This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

Designation: E1476 − 04 (Reapproved 2022)

Standard Guide for

Metals Identification, Grade Verification, and Sorting1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E1476; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope E572 Test Method for Analysis of Stainless and Alloy Steels
1.1 This guide is intended for tutorial purposes only. It by Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrom-
describes the general requirements, methods, and procedures etry
for the nondestructive identification and sorting of metals. E703 Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy Current) Sorting of
Nonferrous Metals
1.2 It provides guidelines for the selection and use of E977 Practice for Thermoelectric Sorting of Electrically
methods suited to the requirements of particular metals sorting Conductive Materials
or identification problems. F355 Test Method for Impact Attenuation of Playing Surface
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the Systems, Other Protective Sport Systems, and Materials
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the Used for Athletics, Recreation and Play
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- F1156 Terminology Relating to Product Counterfeit Protec-
priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter- tion Systems (Withdrawn 2001)3
mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
For specific precautionary statements, see Section 10.
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3. Terminology
1.4 This international standard was developed in accor-
3.1 Definitions—Terms used in this guide are defined in the
dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
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standards cited in Section 2 and in current technical literature
ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
or dictionaries; however, because a number of terms that are
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
used generally in nondestructive testing have meanings or
Document Preview
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee. carry implications unique to metal sorting, they appear with
explanation in Appendix X1.
2. Referenced Documents
ASTM E1476-04(2022) 4. Significance and Use
2.1 ASTM Standards:2
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E158 Practice for Fundamental Calculations to Convert 4.1 A major concern of metals producers, warehouses, and
Intensities into Concentrations in Optical Emission Spec- users is to establish and maintain the identity of metals from
trochemical Analysis (Withdrawn 2004)3 melting to their final application. This involves the use of
E305 Practice for Establishing and Controlling Spark standard quality assurance practices and procedures throughout
Atomic Emission Spectrochemical Analytical Curves the various stages of manufacturing and processing, at ware-
E322 Test Method for Analysis of Low-Alloy Steels and houses and materials receiving, and during fabrication and final
Cast Irons by Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence installation of the product. These practices typically involve
Spectrometry (Withdrawn 2021)3 standard chemical analyses and physical tests to meet product
E566 Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy Current/Magnetic acceptance standards, which are slow. Several pieces from a
Induction) Sorting of Ferrous Metals production run are usually destroyed or rendered unusable
through mechanical and chemical testing, and the results are
1
used to assess the entire lot using statistical methods. Statistical
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nondestruc-
tive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.10 on Specialized quality assurance methods are usually effective; however,
NDT Methods. mixed grades, off-chemistry, and nonstandard physical proper-
Current edition approved Dec. 1, 2022. Published December 2022. Originally ties remain the primary causes for claims in the metals
approved in 1992. Last previous edition approved in 2014 as E1476 – 04(2014).
DOI: 10.1520/E1476-04R22.
industry. A more comprehensive verification of product prop-
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or erties is necessary. Nondestructive means are available to
contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM supplement conventional metals grade verification techniques,
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
and to monitor chemical and physical properties at selected
the ASTM website.
3
The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on production stages, in order to assist in maintaining the identi-
www.astm.org. ties of metals and their consistency in mechanical properties.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States

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 E1476 − 04 (2022)
4.2 Nondestructive methods have the potential for monitor- 5.2 Nondestructive methods may be used in conjunction
ing grade during production on a continuous or statistical basis, with the accepted standard product quality tests to provide
for monitoring properties such as hardness and case depth, and continuous verification that current production lies within the
for verifying the effectiveness of heat treatment, cold-working, agreed upon acceptance limits specified. In-line electromag-
and the like. They are quite often used in the field for solving netic examinations may be used to indicate the consistency of
problems involving off-grade and mixed-grade materials. production. Any deviation from the norms set for the accep-
4.3 The nondestructive methods covered in this guide pro- tance band will result in automatic alarms, kick-out, or other
vide both direct and indirect responses to the sample being means of alerting production personnel of a problem. Thus
evaluated. Spectrometric analysis instruments respond to the alerted, the mill can determine the cause for the alarm and take
presence and percents of alloying constituents. The electro- corrective action. Portable optical emission spectrometry units
magnetic (eddy current) and thermoelectric methods, on the may be used to determine the concentrations of critical
other hand, are among those that respond to properties in the elements without having to resort to slow physical and chemi-
sample that are affected by chemistry and processing, and they cal analyses. A quality assurance program combining conven-
yield indirect information on composition and mechanical tional measurements with suitable nondestructive methods can
properties. In this guide, the spectrometric methods are classi- provide effective and timely information on product composi-
fied as quantitative, whereas the methods that yield indirect tion and physical properties. This will result in improved
readings are termed qualitative. quality and yield; savings in time, labor, and material; and
reduced field failures and claims. This guide provides specific
4.4 This guide describes a variety of qualitative and quan- information regarding nondestructive metals identification,
titative methods. It summarizes the operating principles of each grade verification, and sorting methods to assist in selecting the
method, provides guidance on where and how each may be optimum approach to solving specific needs.
applied, gives (when applicable) the precision and bias that
may be expected, and assists the investigator in selecting the 5.3 Spectrometric methods are capable of directly indicating
best candidates for specific grade verification or sorting prob- the presence and percent of many of the elements that
lems. characterize a metal grade. The spectrometric and thermoelec-

