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GIS-BASED EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX FOR GROUNDWATER

RESOURCES NEARBY WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS, EGYPT

Article in Pollution Research · March 2018

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Poll Res. 37 (1) : 105-116 (2018)
Copyright © EM International
ISSN 0257–8050

GIS-BASED EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX FOR

GROUNDWATER RESOURCES NEARBY WASTEWATER
TREATMENT PLANTS, EGYPT
HEBA FATHI1 AND MUSTAFA EL-RAWY2*
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, Minia, 61111, Egypt
(Received 14 October, 2017; accepted 25 November, 2017)

ABSTRACT
The current study was carried out in the area around the major two conventional wastewater
treatment plants (El Gabal EL Asfar and El Berka) at Greater Cairo, Egypt. The study area is
bounded between latitudes 31o18' to 31o25' and longitude 30o10' to 30o16'. The high adoption of
people on groundwater for different uses such as irrigation, drinking, and domestic activities in
the surrounding area raised the attentions and concerns about the environment in this area. So, the
main objectives of this study are to assess the groundwater quality in this area and to locate the
pollution points related to these wastewater treatment plants. Fifteen groundwater samples were
collected from different wells in the study area. Some physicochemical parameters (pH, alkalinity,
BOD5, COD, TSS, TDS, SO4+2, Cl-, NH4+, NO3-) in addition to fecal coliforms were measured using
the standard methods and compared to both World Health Organization (WHO) permissible limits
and the Egyptian standards. The results showed that BOD5, COD, TSS, and NH4+ exceeded the
maximum permissible limits. Multivariate statistical analysis was applied first to calculate the
water quality index (WQI) which showed the decrease of water quality during the last three
decades, and second to examine the correlations among the physicochemical parameters. Finally,
a two-factor model, including the concentrations of pH, BOD5, COD, fecal coliforms, TSS and TDS
was suggested and explained over 74 % of the total groundwater quality variance. Groundwater
quality information maps of the entire study area have been prepared using the GIS spatial
interpolation technique for all the above-mentioned parameters. The results obtained in this study
and the spatial database established in GIS can be helpful for monitoring and management of
groundwater pollution in the study area.

KEY WORDS: Water Quality Index, Wastewater treatment plants, El Berka, El Gabal El
Asfer, Factor analysis, Egypt.

INTRODUCTION one of the major challenges.

The River Nile is the major source of drinking
Water pollution is one of the most critical issues and irrigation water in Egypt with a 55.5 billion m3/
facing humans all over the world, especially in year, representing 76.7% of the country’s available
developing countries since it affects the water water resources (Salim, 2011; Elbeih, 2015) which in
quality which threatens public health, social welfare turn is less than the consumed amounts (UNESCO,
and the economic development (Sadat-Noori et al., 2013) due to the rapid population growth and fixed
2013). The United Nations (2013) declared the water supply (Redwan and Abdel Moneim, 2015).
Millennium development goals which include the As a result, the sustainable development in Egypt is
improvement of drinking water sources to increase facing a great challenge summarizes in the better
its accessibility by the population. In the developing management and development of the limited
countries, the accessibility to water is considered as resources of fresh water and to improve the

*Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

1
Ph.D Student
106 HEBA FATHI AND MUSTAFA EL-RAWY

technologies and tools required for the safe recycling 1) and then into Bahr EI Baqar drain which runs for
and reuse of non-conventional water. Consequently, about 170 km from Cairo to Manzala Lake which is
groundwater is used as an alternative source of the country’s second largest lake, the area
water supply (Ashouret al., 2009) beside the reuse of surrounding the mentioned drains were identified
treated wastewater such as agricultural drainage as “black spots” by the Egyptian Environmental
and domestic wastewater in addition to Action Plan in 1992 (Fahmy et al., 2008). Most of the
desalination, which provides the domestic water previous studies focused on studying El Gabal El
supply for some locations along the Mediterranean Asfar farm only (Rashed et al., 1995; Said, 2012) and
and the Red Sea coasts (El-Assuiti, 2003). they concluded that the groundwater in the
Abdel Ghaffer (2006) and Mohamed (2007) surrounding area may become at risk with time and
reported the possibility of management of the non- warned from the surface leakage of wastewater
conventional water resources as improving rain especially, with a presence of many canals in the
harvesting techniques, increase abstraction of region.
groundwater, reuse of drainage, reuse of treated Groundwater quality in Egypt has received a
sewage and desalinate water. They considered the massive attention in some regions, especially in arid
reuse of treated sewage will be more available and and semi-arid areas since groundwater is considered
economic for agricultural activities with the as a substantial source of water for domestic and
continuous development and periodic monitoring irrigation purposes (Redwan and Abdel Moneim,
for treating plants. 2015). The quality of groundwater depends on some
In many underdeveloped areas of the world, factors such as inland surface water, soil
treated sewage is mainly used as a supplementary composition, hydrometeorology, recharged water,
source of irrigation (Ruma and Sheikh, 2010), sub-surface geochemical process, drainage system
particularly in arid and semi-arid areas such as the efficiency, and atmospheric precipitation. The
Mediterranean basin (Gundaz and Simsek, 2007). changes in these factors may affect the groundwater
Some previous studies were conducted to widely quality (Kim et al., 2005; Vasanthavigar et al., 2010).
study the assessment and the impact of treated Moreover, the pollution of groundwater not only
sewage on groundwater and irrigation water in damages water supply aquifers and wells, but may
different countries, for example in Pakistan (Zafar et also pollute surface water resources due to the
al., 2017), in Turkey (Gundaz and Simsek, 2007), in movement of groundwater towards rivers and lakes
Jordan (Obeidat et al., 2013; El-Rawy et al., 2016), in (Taki, 2003; Sadat-Noori et al., 2013).
Oman (Al-Maktoumi et al., 2015 and 2016) and in The assessment of groundwater quality depends
Iran (Baghapour et al., 2013). Moreover, they suggest mainly on laboratory investigation and carried out
that the treated sewage effluent could be the main through measurement of water quality variables,
source of water for irrigation in their countries. On then comparison of the obtained values to standards
the other hand, the long-term effects could be and guidelines (Baghapour et al., 2013). A method
associated with health hazards and increase the risk which combines all the variables and represents a
of intestinal infections and reduction of soil quality final value as the quality index provides meaningful
(Habbari et al., 2000; Ensink et al., 2005). Therefore, it summaries of water quality data that are useful to
appears that quality assessment of sewage effluent technical and policy individuals as well as the public
before reuse projects is essential to prevent adverse interested in water quality results (Said et al., 2004;
health and environmental impacts. Avvannavar and Shrihari, 2007).
The history of wastewater reuse in Egypt relates Water quality index (WQI) is an evaluation
to El Gabal El Asfar farm which was established in method which helps to understand the water
the north-eastern side of Cairo since 1915, it is quality status of water resources. Over the last few
reusing particularly treated sewage water for direct decades, the WQI is widely used for surface water
irrigation of 3000 fed, the farm is bounded by and groundwater quality assessment in different
residential areas from the west to south and sandy locations around the world (Deepshikha and
desert from east to northeast (El Arabi, 2012; Said, Arun2011; El-Hames et al., 2011; Balan et al., 2012;
2012). Effluents from El Gabal El Asfer WWTP with Tyagi et al., 2013). There are a huge number of water
capacity 2.5 million m3/day and Al Berka WWTP quality indices such as Weight Arithmetic Water
with capacity 600,000 m3/day are discharged to EL Quality Index (WAWQI), National Sanitation
Gabal El Asfar drain that flows to Belbeis drain (Fig. Foundation Water Quality Index (NSFWQI),
 GIS-BASED EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES 107

Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment addition, GIS can be a great tool for creating and
Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI), Oregon Water developing solutions for assessing water quality,
Quality Index (OWQI) etc., these indices have been water resources problems, determining water
formulated by several national and international availability, flooding prevention, and water
organizations (Lumb et al., 2002; Chaturvedi and resources management on a local or regional scale
Bassin, 2010). (Ketata- Rokbani et al., 2011). Gunduz and Simsek
The flexibility and facility of the CCME WQI (2007) and Usali and Ismail (2010), applied a GIS-
encourage many researchers to apply this method as integrated technique to assess irrigation water
an effective tool to characterize water quality quality in Turkey and Malaysia respectively, they
(Hurley et al., 2012) and that led to develop this concluded that water quality parameters can be
index by incorporate other factors that could corrupt produced in the form of map using model based on
the quality of water or make water unsuitable (Khan GIS techniques and considered this product as the
et al., 2004) and that are very evident in some most suitable method for groundwater potential
implementation as: application of the CCME WQI prediction zoning.
on East Hammar Marsh, Iraq (Al-Saboonchi et al., Based on the above information, a GIS-based
2011), Evaluation of Shiraz wastewater treatment index method is developed in this study as a general
plant effluent quality for agricultural irrigation by assessment tool with all related physicochemical
Canadian Water Quality Index, Iran (Baghapour et groundwater quality parameters. This methodology
al., 2013) and application of CCME water quality has been adopted to understand and identify the
index to monitor water quality: a case of the hydrogeochemical and environmental factors that
Mackenzie river basin, Canada (Lumb et al., 2006). control the quality of the groundwater resources not
Moreover, due to the great development in the only in EL Gabal El Asfar farm but until Ismailia
field of satellite technology, a geographic canal (Fig. 1), by comparing previous results and
information system (GIS) is an effective tool for determining the extension of contaminants that
mapping and to integrate various databases. In diffuse to groundwater due to put out the treated

