dreams
 Unsure exactly why we dream, but involved in:
1. Processing emotional memories
2. Integrating new experiences with established
memories
3. Learning new strategies and ways of doing things
4. Simulating threatening events so we can better cope
with them in everyday life
5. Reorganizing and consolidating memories
Lucid Dreaming
 Sleep and wake may not be as distinct as once thought
 Lucid dreaming occurs when you know that a dream is a
dream
 ~ 20% of people report regular lucid dreams
 Some report being able to control dreams
 May help with nightmares, but not other problems
Theories of Dreaming
Freud’s Dream
Protection Theory:
 Dreams as disguised
wishes
 Rejected by most scientists
due to lack of evidence
 Most dreams are negative
in content
 Very few sexual dreams (<
10%)
 Straightforward dream
content
 Post-trauma nightmares
Theories of Dreaming

 Theory that
Activation-
Synthesis dreams reflect
Theory (AST) inputs from brain
activation
originating in the
pons, which the
forebrain then
attempts to
weave into a
story
Theories of Dreaming
 Alternative theories to A S T emphasize role
of the forebrain in dreaming Dreaming and the
Forebrain
 Theory that dreams are driven largely by
the motivational and emotional control
centers of the forebrain rather than the
logical “executive” parts of the brain
 Damage to forebrain and parietal lobes
(e.g. with stroke) can eliminate dreams
completely, even if the pons are intact
 Dreams are consistent over time, not
random as A S T would predict
 Theories of Dreaming
 Dreams are a meaningful product of our
cognitive capacities, which shape what we
dream about
 “Cognitive achievements”
 Children’s dreams are simple, lacking
movement, while adult dreams are bizarre and
Neurocognitive
complex
 Dreaming is related to neurodevelopment as
well as life experience
 The dream continuity hypothesis argues that
dreams strongly reflect life experiences
 However, this theory conflicts with some
observations
Drugs and
Consciousness
 Substances
containing
chemicals
similar to
those found sychoactive
naturally in
our brains
d r u g s
that alter
consciousness
by changing
chemical
processes in
neurons
Abuse Versus Dependence: A Fine Line
Substance
abuse:
People qualify Substance dependence:
for this diagnosis A more serious pattern of
when they use, leading to clinically
experience significant impairment,
recurrent distress, or both
problems  Withdrawal
associated with a
 Tolerance
drug
 Physical and
psychological
dependence
Explanations for Drug Use and Abuse
Major Drug Types
Depressants

Depress the effects of the

central nervous system
Include:
 Alcohol
 Sedative-Hypnotics:
 Barbiturates (Seconal, Nembutal,
and Tuinal)
 Nonbarbiturates (Sopor and
Methaqualone, better known as
Quaalude)
 Benzodiazepines (Valium)
 Reduce anxiety at low doses, can
induce sleep at moderate doses
Depressants
 Alcohol and sedative-hypnotics depress the effects of the
CNS
 Sedatives are calming, hypnotics are sleep-inducing
 Alcohol is the most widely used and abused drug in our
society
 Has a stimulating effect at low doses, but depressant
effects at higher doses
Alcohol
 Females experience effects more heavily
 Research shows that what we expect to happen when
drinking also plays a role in social behaviour
Sedative-Hypnotics
 Often prescribed to assist with anxiety or insomnia
 Three classes: barbiturates, nonbarbiturates,
benzodiazepines
 Benzodiazepines (like Valium) are in most widespread
use and can be highly addictive
Stimulants
Increase activity in the
central nervous system,
including heart rate,
respiration, and blood
pressure

Include:
 Nicotine
 Cocaine
 Amphetamines
Nicotine
 Nicotine is highly addictive, activates acetylcholine
receptors
 Nicotine has as an adjustive value in that it enhances
positive and minimizes negative emotional reactions
Cocaine and Amphetamines
 Cocaine is the most powerful natural stimulant
 Strong reinforcer
 Users report euphoria, enhanced mental and physical
capacity, a decrease in hunger, and more
 Increases the activity of dopamine and serotonin
 Amphetamines
 Three usage patterns: 1) Occasional use in extreme
cases, 2) dependency following medical use and 3)
“speed freak” street use with repeated doses
 Category includes methamphetamines (crystal meth),
usage of which is rising lately
Narcotics
Relieve pain and induce
sleep; derived from the
opium poppy
Include:
Heroin
Morphine
Codeine
Narcotics
 Heroin is most
abused (90% of
opiate users)