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4.5 For the purposes of this guide, the term “nondestruc-
tive” includes techniques that may require the removal of small
tric techniques examine only the outermost surfaces of the
sample or material. As a result, for grade verification purposes,
it may be necessary to grind sufficiently deep to ensure access
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amounts of metal during the examination, without affecting the
serviceability of the product.
to the base metal for accurate readings. However, grinding may
affect the thermoelectric response. The spectrometric methods

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4.6 The nondestructive methods covered in this guide pro-
vide quantitative and qualitative information on metals prop-
require physical contact and often some surface preparation.
The electromagnetic method, however, does not require con-
erties; they are listed as follows: tact and very often is suited for on-line, automatic operation.
4.6.1 Quantitative: The thermoelectric method, although requiring contact, re-
4.6.1.1 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, and
ASTM E1476-04(2022)
sponds to many of the same parameters that influence the
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4.6.1.2 Optical emission spectrometry. electromagnetic responses. Both respond to chemical
4.6.2 Qualitative: composition, processing, and treatments that affect the physical
4.6.2.1 Electromagnetic (eddy current), and mechanical properties of the product. Nondestructive
methods for indicating the mechanical properties of a metal are
4.6.2.2 Conductivity/resistivity,
beyond the scope of this guide.
4.6.2.3 Thermoelectric,
4.6.2.4 Chemical spot tests, 5.4 Each method has particular advantages and disadvan-
4.6.2.5 Triboelectric, and tages. The selection of suitable candidates for a specific grade
4.6.2.6 Spark testing (special case). verification or sorting application requires an understanding of
the technical operating features of each method. These include
5. Background the precision and bias necessary for the application and
practical considerations such as product configuration, surface
5.1 The standard quality assurance procedures for verifying condition, product and ambient temperatures, environmental
the composition and physical properties of a metal at a constraints, etc.
producing facility are through chemical analysis and mechani-
cal testing. These required tests result in the sacrifice of a 6. General Procedures
certain amount of production for the preparation of samples,
are costly and time-consuming, and may not provide timely 6.1 Standardization/Calibration:
information regarding changes in product quality. In a market 6.1.1 Of primary concern in any materials identification or
in which a single failure can result in heavy litigation and sorting program is delineation of the pertinent product charac-
damage costs, the manufacturer requires assurance that his teristics (such as chemical composition, processing,
production will meet the customer’s acceptance standards. configuration, and physical properties) and the assignment of
Nondestructive grade verification provides one means of moni- acceptance limits to each. Often prescribed by materials
toring production to ensure that the product will meet accep- specifications, they also may result from quality assurance
tance requirements. procedures or by agreement between the producer and the user.