Fig. 1. Study area map: a) general location in Egypt map; b) The Nile Delta map; c) Satellite map of area under
investigation with locations of WWTPs, Ismailia canal, drains, and samples.
108 HEBA FATHI AND MUSTAFA EL-RAWY

sewage, this will achieve to manage and succeed the first stage (phase I) designed to receive 1.5 million
sustainable use of groundwater resources, also to m3/day as maximum. The first stage was expanded
help planning and decision-making for integrated to receive an extra 300.000 m3/day of wastewater.
management regarding mitigating the expected The second stage (phase II) of GAWWTP was
negative environmental impacts. established in 2004 beside the first stage with a
maximum capacity of 650.000 m 3 /day of
STUDY AREA wastewater. The final effluent discharges into Gabal
El Asfar Drain that flows to Belbies drain and then
Location and climate into Bahr EI Baqar Drain and finally into lake
The study area is located north-east of Cairo on the Manzala (Fig. 1).
eastern desert margins of the Delta floodplain Table 1 shows the average efficiency of GAWWTP
(Fig.1), it covers a surface area of about 92,40 km2, which easily enabled the plant to meet the required
most of the study area is situated in Qalioubia Egyptian effluent standards of 40 mg/L and 100
Governorate which is part of Greater Cairo with mg/L for BOD5 and COD respectively. But at peak
many administrative divisions. Based on the time certainly the efficiency decreaseswith absence
investigation most of the land uses are agricultural of backup units.
and the residual residential area contain many Al Berka wastewater treatment plant (B WWTP)
industrial activities include metal production, food
BWWTP was designed to operate as a biological
processing, detergent and soap manufacturing,
treatment technology using activated sludge.
textile finishing, and paper production, also there
BWWTP designed to receive 600,000 m 3/day of
are many separate agricultural regions, which have
wastewater equivalent to a population of about 3
an impact on the quality of the drains system. The
million people. The BWWTP receives wastewater
climate of the study area is the same climate of the
from Ain shams and Amiriah stations. The final
Cairo, which is moderated by the proximity of the
effluent discharges into Gabal El Asfar Drain that
Mediterranean Sea. The hot, dry climate is
flows to Belbies drain and then into Bahr EI Baqar
characterized by clear skies with high-intensity solar
Drain and finally into lake Manzala (Fig. 1). Table 2
radiation, high rainfall and wide seasonal and
shows the average efficiency of BWWTP (during
diurnal temperature ranges evaporation that could
three different years) and also, the plant applies the
be prevented by planting trees around the small
required Egyptian effluent standards of 40 mg/L
canals (Geriesh et al., 2008; UNESCO, 2013).
and 100 mg/L for BOD5 and COD respectively.
Assessment of the wastewater treatment plants
Geology and Hydrogeology
El Gabal El Asfar wastewater treatment plant
(GAWWTP) The main soil properties underlying the study area
consists of graded sands and gravels with clay
GAWWTP was designed to operate as a biological lenses. The area divided into three parts, most of
treatment technology using activated sludge. area (at middle) is graded sand and gravel
GAWWTP designed to receive 3.0 million m3/day of intercalated by clay lenses (west direction till
wastewater. The average received wastewater is Ismaillia canal) is silty and sandy clay cultivated
about 2.6 million m3/day. The GAWWTP receives Nile floodplain deposits while the smaller part (at
wastewater from Al-Kalj lift station, Obour east) is fine sand and sand dunes as shown in Fig.
collection point and Al-Salam collection point. The 2a. Geologically, El Gabal El Asfar area is located

Table 1. Average laboratory results of GAWWTP.