 Often used
medically, but can
lead to abuse

 Dangerous
interactions with
other drugs

Source: World Health Organization, 2021

Psychedelics
Cause dramatic
alterations of
perception, mood, and
thought; hallucinogenic
Include:
 LSD
 Mescaline
 PCP
 Ecstasy (MDMA)
 Marijuana
Marijuana  Marijuana is the most used
psychedelic drug in Canada
 Legal as of 2018, though
regulated
 Subjective effects due to TH C
 Physiological effects include
heart rate increase, red eyes,
dry mouth
 Can affect brain development
among those whose brains are
still growing
 Chronic use can impair
cognitive function (reversible)
LSD
 LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide-25)
 Produces feelings of clear thought and changes in
sensation and perception
 Effects may stem from interference with the serotonin
system
MDMA
 Ecstasy (MDM A)
 Stimulant and hallucinogenic
 Triggers release of huge amounts of serotonin and
promotes a sense of well-being, self-confidence and
empathy for others
 Long term abuse leads to high blood pressure,
depression, damage to the neurons that rely on
serotonin and more
Major Drug Types and Their
Effects
Drug Type Examples Effect on Behaviour
Depressants Alcohol, barbiturates, Decreased activity of the central nervous
Quaaludes, Valium system (initial high followed by sleepiness,
slower thinking, and impaired concentration)
Stimulants Tobacco, cocaine, Increased activity of the central nervous
amphetamines, system (sense of alertness, well-being,
methamphetamine, energy)
caffeine
Opiates Heroin, morphine, Sense of euphoria, decreased pain
codeine
Psychedelics Marijuana, LSD, Ecstasy Dramatically altered perception, mood, and
thoughts
Other Alterations of
Consciousness
Alterations in Consciousness
 Hallucinations are realistic perceptual experiences in the
absence of external stimuli
 Brain activates in the same way for hallucinations as for
“real” sensory experiences
 Relatively normal experience
 10-35% of people report having had at least one
Alterations in Consciousness
 Out-of-body experience
(OBE): sense that our
consciousness has left our
body
 More commonly reported
by those who have other
unusual experiences
 May occur in various
disorders, with medication
and with recreational drugs
 A scrambling of sensory
information may be the
reason
Alterations in Consciousness
 OBEs are reported during near-death experiences
(NDEs)
 These differ cross culturally in response to expectations
about the afterlife
 Reports of NDE-like experiences linked to drugs (e.g.
ketamine, DMT, LSD), hypoxia and temporal lobe
stimulation
Alterations in Consciousness
Alterations in Consciousness
 Déjà vu is the feeling of reliving an experience that is
actually new
 Very common, up to 2/3 of people experience at least
one episode
 May be due to excess dopamine or small seizures in the
temporal lobes, which is responsible for familiarity
 May be due to similarity between new experience and a
previous experience
Alterations in Consciousness
 Mystical experiences involve a sense of unity or
oneness with the world

 Often religious in nature, and can be induced via fasting,

seizures, prayer, and drugs
Hypnosis
 An interpersonal situation in which imaginative
suggestions are administered (by a hypnotist) for changes
in consciousness (in the subject)

 Useful as adjunctive therapy, less effective alone

 15-20% of people are of high suggestibility, an equal

proportion of low suggestibility

 Controversy over past life regression therapy

 approach that hypnotizes and supposedly age-
regresses patients to a previous life to identify the
source of a present-day problem
Hypnosis Myths
 Myth: It produces a trance state in which “amazing” things
happen
Reality:
 Doesn’t have a great impact on suggestibility
 Doesn’t turn people into mindless robots

 Myth: Hypnotic phenomena are unique

 Reality: No biological difference between hypnosis and
wakefulness

 Myth: It is a sleeplike state

 Reality: Not biologically similar to sleep
Hypnosis Myths
 Myth: People are unaware of their surroundings
 Reality: Most people are fully aware of their
surroundings and what happened during hypnosis
 Myth: People forget what happens during hypnosis
 Reality: Rare and mostly limited to people who expect
to be amnesic following hypnosis
 Myth: Hypnosis enhances memory
Reality:
 Increases the amount we recall, but much of it is
inaccurate
 Does increase confidence by eyewitnesses
Theories of Hypnosis
 Sociocognitive theory - a person’s approach to hypnosis
is based on their attitudes, beliefs, and experiences

 Dissociation theory - hypnosis is based on a separation

between personality functions that are normally well
integrated