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 E1476 − 04 (2022)
6.1.2 Of equal importance is the selection of reference electromagnetic method. Composition, size, processing, sur-
standards. Quantitative methods employ coupon standards that face condition, finish, straightness, and temperature must be
are representative of the metals or alloy compositions to be nominally the same as that represented by the standard
verified, and the analytical instrumentation is standardized samples. To a lesser degree, this is also true for the thermo-
against them. The indirect methods, particularly those that electric method. For the other methods, size, configuration, and
respond to physical properties as well as composition, require mechanical processing usually do not affect composition read-
reference standards that will represent the material specified in ings to any significant degree.
composition, mechanical and physical properties, and 6.2.2 The means for performing the examination must be
processing, as well as cover the means and extremes of the controlled. If some surface metal removal is necessary (as it is
acceptance band. Coupon reference standards or product ref- for spectrometric examinations), the amount of removal, means
erence standards, or both, may be selected as required. of removal, and removal location on the piece must be
6.1.2.1 Coupon Reference Standards—These are small, eas- specified and monitored closely. For electromagnetic
ily handled metal panels made to specified chemical composi- examinations, the piece should be positioned in the same
tions. They are available commercially in sets, singly, or to manner relative to the coil as is the product standard sample.
specification. They are useful for instrument standardization, Failure to control variables can result in the misidentification of
determining separability among metals, and field use with samples.
portable equipment. They are not intended to reflect the effects
of processing or heat treatment on the acceptability of a 6.3 Display and Accept/Reject Criteria:
product. 6.3.1 Most systems employ some form of visual display or
6.1.2.2 Product Reference Standards—These must represent readout to indicate the response to piece variables. Meter
the product specified in composition and mechanical and readings, oscilloscope patterns, digital signals, and colored
physical properties. Ideally, three or more product reference spots (from a reagent in chemical spot testing) are typical
standards covering the mean, plus two or more covering the examples. On instruments with digital or cathode ray tube
extremes, should be obtained, suitably catalogued, and marked displays, it is common practice to show the position and extent
for proper identification. of adjustable gates for the setting of automatic alarm circuits.

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6.1.3 Standardization or calibration procedures, or both, for
each method must be followed as specified by the instrument to
6.3.2 Automatic alarm gates may be positioned and adjusted
be triggered by the presence or absence of a signal of a given

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manufacturer. Coupon reference standards are used to stan- amplitude and location. Both of these are adjustable. They are
dardize and set up quantitative (spectrometric) or qualitative designed for use in automatic or operator-assisted systems to
(thermoelectric and chemical spot test, etc.) verifications, as indicate when a product falls outside the acceptance limits, as
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well as for metals sorting checks on electromagnetic, electrical
conductivity, and similar instruments. Rod, bar, wire, and
well as to indicate whether it falls on the high or the low side.
Similarly, instruments may be equipped with a computer buss
tubular product reference standards are used almost exclusively interface for electronic data processing.
ASTM E1476-04(2022)
for the qualitative methods, such as the electromagnetic, 6.3.3 As described in the standardization and setup
electrical conductivity, triboelectric, and spark tests. These are procedure, acceptance and rejection criteria should be estab-
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lished on the basis of specified product parameters. These may
fabricated from the product being manufactured, from samples
with compositions and physical properties verified through be a simple go/no-go selection or a more complex classification
analytical examinations. based on special requirements. The decision as to how refined
6.1.4 The known product reference standards used for the a sorting is possible is based on a number of product and
qualitative methods must be representative of the chemistry, measurement variables that are peculiar to the product, exami-
processing, surface, and other physical and mechanical param- nation method(s), and service requirements. Such decisions
eters that might affect readings. Product standard parameters should be handled on an individual basis.
must be verifiable.
6.1.5 Coupon reference standards are useful for initial 7. Survey of Nondestructive Metals Sorting/Grade
instrument adjustments, but final adjustments should be made Verification Methods
on standard samples verified as representative of good produc- 7.1 X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry Method (Fig. 1):
tion pieces.
7.1.1 Summary of Method—X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spec-
6.1.6 Product standard samples will disclose potential errors
trometry is a comparative analytical method that employs
that might result from surface alloy depletion, heavy oxide
low-energy (1 to approximately 30 keV) X-rays or gamma rays
layers, or hardness variations resulting from processing anoma-
to excite characteristic X-rays in the subject material. These
lies. Such known variables must be used to determine final
X-rays emanate from the individual elements in the subject and
acceptance limits for any examination, and they will aid
may be analyzed by either of the following means: qualitative
materially in both selecting a method and optimizing the
(recognition of the elements by unique X-ray patterns) or
examination conditions.
quantitative (identification of characteristic X-rays and mea-
6.2 Test Piece Requirements: surement of their intensities). Sensitive and sophisticated
6.2.1 The relationship between the standard product laboratory XRF systems have been in use for many years.
samples and pieces being evaluated must be understood More recently, the advent of improved detectors and
clearly. This is of particular importance when using the microelectronics, coupled with advanced computer technology,