Parameters Phase I (Oct. 2014 to Phase I (expanded plant, Phase II (Jan. 2015 to
(mg/L) Oct. 2015) Oct. 2014 to Oct. 2015) Sep. 2015)
*
I. E.** R† (%) I. *
E.** R† (%) I. *
E.** R† (%)
BOD5 175 12 93 189 12 93 187 11 94
TSS 192 10 93 226 10 96 213 8 96
COD - - - 384 46 88 354 40 89
*I: Influent, **E: Effluent, †R: Removal.
 GIS-BASED EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES 109

west of the north–south fault, dividing the the direction of the vertical water flow. Another
Quaternary sandy deposits on the west side and important role for the clay accumulations at that
Miocene deposits in the east. To the east, Holocene level is the adsorption of heavy metals from the
sand dunes locally cover the Pleistocene deposits percolated sewage water (Aboel Abas, 2001). The
before the Quaternary thins out, Miocene sands, and regional flow in the deeper part of the aquifer is
limestone high lands are encountered (El-Shahat, running from east to west, average piezometric
2016). Hydrologically, the study area is divided into levels are about 13 m above sea level, the horizontal
two main parts of aquifer productivity: high hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer ranges
productive aquifer at western side because of between 40 and 50 m/day and the transmissivity is
Ismailia canal effect and highly to moderately about 5,000 m3/day (RIGW/IWACO, 1994).
productive aquifer at eastern side (Fig. 2b). The
thickness of this aquifer increases from 10 m in the MATERIALS AND METHODS
southeast to greater than 65 m in northeastern
(Rashed et al., 1995). The total recharge rate was Fifteen groundwater samples were collected from
estimated by (RIGW/IWACO, 1991) as 0.5 - 2 m/ open and bore wells of various locations (15 sites)
year. The upper part of the aquifer is unconfined in which are extensively used for drinking and also
the area, whereas the clay lenses act as semi- irrigation purposes in the study area during the
confined conditions in the deeper part of the aquifer period between August 2016 and January 2017. The
(El-Arabi and Attia, 1997). These clay intercalations samples were distributed with unequal distance
in the upper part of the subsurface plays an along the study area to cover different land uses,
important role for the infiltration speed of surface these samples were subjected to laboratory analyses
wastewater, which act as an impermeable barrier in at El Berka wastewater treatment plant (nearest
(a) b)

Fig. 2. (a) Lithology units; (b) Aquifer productivity classification for the study area (produced according to RIGW,
Hydrogeological mapping of Egypt, scale 1:100,000; 1st ed.; 1989).

Table 2. Average laboratory results of BWWTP.

Year 2012 2013 2016
Parameters I.* E.** R† (%) I.* E.** R† (%) I.* E.** R† (%)
(mg/l)
BOD5 583 20 96 584 42 93 263 31 88
COD 1272 53 96 876 83 91 504 59 88
TSS 652 23 96 504 42 92 278 35 88
*I: Influent, **E: Effluent, †R: Removal.
110 HEBA FATHI AND MUSTAFA EL-RAWY

laboratory) to guarantee more accurate results. The by using the categorization scheme presented in
analyses were carried out according to the standard Table 3.
methods (Rainwater and Thatcher, 1960; Fishman
and Friedman, 1985; APHA, 1998). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In order to determine the water quality of this
study, Canadian Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI) The statistical results of various physicochemical
was used as follows: parameters for the samples were depicted in Table 4
with respect to range; mean minimum, maximum
.. (1) and standard deviation for groundwater quality
with WHO allowable limit (mg/L) and Egyptian
standards parameters (mg/L). The observation
Where, shows that (TDS, SO4, Cl, NO3) are present within a
The scope factor (F1) is a function of the number moderate range, while BOD 5, COD, TSS and NH4
of parameters that excurse benchmarks, the exceeded the maximum permissible limit due to
frequency factor (F2) is a function of the number of pollutants of aquatic systems because of leaching or
measurements in a dataset that excurse benchmarks run-off from the drains in the study area.
and the amplitude factor (F3) is a function of the
magnitude of excursion from benchmarks in the Water Quality Index
failed measurements. The F1 and F2 factors are To make an actual analysis, it is necessary to monitor
calculated using equations presented below as Eqs. the groundwater variations during the last years, the
(1) and (2), respectively: present groundwater samples were compared with
two previous chemical analysis of El Gabal El Asfar
.. (2) farm (part of the present study).
- First study in 1990s by Rashed et al., (1995).
- Second study in 2000s by (Said, 2012).
.. (3) All of the hydrochemical data have been treated
and analyzed for calculating water quality index
F3 is calculated by an asymptotic function that (WQI) and evaluating its suitability for the main
scales the normalized sum of the excursions (the purposes in the region (domestic and irrigation).
collective amount by which individual tests are out Table 5 shows the WQI of the study area in 1990s,
of compliance) from objectives to yield a range from 2000s and present respectively, it is clear the
0 to 100. decreasing in water quality and that what Rashedet
al. (1995) predicted, especially with absence of the
regular monitoring of water quality parameters.
.. (4) While Said (2012), confirmed that in this area the
treated wastewater used for irrigation seeps through
The WQI values are then converted into rankings the upper sandy soil recharging the upper part of

