International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 11, November-2016 217

ISSN 2229-5518

Non-linear scattering effects in fiber optic cables: a

comprehensive review
Nimarjit Kaur, Harmanjeet Singh Parmar

Abstract- In this article, Scattering phenomena and its classification has been demonstrated. Attenuation is the main loss mechanism in an optical fiber.
Absorption and scattering of signals results in attenuation. There are two types of scattering losses. They are linear scattering and nonlinear scattering.
In optics, the term linear and non-linear mean “power-independent” and “power dependent” phenomena, respectively. In linear scattering, attenuation
occurs when optical power is transferred from one mode to another keeping frequency unaltered. There are two categories in linear scattering. They are
Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering. Rayleigh scattering is the main loss mechanism in the visible range. Rayleigh scattering loss can be minimized
by choosing longest possible operating wavelength. If the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the wavelength of light, the scattering
mechanism is called Mie scattering. Non linear scattering occurs when frequency is changed during optical power transfer. The two types of nonlinear
scattering are stimulated Brillouin scattering and stimulate Raman scattering. Stimulated Brillouin scattering is a cause of concern in long distance
systems, in wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) systems and remote pumping of an erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) through a separate optical
fiber. Stimulated Raman scattering creates problems in wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) systems.

Keywords- Optical Fiber, total internal reflection Scattering, Linear Scattering, Non-Linear Scattering, Stimulated Brillouin Scattering, Stimulated Raman
Scattering.
----------♦----------
1. Introduction
Scattering in optical fiber is a process which is
caused by the interaction of phonons within the
glass itself. During the process of scattering, all or

IJSER
some of the optical power in a mode is transferred
into another mode resulting in attenuation, since the
transfer is often to the mode which does not
propagate well and is known as a leaky or radiation
mode. If there is an imperfection in a core material, a
beam propagating at the critical angle or less will
change the direction after it meets the obstacle. In
other words, light will be scattered [1].
This scattering effect prevents attainment of total Figure 1.1: Schematic illustration scattering loss in
internal reflection at the core-cladding boundary, optical fiber [1].
resulting in power loss since some light will pass out Following parameters govern the scattering
of core. So there are certain factors that are to be kept phenomena :
in consideration during planning of a light wave The wavelength (λ) of the incident radiation
transmission system in order to make network The size of the scattering particle, usually expressed
which is reliable, and easy to operate and maintain. as the non dimensional size parameter, x: r is the
These are factors are as follows, radius of a spherical particle, λ is wavelength.
Fiber selection X=2πr/λ (1)
• Choice and tuning of optoelectronic The particle optical properties relative to the
components surrounding medium: the complex refractive index
• Optical amplifiers placement [3].
• Path routing, etc [2]. 2 Classifications
The design must take into account all power There are two basic types of scattering:
penalties associated with optical signal-degradation
processes. Otherwise scattering loss can severely
limit the performance of multichannel lightwave
systems.

IJSER © 2016
http://www.ijser.org
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 11, November-2016 218
ISSN 2229-5518
(where Vs is the velocity of sound in the material)
Once the Brillouin threshold is reached, backward
propagating Stokes wave is generated that carries
most of the input power.
In this process, nonlinear interaction between the
pump and stokes wave through acoustic wave takes
place.
Figure 2: Classification of scattering [3]

In optics, linear scattering is “power-independent”

whereas non-linear scattering is “power dependent”
phenomena.
2. Non-linear scattering
This type of scattering processes are power
dependent and occurs due to change in frequency Figure 3: Index grating of the incident light, scattered
during optical power transferring, which causes light [18].
disproportionate attenuation at high optical power
levels. The nonlinear scattering effects in optical Scattered light is shifted down in frequency because
fibers are due to the inelastic scattering of a photon of the Doppler shift associated with the grating

IJSER
to a lower energy photon. The energy difference is moving of the acoustic velocity.
absorbed by the molecular vibrations or phonons in Most of the power reflected backward after SBS
the medium. In other words one can state that the threshold is reached.
energy of a light wave is transferred to another The threshold power of pump for Brillouin
wave, which is at a higher wavelength (lower scattering depends on the spectral width associated
energy) such that energy difference appears in form with the pump wave.
of phonons. The other wave is known as the Stokes
wave. The signal can be considered as pump wave. 2.1.1 Brillouin-Gain Spectrum
Of course, high-energy photon at the so-called anti- The spectral width of the SRS gain spectrum is very
Stokes frequency can also be created if phonon of small because it is related to the damping time of the
right energy and momentum is available. acoustic waves related to the phonon lifetime.