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 E1476 − 04 (2022)
7.1.4 Calibration—Calibration information may be part of
the instrumentation program supplied by the manufacturer for
each unit, and may be verified by using standard test blocks of
known composition.
7.1.5 Speed—Qualitative sorting may be accomplished in as
few as 5 s per sample (exclusive of handling and surface
preparation time). Quantitative readings may require from 10
to 200 s. Some sources report that readings may be made in 1
s.
7.1.6 Accuracy—Statements of precision and bias vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer and from element to element.
Users of the XRF method should refer to the instrument
reference manuals and to Method E322 and Test Method E572.
7.1.7 Advantages:
7.1.7.1 May be used in quantitative or qualitative mode;
FIG. 1 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry 7.1.7.2 Provides reasonably accurate alloy identification;
7.1.7.3 Portable and easy to use;
7.1.7.4 Direct reading; and
have resulted in portable XRF systems capable of yielding 7.1.7.5 Digital numeric readout/printout available.
accurate readings on the shop floor and in the field. 7.1.8 Disadvantages:
7.1.2 Displays—X-ray fluorescence analyzers are typically 7.1.8.1 Careful sample surface preparation often necessary;
programmed to respond to a specific set of alloys selected as 7.1.8.2 Elements with atomic numbers of 22 or below (for
representative of the composition of the materials examined. example, aluminum, carbon, silicon, sulfur, and phosphorus)
The displays are numeric and show the percent concentration show poor responses on portable/transportable units;
of each designated element. Hard-copy printouts of these
iTeh Standards
readings are available. From 1 to 18 elements may be
displayed, depending on the equipment design and manufac-
7.1.8.3 Potential radiation safety hazard; and
7.1.8.4 Alloying constituents with similar characteristic
wavelengths may produce uncertain or false results.
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turer. Eight to ten elements are considered sufficient for precise
identification of a wide variety of metals. (Carbon and low- 7.2 Optical Emission Spectrometry Method (Fig. 2):
alloy steels are an exception. The XRF method currently does 7.2.1 Summary of Method—Emission spectrometry is a
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not respond well to elements with an atomic number below 22,
and carbon content cannot be determined accurately.)
comparative analytical method in which a small amount of
surface material is removed from the specimen. Early spec-
7.1.3 Sample Preparation and Operating Precautions—The trometers were generally limited to use at fixed locations
piece must be ground to remove surface oxideASTM E1476-04(2022)
layers and the because of their bulk and complexity. Recent developments in
alloy-depleted zone. Exceptions are 300-series stainless steels sensors and microelectronics have produced transportable
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and other noncorroding superalloys. The XRF source and systems that can be used on or adjacent to production lines. In
detector must rest on the sample or be positioned with respect some systems, light from the spark discharge is carried by fiber
to the sample in a precisely repeatable manner. Sample optics to the sensors, where the wavelengths and intensities of
temperature limits are from 13 to 140°F (−11 to 60°C). the several spectrum constituents are detected and measured. In

