MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

1.0. PN junction diode as a rectifier

An ideal diode works as a closed switch permitting the flow of current in forward bias
and as an open switch blocking the flow of current in the reverse bias. This is achieved by
the low forward resistance and high reverse resistance of the diode. This switching action is
used in designing rectifier circuits. A rectifier is a circuit that converts alternating current a
direct current or to unidirectional current
1.1. Half wave rectifier

In a half wave rectifier only one diode is used. The diode is forward biased in the
positive half cycle and reverse biased in the negative half cycle of the AC. So the output is
available only during the positive half cycle and the output is unidirectional or direct current
1.1.1. Working of the half wave rectifier
During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is in forward biased and
conducts through the load resistor RL. Hence the current produces an output voltage across
the load resistor RL, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and
there is no current through the circuit. i.e., the voltage across R L is zero. The net result is
that only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears across the load.
The efficiency of the Half Wave Rectifier is 40.6%
V
RMS value of the pulsating DC voltage in the rectifier output VRMS  M
2
V
Average value of the DC output voltage is VDC  M

In the experiment average value of DC voltage is measured using a DC voltmeter.
2
2  Vm 
V   2   1   2  1  1.21
Theoretical value of ripple factor    RMS  1   V  22
 VDC   m 
  
VAC
Experimental value of ripple factor  
VDC
VAC – Component of the AC voltage in the rectifier output.
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Theoretical value of AC voltage in the rectifier output is VAC  (VRMS 2  VDC 2 )

 V V 
Voltage regulation of the rectifier is VR   NL FL  100
 VNL 
VNL – Voltage at no load, and VFL – voltage at full load

1.1.2. Derivation of the average value of DC output voltage of a half wave rectifier
T
T 2 T
1 1 1
Average DC voltage VDC   V0 (t )dt   Vm sin(t )dt  T T 0dt
T0 T 0
2
Here V0 (t )  Vm sin(t ) is the AC voltage applied at the input of the rectifier.
T
V   cos t  2
Average DC voltage VDC  m 0
T    0
That is
Vm   T  
VDC    cos    cos(0) 
T   2  
Vm   2 T   Vm
 VDC    cos  T  2   cos(0)   2  2
 2 T  T    
Vm
 VDC 

1.1.3. Derivation of the RMS value of the pulsating DC voltage in the output of half-wave
rectifier
The rms value of the DC output voltage can be derived from the AC voltage
V0 (t )  Vm sin(t ) applied at the input of the rectifier.
T
1
Vrms 2
  V0 2 (t )dt
T0
T
2 T
1 1
  Vm sin (t )dt   0  dt
2 2 2
Vrms
T 0
TT
2
T
Vm 2 2
  2sin (t )dt
2 2
Vrms
2T 0
T
2 2
Vm
Vrms 2 
2T  [1  cos(2t )]dt
0
T
Vm 2
Vm 2  sin(2t )  2
t   
T
Vrms 2
 2
2T 0 2T  2  0
Vm 2 T Vm 2
Vrms  2
   sin(T )  sin(0) 
2T 2 4T
V 2
 Vrms 2  m  0
4
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Vm
Therefore the rms value of the pulsating DC in the rectifier output Vrms 
2
1.1.4. Efficiency of a half wave rectifier
Efficiency of the half wave rectifier is equal to ratio of the DC output to the AC input to the
rectifier.
P
Efficiency   DC
PAC
If r f and RL are the diode forward resistance and Load resistance, the AC current through
Vm
the circuit is I AC  sin(t )  I m sin(t )
rf  RL
Vrms 2
The AC power supplied to the rectifier is PAC  I rms 2 (rf  RL ) 
(rf  RL )
VDC 2
The DC power delivered to the load resistor is PDC  I DC 2
RL 
RL
Efficiency of the rectifier
2
P V 2 (R  r )  V   R  r 
  DC  DC  L 2 f   DC    L f 
PAC RL Vrms  Vrms   RL 
2
 Vm 
       RL  rf 
 Vm   R 
   L 
 2 
 RL  rf 
   0.4053   
 RL 
Therefore the maximum efficiency of the rectifier   0.4053

1.1.5. Transformer utilization factor (TUF)

Transformer utilization factor (TUF) of a rectifier circuit is defined as the ratio of the DC
power delivered to the load resistor to the AC rating of the secondary coil of a transformer
I V
AC power rating of the secondary coil PAC  I rms  Vrms  m  m
2 2
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