Table 3. Classification of CCMEWQI values (Khan et al., 2005).

Rank WQI value Description
Excellent 95–100 Water quality is protected with a virtual absence of threat or impairment; conditions very
close to natural or pristine levels; these index values can only be obtained if all
measurements are within objectives virtually all the time.
Good 80–94 Water quality is protected with only a minor degree of threat or impairment; conditions
rarely depart from natural or desirable levels.
Fair 65–79 Water quality is usually protected but occasionally threatened or impaired; conditions
sometimes depart from natural or desirable levels.
Marginal 45–64 Water quality is frequently threatened or impaired; conditions often depart from natural
or desirable levels.
Poor 0–44 Water quality is almost always threatened or impaired; conditions usually depart from
natural or desirable levels.
 GIS-BASED EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES 111

the Quaternary aquifer, so this part of the aquifer positive correlation for alkalinity with chloride (r =
has been flushed (high resistivity). The negative 0.84), since the observed values of chlorides ranged
effects of treated wastewater in irrigationcause from30 to 471 mg/L and some of these values are
severe problems for plants due to increasing the soil above the maxpermissible range as prescribed by
microbial load (Palese et al., 2009) in addition to WHO drinking water standards and Egyptian
increase the prevalence of parasitic infections among standards (200 mg/L), so it is important to study the
the populations (Habbari et al., 2000; Ensink et al., locations of these values. Figure 3 shows spatial
2005). distribution of alkalinity and chloride for all
groundwater samples in the studied area using GIS.
Correlations
The maximum values recorded at the industrial
Multivariate analysis is very useful since it can zones, where there is no control on the disposal of
estimate the relative importance of combinations of industrial waste, high concentration of alkalinity
water contamination variables (Lawrence and and chloride are detrimental in irrigation water and,
Upchurch, 1982), so correlation coefficient matrix harmful to aquatic life (Venkatesharaju et al., 2010;
(Table 6) developed to sort out hydrochemical Khatoon et al., 2013).
process and response relationships from collected Correlation matrix showed the strongly positive
groundwater quality data using following equation: correlation for BOD5 with COD and fecal coliform (r
= 0.98) and (r = 0.95) respectively. Both BOD5 and
COD are key indicators of the environmental health
of a water quality, in our study the BOD5 ranged
from 10 mg/L to 57 mg/L and for COD it was from
33 mg/L to 198mg/L, which was above the max
where r = value of the correlation coefficient.
permissible range as prescribed by WHO drinking
n = number of observations.
water standards and Egyptian standards. Fig. 4
x and y = any two variables (Rewatkar et al., 2016)
pointed out that the higher values for the three
Above Karl-Pearson correlation matrix declares

Table 4. Statistical summary of Water Quality Parameter for samples in the studied area.
Parameters Unit Min Max Mean Std. WHO Egyptian
Deviation (2008) law*
PH - 7.22 8.07 7.7 0.3 6.5 – 8.5 6-9
Alkalinity mg/L 156 630 287.1 138.6 - -
BOD5 10 57 17.8 11.9 6 20
COD 33 198 58.5 41.5 10 30
TSS 17 33 24.7 4.6 - 20
TDS 150 395 223.6 67.7 500 700
SO4 1.0 2.68 1.6 0.6 200 400
Cl 30 471 114.3 122.7 200 200
NH4 0.2 14 4.0 4.3 - 0.5
NO3 7.4 44 15.1 10.8 50 45
fecal coliform CFU/100 m3 115 3300 506.7 840.4 - -
*Provisions of law No. 48 of 1982 regarding the protection of the Nile River and watercourses from pollution.