FIG. 2 Optical Emission Spectrometry

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 E1476 − 04 (2022)
other systems, the fine particles dislodged by the spark dis- 7.2.8.4 Unproven when separation is based on carbon,
charge are carried by capillary tube to a chamber in which they sulfur, or phosphorus.
are burned under controlled conditions and the spectrum of the
7.3 Electromagnetic Method:
flame is analyzed. Photomultipliers are used with diffraction
gratings to measure the intensities of preselected analytical 7.3.1 Summary of Method—The electromagnetic (Eddy
lines in the spectrum. The numerical results are displayed in Current) method is a primary means for high-speed, non-
digital form on readouts or printed out in hard copy, or both. In contact, and automatic sorting of ferrous and nonferrous
the semiquantitative mode, the information may be displayed metals. The chemical composition, metallurgical structure, and
on a cathode-ray tube (CRT), and red and green lights at the mechanical properties of metals affect the electromagnetic
remote sensor indicate whether the piece lies within the grade properties of metals to varying degrees, making this method
acceptance limits. versatile and useful for metals characterization. A coil is placed
in proximity to the piece, and when an alternating current is
7.2.2 Displays—Percent concentrations of preselected ele-
passed through the coil, an alternating electromagnetic field is
ments are presented in digital form on a CRT, LCD, or similar
induced in the metal under examination. The coil may be a
display, and they may be printed out on hard copy.
probe placed on or near the surface of the piece, or it may be
7.2.3 Sample Preparation and Environment a solenoid that encircles the piece (around a rod, bar, or pipe).
Considerations—The sample must be free of water, oil, and The alternating field induced into the piece produces reaction
dirt. Heavy oxide and alloy-depleted layers must be removed currents and fields that are unique to the electromagnetic
by grinding. The grinding must remove paint, coatings, and characteristics of the product. Electromagnetic signal
rust to present an area for placing the spark-discharge gun that amplitude, phase relationships, and harmonic content combine
has no cracks or porosity. Sample temperature limits are 13 to to characterize the piece. These are sensed by the coil and
140°F (−11 to 60°C). associated instrumentation and analyzed to indicate significant
7.2.4 Standardization—Certified reference standards should changes in structure, mass, chemistry, and mechanical
be run two or three times and the readings averaged. The properties, as compared to a product reference standard. For
concentration-ratio or intensity-ratio methods described in purposes of grade verification and sorting, the total signal is
Practice E158, and the calibration procedure described in
Practice E305, should be followed.iTeh Standards
7.2.5 Speed—Analysis time ranges from 10 s to 1 min,
compared to that from the standard and analyzed. For specific
cases, in which a particular variable in the metal is of interest
(for example, hardness), perhaps only one of the electromag-
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exclusive of sample preparation time. This time may be
reduced somewhat with faster data acquisition. (The spark
netic signal variables may yield useful results.
7.3.2 Displays—The electromagnetic method is indirect in
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generator must be held in position for 18 s, limiting the
maximum speed for samples with good surfaces.)
that its effectiveness relies on the correlation of changes in the
properties of metals being examined with measurable electro-
7.2.6 Accuracy—Statements of precision and bias vary magnetic responses. These responses are vector quantities
among manufacturers and from element to element. Users of containing frequency, amplitude, and phase information, and
the emission spectrometry method should referASTM E1476-04(2022)
to the instru- they are often displayed on a CRT, on which the signals from
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ment reference manuals. Repeatability is very good on stan- specific grades result in groupings that are unique in phase
dard reference samples. Results on actual pieces may vary (angle) and amplitude with respect to other metals. Such
because of poor homogeneity, inadequate surface preparation, groupings on a CRT may be interpreted by an operator who
moisture, and other factors affecting measurement. rejects all pieces falling out of the acceptance limits set for a
7.2.7 Advantages: given product. Electronic threshold (box) gates may be gener-
7.2.7.1 May be operated in a qualitative, comparative, or ated and adjusted to encompass the acceptance limits, so that
quantitative mode; any signal falling outside of these limits will cause automatic
7.2.7.2 Provides reasonably accurate chemical analysis in rejection of the sample. Similarly, the signal from the piece
less than 1 min, exclusive of sample preparation and handling may be analyzed in a comparator arrangement, in which the
time; voltage from the standard sample is compared in phase and
7.2.7.3 Spectrometer may be mobile and operated at or near amplitude with a standard voltage that is representative of the
a production line or in the field; grade of the product specified. The reference standard voltage
7.2.7.4 Direct reading; and represents the grade, heat treatment, hardness, or other signifi-
cant parameter of the product, and acceptance limits are
7.2.7.5 Hard-copy records available.
adjusted accordingly. The differences between the reference
7.2.8 Disadvantages: standard and the piece voltages produce an error signal an
7.2.8.1 Careful surface preparation necessary; exact match resulting in a zero reading. Limits bracketing zero
7.2.8.2 Operator fatigue may affect techniques and accuracy may be established to include acceptable variations in product
of readings; parameters, exclude out-of-tolerance material, and thus permit
7.2.8.3 Alloys and trace elements with wavelengths close to automatic three-way sorting for acceptable, off-grade low, and
those of the unknown elements may produce erroneous off-grade high product. Guidance for the selection of samples,
determinations, although corrections may be made by analyz- standardization, and establishing acceptance limits are given in
ing standard samples of the same grade or similar composi- Practice E566 for sorting of nonferrous metals and in Practice
tions; and E703 for sorting of ferrous metals. Electromagnetic signal