DC power delivered to the Load RL is = Average current x Average voltage

I V
PDC  m  m
 
 Im    Vm 
    2 2
Transformer utilization factor TUF        0.2865
 Vm    Im   2
   
 2  2 
1.1.6. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
The peak reverse bias voltage acting the diode of a rectifier in the negative half cycle of the
AC is known as Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV). The PIV must be less than the reverse breakdown
voltage of the diode used in the rectifier. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse
biased and no current exists through the load and as a result, there is no voltage drop. So
the entire secondary voltage acts as reverse bias voltage to the diode. So PIV = V m for half
wave rectifier.
1.1.7. Applications of half wave rectifier
 It is used for the detection of amplitude modulated radio signals.
 For the welding purpose, it supplies polarized voltage.
 It is used in many signal demodulation processes.
1.2. Full wave rectifier
In a full wave rectifier during each half cycle one of the diode will be forward biased
and output will be available across the load resistor. So we get continuous dc output
throughout the cycle.

1.2.1. Working of the full wave centre taped rectifier

The circuit of a centre-tapped full wave rectifier is shown in the diagram and it uses
two diodes D1 & D2. During positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the
diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased. So the diode D1 conducts and current
flows through load resistor RL. During negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased
and D1 reverse biased. Now, D2 conducts and current flows through the load resistor RL in
the same direction. There is a continuous current flow through the load resistor R L, during
both the half cycles and will get unidirectional current as show in the model graph.
The other end of the load resistor is connected to the centre tap position on the
secondary coil of the transformer. The voltage at the centre tap position of the secondary
coil is zero. In centre tap full wave rectifier only half of the voltage across the secondary coil
of the transformer is available for rectification.
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Bridge rectifier is another type of full wave rectifier that uses the entire voltage
across the secondary coil of the transformer for rectification. Bridge rectifier has four diodes
and two of them will be forward biased in each cycle.
The difference between full wave and half wave rectification is that a full wave
rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the entire 360 degrees of
the input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180 degree).

VM
RMS value of the pulsating DC output is VRMS 
2
2VM
Average value of the pulsating DC output voltage is VDC 

2
V 
Theoretical value of ripple factor    RMS   1 =0.812
 VDC 
V
Experimental value of ripple factor   AC
VDC
VAC – Component of the AC voltage in the rectifier output.
Theoretical value of AC voltage in the rectifier output is VAC  (VRMS 2  VDC 2 )
 V V 
Voltage regulation of the rectifier is VR   NL FL  100
 VNL 
VNL – Voltage at no load, and VFL – voltage at full load
1.2.2. Derivation of the average value DC output voltage of a full wave rectifier
Average DC output voltage
T T 
1 Vm  2
VDC   Vm sin(t )    sin(t )dt 
T0 T  
2 0 
2Vm    cos(t )  2 
T

 VDC    
T     
 0

Here sin(ωt) is an odd function, its integral over a period is equal to zero. So we have to
integrate it over half of the period to get the average value.

2Vm   cos   cos 0 

 VDC   
T   
2Vm  2  2Vm 2
 VDC     
T   T 2
T
2Vm
 VDC 

1.2.3. Derivation of the rms value of the pulsating DC output voltage of the full wave
rectifier
The rms value of the pulsating DC voltage in the rectifier output can be calculated from the
AC voltage applied at the input V0 (t )  Vm sin(t )
The rms voltage
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

1
1 T 2
Vrms    Vm 2 sin 2 (t )dt 
 T 0 
1
 2 T2  2
 Vm
sin (t )dt 
 T 0
 Vrms  2

 2 
1
 2 T2  2
V
 Vrms   m  2sin 2 (t )dt 
 T 0 
 
The term 2sin (t )  1  cos(2t )
2

Therefore we get
1
 2 T2  2
V
Vrms   m  (1  cos(2t ))dt 
 T 0 
 
1
V 2  sin(2t ) 
T
2
2

 Vrms  m t  2  
 T 0 
1
Vm 2  T sin(2 )  sin(0)   2
 Vrms    ( ) 
 T 2 2 
V
 Vrms  m
2
1.2.4. Efficiency of the full wave rectifier

PDC
Efficiency   If r f and RL are the diode forward resistance and Load resistance, the AC
PAC
Vrms 2
power supplied to the rectifier circuit is PAC  I rms 2
(rf  RL ) 
(rf  RL )
VDC 2
The DC power delivered to the load resistor is PDC  I DC 2 RL 
RL
Efficiency of the rectifier
2
P V 2 (R  r )  V   R  r 
  DC  DC  L 2 f   DC    L f 
PAC RL Vrms  Vrms   RL 
2
 2Vm 
  