Table 5. Site Specific Water Quality Index during the last three decades.
Data Summary Five samples in 1990s Three samples in 2000s Fourteen samples in present
domestic Irrigation Domestic Irrigation domestic Irrigation
WQI 100 38 100 35 81 30
Categorization Excellent Poor Excellent Poor Good Poor
F1 (Scope) 0 100 0 100 33 100
F2 (Frequency) 0 29 0 50 5 67
F3 (Amplitude) 0 28 0 11 2 12
112 HEBA FATHI AND MUSTAFA EL-RAWY

a) b)
Fig. 3. Spatial distribution for all groundwater samples in the studied area: a).Alkalinity; b) chloride.

a) (b)

c)

Fig. 4. Spatial distribution for all groundwater samples in the studied area: a) BOD5; b) COD and c) fecal coliform.
 GIS-BASED EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX FOR GROUNDWATER RESOURCES 113

parameters (BOD5, COD and fecal coliform) were in employed (Kaiser, 1958) and a two-factor model is
the convergence area of the main two drains (EL determined which explain approximately 74 % of
Gabal El asfar and Beilbes). the total variance of hydrochemistry data (Table 7).
The correlation Table and (Fig. 5) confirmed the According to Liu et al. (2003), the terms strong
strongly positive correlation between TDS and TSS positive loadings when factor loading (over 0.75),
(r = 0.83), the high values showed in EL Gabal El moderate positive loadings when factor loading
Asfar farm and that might due to evaporate the between (0.75–0.5) and weak positive loadings
irrigation water (treated wastewater). when factor loading between (0.5–0.3), so factor 1
which explains 49 % of the total variance (Table 7),
Factor analysis
has strong positive loadings on BOD 5, COD and
Factor analysis, a multivariate statistical method; fecal coliform, this is an assemblage of constituents
produce the general relationship between measured resulting from the leaching of domestic wastes,
chemical variables by rearrange them in a technique industrial wastes and agriculture activities which fill
that better explains the structure of the underlying the drains in the region.
system that produced the data (Liu et al., 2003). In Factor 2 which explains 25 % of the total variance
this study, Kaiser’s varimax rotation scheme was (Table 7), has moderate positive loadings on TDS

Fig. 5. Spatial distribution for all groundwater samples in the studied area: a) TDS; b) TSS

Table 6. Correlation matrix for water quality parameters (WQP).

Parameters pH Alk. BOD5 COD TSS TDS SO4 Cl NH4 NO3 fecal
coliform
pH 1.00
Alkalinity -0.45 1.00
BOD5 0.39 -0.18 1.00
COD 0.35 -0.12 0.98 1.00
TSS 0.17 -0.14 -0.11 -0.22 1.00
TDS 0.34 -0.05 0.00 -0.11 0.83 1.00
SO4 0.34 -0.26 0.55 0.54 0.06 -0.14 1.00
Cl -0.40 0.84 -0.05 0.01 -0.25 -0.19 -0.26 1.00
NH4 -0.29 0.45 0.04 0.01 0.35 0.17 0.17 0.29 1.00
NO3 0.35 -0.18 -0.20 -0.21 0.30 0.37 -0.22 -0.25 0.01 1.00
fecal coliform 0.55 -0.29 0.95 0.95 -0.18 -0.06 0.62 -0.18 -0.17 -0.18 1.00
114 HEBA FATHI AND MUSTAFA EL-RAWY

Table 7. Factor loading and specific variance for water quality management system.
quality parameters (WQP). • The backup treatment units of the wastewater
Parameters F1 F2 Specific variance treatment plants should be included in the
treatment process, especially during the peak
pH 0.72 0.05 0.34
time to reduce the possibility of pollutants
Alkalinity -0.57 0.34 0.00
discharging into the drains and subsequently
BOD5 0.80 0.22 0.09
COD 0.79 0.14 0.06 into the groundwater.
TSS -0.01 0.77 0.03
TDS 0.09 0.68 0.22 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
SO4 0.53 0.20 0.49
Cl -0.45 0.16 0.27 The authors would like to thank Prof. Emad Osman
NH4 -0.27 0.53 0.61 (Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of
NO3 0.12 -0.02 0.33 Engineering, Minia University) and Dr. Raed Al-
fecal coliform 0.92 0.07 0.00 Wasify (National Research Center, Egypt) for their
Total variance (%) 49 25
help and support.

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