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 E1476 − 04 (2022)
amplitude, harmonic content, and phase shifts combine to 7.3.7.1 Not quantitative, that is, requires supporting quanti-
characterize the piece and relate to material structure, size, tative measurements to establish operating parameters;
chemistry, and mechanical properties. For most grade verifi- 7.3.7.2 Sensitivity to a wide range of variables can confuse
cation problems, the total signal or the fundamental frequency the results, and dissimilar materials may exhibit similar elec-
signal is analyzed. For specific cases, perhaps only one or two tromagnetic characteristics, requiring supplemental examina-
components of the total signal are selected as responsive to the tion using other methods;
variable (for example, hardness) of interest. 7.3.7.3 Coil and part temperatures can cause drift; and
NOTE 1—The electromagnetic method has the potential for on-line 7.3.7.4 Where sorting is to be conducted on the basis of
grade verification or process monitoring of metals at elevated processing composition alone, the response to heat treatment, mechanical
temperatures. Water-cooled encircling coils suitable for use on wire, rod, working, and other processing variables can result in the
bar, and tubular products are available for use at a temperature of 2000°F misidentification of metals with the same composition.
(1100°C) and are used with suitable instrumentation for these purposes.
7.4 Electrical Resistivity Method:
7.3.3 Standardization—Certification of a sorting system re-
lies on standardization based on standard reference samples of 7.4.1 Summary of Method—Electrical resistivity is a prop-
the product that are representative of the size, nominal chemi- erty of metals that is affected by, among other factors, chemical
cal composition, and processing specified for the product. Two composition and grain structure, and it can be considered as a
or three samples each, of product representing the means and means for sorting electrically conductive materials. The resis-
extremes of the acceptance range, should be used, and system tivity method utilizes a probe with four in-line, equally spaced
adjustments should be made accordingly. Practices E566 and pins (electrodes) placed in contact with a metal. A constant
E703 list steps for the selection of reference samples, setting of current is passed through the material from the outer two
acceptance limits and standardization procedures, and precau- electrodes, and a potential drop is measured across the inner
tions and interferences that should be observed. New two electrodes. The potential drop is usually converted to
microprocessor-based instrumentation provides a different ap- resistivity and displayed on a conventional meter or digital
proach to standardization. Data for a large number of test readout. The readout may refer to the absolute resistivity of the
specimens may be stored, permitting an accurate assessment of material, or it may be a relative resistivity value. This mea-

iTeh Standards
the normal distribution of product variables and a highly
accurate standardization of grade verification results.
surement
surface
requires
using the
direct,
four-point
uniform
probe.
contact
The
with the
examination
material
is con-

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ducted by placing the probe on the object whose electrical
7.3.4 Speed—The electromagnetic method is capable of
resistivity is to be determined, applying the current, and
high-speed operation. Speed is dependent on the geometry of
reading the meter.
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the part, excitation frequency, time necessary to make a grade
7.4.2 Displays—The display reads out either resistivity or
determination, and product handling considerations. The rela-
conductivity on an analog or digital display.
tionship of the coil to the part must be such that the electro-
magnetic signals obtained from piece to piece are consistent, so 7.4.3 Sample Preparation and Environmental
ASTM E1476-04(2022)
that the signal is not affected by part geometry or position. Considerations—Epoxies, paints, and other nonconductive sur-
face coatings, as well as surface oxides, dirt, oil, and grease
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Edge effect and end effect interferences must be avoided. The
must be removed, or they will prevent the current from
details of size and frequency limitations on test speed are
beyond the scope of this guide, but in most cases sorting speed entering the material. In order to avoid errors, the surface must
is limited by product handling and mechanical considerations be free of moisture and at a uniform, known temperature.
rather than by limitations imposed by the method. 7.4.4 Standardization—Reference standard samples with
7.3.5 Accuracy—Verification of sorting accuracy must rely known compositions, physical properties, and processing are
on other (analytical) methods to establish product properties necessary. Also, they must be of the same thickness and
and acceptance limits. Highly reliable sorting and grade geometry as the materials being investigated. Edges, corners,
verification is possible when suitably stabilized excitation and and other geometric discontinuities can affect readings and
measuring instrumentation is used, along with mechanical therefore must be avoided. Readings should be taken at
handling that maintains reasonably precise relationships be- selected locations in order to characterize the test samples
tween the coil and the product. while avoiding geometry that can cause errors. Several read-
ings should be taken and averaged for each selected location to
7.3.6 Advantages:
provide base references. During instrument standardization, the
7.3.6.1 Contact not necessary in most cases; precautions regarding surface preparation, edge effects, and
7.3.6.2 Portable/transportable as well as fixed installation; sample geometry must be observed.
7.3.6.3 No surface preparation normally necessary; 7.4.5 Speed—Readings may be taken in approximately 1 s,
7.3.6.4 High-speed, depending on part size and frequency; exclusive of surface preparation time.
7.3.6.5 Automatic operation readily achieved; 7.4.6 Advantages:
7.3.6.6 Responsive to mechanical and physical properties 7.4.6.1 Simple to use and read;
not measurable by other methods, such as those resulting from 7.4.6.2 Rapid;
heat treating or mechanical working; and 7.4.6.3 Adaptable to automatic operation;
7.3.6.7 Adaptable to in-line, hot product use. 7.4.6.4 Portable, that is, usable in situ and on stacked
7.3.7 Disadvantages: product; and