     RL  rf 
V   
 m   RL 
 2
 RL  rf 
   0.8106   
 RL 
Therefore the maximum efficiency of the rectifier is   0.8106
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

1.2.5. Transformer utilization factor (TUF) Centre taped rectifier

Transformer utilization factor (TUF) of a rectifier circuit is defined as the ratio of the DC
power available at the load resistor to the AC rating of the secondary coil of a transformer
DC power delivered to the load = Average current x Average voltage
2V 2 I
PDC  m  m
 
Power rating of the transformer secondary = rms current x rms voltage
The voltage across each part of the secondary is sinusoidal. But current exists only for one
half-cycle through each part the transformer secondary.
V I
Therefore the power rating of each part of the transformer secondary PAC  m  m
2 2
V I V I
The total power rating of the secondary PACt  2  m  m  m m  0.707Vm I m
2 2 2
V I V I
Power rating of the transformer primary PACP  m  m  m m  0.5Vm Im
2 2 2
The average power rating of the primary and secondary of the transformer is
P  PACP 0.707Vm Im  0.5Vm I m
PE  ACt   0.6035Vm Im
2 2
Transformer utilization factor
2Vm 2 I m

TUF 
PDC
    0.672
PE 0.6035Vm Im
1.2.6. Peak Inverse Voltage centre taped rectifier
PIV of a centre tap rectifier is equal to twice the output voltage the rectifier.
PIV = 2Vs. Here VS is the voltage across any one part of the transformer secondary coil.
1.2.7. Full-wave Bridge rectifier circuit diagram

During the positive half cycle the nod ‘’A’’ is having positive voltage. As a result, the
diodes D1, and D2 are forward biased. During the first half cycle, current takes the path
through nod A, diode D1, nod Q, load R, nod P , diode D2, and nod B to complete the circuit.
During the negative half cycle or second half cycle, the nod B is having positive
voltage. As a result the diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased. Therefore current takes the
path through nod B, diode D3, nod Q, load R, nod P, diode D4 and nod A to complete the
circuit.
1.2.8. TUF Full-wave bridge rectifier
The DC power out-put of the rectifier
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

2Vm 2 Im
PDC  
 
Im
RMS current through the secondary of the transformer I rms 
2
Vm
RMS voltage through the secondary of the transformer Vrms 
2
Im Vm
AC power rating of the secondary of the transformer PAC  I rms  Vrms 
2
 4 I m Vm 
PDC  
2 8
Therefore the transformer utilization factor TUF    2  0.8106
PAC  Im Vm  
 
 2 
1.2.9. Peek Inverse Voltage full-wave bridge rectifier
Peak inverse voltage of a full wave bridge rectifier is PIV  Vm
1.2.10. Input and output waveforms

1.3.0 Comparison of full wave and half wave rectifier

Quantity Half wave rectifier Full wave center Full wave Bridge rectifier
taped rectifier
No of diodes 1 2 4
Input current E0 E0 E0
I0  I0  I0 
r  RL r  RL 2r  RL
Idc I0 / 2I 0 /  2I 0 / 
Irms I0 / 2 I0 / 2 I0 / 2
Efficiency 40.1% 81.06% 81.06%
Ripple factor 1.21 0.484 0.484
PIV VS 2VS VS
TUF 0.286 0.672 0.8106
E0 – AC voltage across the secondary of the transformer, r – internal resistance of the diode
2.0. Zener diode V I Characteristics
A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the
reverse break down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse
biased. But if the reverse bias voltage is increased to a particular voltage known as reverse
breakdown voltage, it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Zener Break down
Voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device. To avoid high
current, we connect a resistor in series with Zener diode. Once the diode starts conducting it
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current
through it, i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.
2.1. Circuit diagram - Static or forward characteristics

2.2. Circuit diagram - Reverse bias characteristics

3.0. Tunnel Diode

A Tunnel Diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode. The tunnel diode shows negative
resistance. When voltage value increases, current flow decreases. Tunnel diode works based
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

on Tunnel Effect. Leo Esaki invented Tunnel diode in August 1957. Therefore, it is also called
as Esaki diode.
3.1. Quantum tunnelling
In electronics, tunnelling is the direct flow of electrons across the thin depletion region from
n-side, that is from conduction band to the p-side, that is to the valence band.
Charge carriers do not need any form of kinetic energy to move across the junction. Instead,
carriers punch through junction. This effect is called tunnelling and hence the diode is called
Tunnel Diode.
3.2. Barrier potential
In a p-n junction diode, both positive and negative ions form the depletion region. Due to
these ions, in-built electric potential or electric field is present in the depletion region. This
electric field or barrier potential in a tunnel diode is much smaller than normal diode.
3.3. Unbiased tunnel diode
In an unbiased tunnel diode, due to heavy doping conduction band of n – type
semiconductor overlaps with valence band of p – type material. Therefore the energy levels
of electrons in the N side and holes in the P side overlap with each other and they will be
almost at the same energy level. As a result in an unbiased tunnel diode, electrons and holes
flow through the junction. In the absence of an external potential, the net current is zero as
the number of charge carriers flowing across the junction are equal in number in either
direction.
3.4. Forward biased tunnel diode
 A small forward biasing voltage much smaller than the barrier potential does not
develop a forward current. But due to this small forward voltage, electrons start
tunnelling through potential barrier to the P side. This creates a small tunnelling
current.
 A small increase in forward biasing voltage creates large number of free electrons at
the N side holes at the P side.
 Increase of biasing voltage increase the overlapping of conduction band of the N side
and valence band of the P side further. This further increases the forward tunnelling
current.
 At a certain small forward biasing voltage, the overlapping of the conduction and
band valence band becomes perfect and energy levels become exactly equal.
 The tunnel current becomes the maximum, when the energy levels of the free
electrons and the holes become exactly equal.
 Any further increase in the forward biasing voltage develops a slight misalignment
between the energy levels of conduction band of the N side and valence band of the
P side.
 As a result tunnel current starts decreasing with increase of forward biasing voltage.
 At some value forward biasing voltage, the tunnel current reduces to a minimum and
at this point, the conduction and valence no longer overlap each other and
thereafter, the diode starts working as a normal diode.
 After this state, if the forward biasing voltage is increased greater than the barrier
potential, normal forward current starts increasing.
3.5. Tunnel diode V I characteristics
 When Forward Bias is applied and increased, the tunnel current first increases
rapidly to a Peak valve Ip. at some voltage Vp.
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

 Further increase in voltage beyond Vp Causes the tunnel current to fall rapidly to a
minimum value Iv (valley current) at some voltage Vv, thereafter, the current
increases exponentially with voltage as in the case of other diodes.
 The area to the right of Vv, can therefore be compared with the forward Bias area of
a Junction Diode.
The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. The input voltage is increased in
steps and the corresponding voltage across both the volt meters are noted against the
current. The experiment is performed only in the forward bias conditions. A graph is
plotted with current along the ‘’Y’’ axis and voltage across the tunnel diode along the ‘’X’’
axis. Calculate slope from the curve for positive and negative resistance of the diode. You
will get two resistance values , one +ve and one -ve .