6
 E1476 − 04 (2022)
7.4.6.5 Usable on a wide range of ferrous and nonferrous as well as periodically throughout the examination process.
metals. Refer to Practice E977 for the selection of reference standards
7.4.7 Disadvantages: and precautions associated with standardization. Standardiza-
7.4.7.1 Requires uniform electrical contact; tion coupons with known compositions should be used as a
7.4.7.2 Thickness and geometry variations affect readings; reference base. As with other qualitative means in which
7.4.7.3 Discontinuities such as porosity, voids, cracks, and sorting is made by the comparison of reference standard and
inclusions may cause errors; actual product sample readings, all parameters affecting the
7.4.7.4 Variations in probe contact pressure and minor acceptance range should be known and measurable.
variations in surface condition may result in errors; and 7.5.5 Speed—Individual readings may require less than 1 s,
7.4.7.5 Electrical conductivity changes resulting from heat exclusive of surface preparation time.
treatment and mechanical working can result in different 7.5.6 Accuracy—Sorting by the go/no-go method is affected
materials appearing to be similar or materials with the same by the similarity between the standards used and the accep-
composition appearing to be different. tance band for the samples being examined. Users of this
7.5 Thermoelectric Method (Fig. 3): method should refer to the manufacturer’s specifications re-
7.5.1 Summary of Method—The thermoelectric method garding repeatability.
makes use of the thermocouple principle, in which a heated 7.5.7 Advantages:
junction of dissimilar metals creates a voltage (formally 7.5.7.1 Nondestructive;
referred to as the Seebeck Effect). Employing a heated metal- 7.5.7.2 Probe pressure, sample size, and geometry not
tipped probe and an ambient temperature probe (or two probes variables;
heated or cooled to two different temperatures), voltage read- 7.5.7.3 Portable, that is, may be used on stacked or bundled
ings are established for known reference standards. The read- product or in situ; and
ings displayed are representative of the known standards and 7.5.7.4 Rapid.
must be within the range of the instrument display. They are 7.5.8 Disadvantages:
compared with those obtained from the pieces. In operation, 7.5.8.1 Requires an electrically conductive surface;
the heated (300 to 390°F or 150 to 200°C) probes are placed in
iTeh Standards
contact with the surface of the part under examination, and
readings are taken. Sorting is based on the acceptance limits
7.5.8.2 Some surface preparation may be necessary;
7.5.8.3 Least effective for aluminum alloys and austenitic
stainless steels; and
means. (https://standards.iteh.ai)
and on known tolerances above and below the established
7.5.8.4 Thermoelectric changes resulting from heat treat-
ment and mechanical working can result in metals that are
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7.5.2 Displays—Currently available devices employ digital
similar in composition appearing to be different and dissimilar
voltmeters or analog null meters, or both. Light bar, chart
metals appearing to be similar.
recorder, direct computer, or microprocessor entry may be
used. 7.6 Chemical Spot Test Method (Fig. 4):
7.5.3 Sample Preparation and Environmental ASTM E1476-04(2022)
Conditions— 7.6.1 Summary of Method—The chemical spot test method
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The thermoelectric effect requires electrical contact with the uses the reactions between certain chemicals and metals that
piece. The surface must therefore be free of nonconductive produce colors and permit one alloy to be distinguished from
paint and protective coatings, as well as oxide layers. Since the another. A typical unit electrically removes a minute amount of
probe covers a small area, only a small area need be prepared. metal onto moistened filter paper. One or two drops of reagent
No shock or environmental hazards are involved. are placed on the paper to develop a distinct color reaction.
7.5.4 Standardization—Standardization should be per- Normal color perception is required because operators are
formed after the instrument has been turned on and warmed up, evaluating color changes. Sets of reagents are available to

FIG. 3 Typical Circuit used in Thermoelectric Sorting Instruments