3.6. Advantages of tunnel diodes

 Long life
 High-speed operation
 Low noise
 Low power consumption
3.7. Disadvantages of tunnel diodes
 Tunnel diodes cannot be fabricated in large numbers
 Being a two terminal device, the input and output are not isolated from one another.
 It is a low current device, it is not used in power electronics.
3.8. Applications of tunnel diodes
 Tunnel diodes are used as logic memory storage devices.
 Tunnel diodes are used in relaxation oscillator circuits.
 Tunnel diode is used as an ultra-high-speed switch.
 Tunnel diodes are used in FM receivers.
4.0 Semiconductor LASER
Semiconductor laser can be classified as Homo junction and
Hetero junction laser.
4.1. Ga As semiconductor laser.
The active medium in a semiconductor laser is the PN
junction.
4.1.1. Homo junction LASER
A homo junction is developed by heavily doping with P
and N impurities on a GaAs wafer.
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When the junction is forward biased with a biasing voltage equal to the barrier
potential, the charge carriers are injected across the junction. This creates a population
inversion of electrons and holes (presence of large number of holes and electrons) in a
narrow region across the junction. This region is considered as the active region.
Electrons and holes may undergo radiative recombination producing photons. When
an electron hole recombination takes place, the excess energy of the conduction band
electron gets released as a photon.
These photons may interact with valence band electrons and get absorbed, resulting
in stimulated absorption. That is the valence band electron goes upwards to the conduction
band leaving a hole in the valence band.
On the other hand photons may interact with electrons in the conduction band and
stimulate radiative recombination (stimulated emission). On interaction with the photon,
the conduction band electron releases the excess energy as a photon and goes down to the
valence band to recombine with a hole existing there. The photon so produced is identical
and in phase with the stimulating photon. So light gets amplified and laser is produced in
the semiconductor crystal.
If the injected carrier concentration is very high the stimulated emission will exceed
the absorption resulting in large scale optical amplification.
No external mirrors are needed for providing optical feedback. The end faces of the
crystal are exactly parallel and due to high refractive index the end faces will have high
reflectivity. These can be operated only in the pulsed mode and its operating current is high.
4.1.2. Hetro junction LASER
A hetro junction is formed by joining a p type semiconductor and another N type
semiconductor formed out of different base materials. Here the base material will be
different at P and N regions.
In hetero junction lasers efficiency is high even at room temperatures. Continuous
wave operation is possible. Operating current is less than 50 mille amperes.
Semiconductor lasers are having large values of divergence. The active region acts as
a narrow single slit diffracting the output. Along the direction parallel to the P and N layers
the divergence is 10 degree and normal to the plane it is 40 degree.
The Laser output is taken from the semiconductor diode by arranging an optical
window of the semiconductor material or of high refractive index plastic taken in the form
of a hemispherical dome.
4.2. Applications of Semiconductor LSER
 Semiconductor lasers are especially attractive because of the demand for cheaper
and smaller lasers.
 They are extremely diverse, used in areas as optical data transmission, optical data
storage, metrology, spectroscopy, material processing, pumping solid state lasers,
and various kinds of medical treatments.
 Semiconductor lasers are used to read the information stored in compact discs (CDs)
and digital versatile discs (DVDs).
 The storage density of the discs is inversely proportional to the square of the laser
wavelength. Achieving lasers with shorter wavelengths thus makes it possible to
store more information on the discs
 Semiconductor lasers are also used as transmitters or carrier waves in fiber-optic
links.
 Laser pointers are made from inexpensive semiconductor lasers.
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 They can also be used for certain optical distance measurements Eg LIDAR
 Semiconductor laser is used as pump sources for highly efficient solid state lasers.
 A major goal of the optoelectronics community has been the achievement of high-
efficiency red, green and blue emitters. The reason for this is that those are the
three primary colours of the spectrum, and by combining them one can form intense
white light sources (∼500 lumens).
 Light emitting diodes (LEDs) AND DIODE LASERS have much longer lifetimes and
much higher energy efficiencies. This can lead to a significant reduction in global
energy demand
Worked out examples
1) The applied input a.c. power to a half-wave rectifier is 100 watts. The d.c. output power obtained
is 40 watts. (i) What is the rectification efficiency? (ii) What happens to remaining 60 watts?
PDC 40
Efficiency   100  100  40 0 0
PAC 100
Half wave rectifier converts only one half cycle of the AC input. So the AC power is not lost
in the circuit, but not utilized. Only fifty percentage of the AC power is used in the rectifier
circuit.

2) An a.c. supply of 230 V is applied to a half-wave rectifier circuit through a transformer of

turn ratio 10 : 1. Find (i) the output d.c. voltage and (ii) the peak inverse voltage. Assume the
diode to be ideal.

If NP, NS are the number of turns in the primary and secondary of the transformer and VP,
VS are the voltages across the primary and secondary of the transformer,

N P VP 10
The transformer equation can be expressed as  
N S VS 1

VP 230
The RMS Voltage across the secondary VS    23.0V
10 10

Peak AC voltage across the secondary is VM  VS  2  32.53V

Vm
Output DC voltage VDC 


PIV =VM.

3) A diode having internal resistance rf = 20Ω is used for half-wave rectification. If the
applied voltage v = 50 sin ω t and load resistance RL= 800 Ω, find : (i) Im, Idc, Irms (ii) a.c.
power input and d.c. power output (iii) d.c. output voltage (iv) efficiency of rectification.

Vm I I V 2 V 2
Hint: Im  , I DC  m , I rms  m , PAC  m , PDC  M
rf  RL  2 rf  RL RL
MODULE 4 PART A SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

4) A half-wave rectifier is used to supply 50V d.c. to a resistive load of 800 Ω. The diode has
a resistance of 25 Ω. Calculate a.c. voltage required.

VDC  50V , RL  800 , diode forward resistance rf  25

Let VM be the peak AC voltage required.

Vm
Peak current through the circuit Im 
rf  RL

Im Vm
Therefore VDC  I DC  RL   RL  R
  (rf  RL ) L

5) A full-wave rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode may be
assumed constant at 20 Ω. The transformer r.m.s. secondary voltage from centre tap to
each end of secondary is 50 V and load resistance is 980 Ω. Find : (i) the mean load current
(ii) the r.m.s. value of load current.

Vm
Hint: Vm  Vrms  2 . Maximum current Im 
rf  RL