2.1 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering

The phenomenon of SBS was first observed in
1964.In Stimulated Brillouin scattering, the thermally
generated fluctuations in the density of medium are
responsible for scattering of light. Stimulated
Brillouin scattering arises when a strong optical
signal generates an acoustic wave that produces Figure 4: Brillouin gain spectra of three fibers for

variation in the refractive index1,3,4-10. These index λp=1.525μm, (a) silica-core fiber, (b) depressed-

variations cause lightwave to scatter in backward cladding fiber, (c) dispersion-shifted fiber [19]

direction toward the transmitter. This backscattered

light experiences gain from the forward-propagating When acoustic waves decay as exp(-ЃBt), the

signals [17], which leads to depletion of the signal Brillouin gain has a lorentzian spectrum given by

power. The frequency of the scattered light

experiences a Doppler shift given by gB(Ω)=gp(ЃB/2)2 /(Ω-ΩB)2 + (ЃB/2)2 …[20]

VB = 2nVs /ƛ … [17] The Brillouin-gain spectrum depends on details of

the fiber design and may contain multiple peaks that
IJSER © 2016
http://www.ijser.org
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 11, November-2016 219
ISSN 2229-5518
have their origin in different acoustic modes increases significantly by making the exponential
supported by the fiber. A three-peak gain spectrum growth interrupted [22].
was observed and interpreted to result from A temperature gradient along the fiber length also
different acoustic velocities in the core and cladding increases the SBS threshold by shifting vB in a
regions of the fiber. Since each mode has a different distributed manner.
acoustic velocity (represented as vA), it also has a Especially designed fibers needed to implement
different Brillouin shift and changes in gain spectra through which SBS suppression can be achieved by
at high power are related to the onset of SBS. modulating the phase of the pump beam before it is
launched into the fiber. As the modulating changes
3.1.2 Brillouin Threshold ΩB along the fiber length, the threshold increases by
Pump and stokes evolve along the fiber as some factor.
Keep the power level per WDM channel much below
dIs
- =gBIpIs - αIs , the SBS threshold. In long-haul systems one may
dz
dIp have to reduce the amplifier spacing.
=gBIpIs - αIp
dz
To raise the Brillouin threshold, slight dithering the
Ignoring pump depletion and using
laser output in frequency is effective since SBS is a
Ip(z)=I0 exp(-αL)
narrowband process.

Integrating it over fiber length L, the stokes intensity

2.1.4 Applications of SBS Phenomenon

IJSER
is found to grow exponentially in the backward
Normally SBS puts limitations on optical
direction as
communication systems, but with suitable system
arrangement it can be useful for making many
Is(L)=Is(0) exp(gBI0Leff - αL )
optical devices. These are described below.

The stokes wave grows from the noise provided by

2.1.4.1 Fiber Sensors
the spontaneous Brillouin scattering occurring
The fiber sensors are capable of sensing the
throughout the fiber. Brillouin threshold is obtained
temperature and strain over long distances.
as
Whenever there is change in temperature or strain,
gBPthLeff /Aeff ≈ 21 …[21]
the refractive index of silica changes in response to
Brillouin gain is nearly independent of the pump
such variations. This change produces change in
wavelength.
Brillouin shift and by registering the change in
Brillouin shift the distribution of temperature and
2.1.3 Techniques for controlling the SBS Threshold
strain over long distances can be obtained. To
The Brillouin threshold power is obtained assuming
improve sensing performance in different areas
that the fiber core is perfectly circular and
(special resolution, total sensing length,
homogeneous across its entire length but most the
measurement-acquisition time etc.), several methods
times the fiber core is doped to enhance its refractive
have been introduced. BOTDA (Brillouin optical
index during which its concentration varies along
domain analysis) technique provides improved
the radial direction and this variation leads to slight
resolution, accuracy and acquisition time.
changes in the acoustic velocity in that direction.
Due to this the SBS threshold can depend on various
2.1.4.2 Brillouin Fiber Amplifiers
dopants used to make fiber core.
The optical gain in SBS process can be utilized in
The variations in the fiber parameters are helpful in
amplification of weak signal provided the frequency
controlling the SBS threshold as the backward
shift of weak signal from pump frequency is equal to
propagating Stokes wave grows exponentially along
Brillouin shift. In Brillouin fiber amplifier, a part of
the fiber length. Thus SBS threshold can be forced to
pump power is transmitted to signal through the
IJSER © 2016
http://www.ijser.org
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 11, November-2016 220
ISSN 2229-5518
SBS process and hence amplification in signal power cavity so that the power of the generated laser can be
occurs. When power level inside silica fiber exceeds controlled.
the threshold level (Pth), the stimulated Brillouin
scattering starts due to a positive feedback dynamics
set up inside the fiber medium. This dynamics
results in amplification of the signal.

Figure 6: Configuration of the PCF-based BFL; TLS,

WSC, OSA, PC stands for tunable-laser source,

Figure 5: Schematic illustration of a Brillouin wavelength selective couplers, optical spectrum

amplifier; ECL, ISO and PD stands for external- analyzer, polarization controller, respectively [25].

cavity laser, laser isolator and photodetector,

2.1.4.4 Pulse Delaying and Advancement
respectively [23].
The stimulated Brillouin scattering process is helpful

The Brillouin fiber amplifiers are less suitable as in controlling the group velocity of an optical pulse

power amplifier, preamplifier or in-line amplifier in as it travels along fiber. The changes in group index

IJSER
lightwave systems due to their narrow bandwidth. of 10-3 in several kilometer length of fiber have been

But this characteristic is advantageous in coherent achieved experimentally. This leads to pulse

and multichannel communication systems. delaying and advancement in the range of tens of
nanoseconds [26]. These group delay changes can be

2.1.4.3 Brillouin Fiber Lasers obtained in conventionally used optical fibers.

The Brillouin gain can be used for operating

2.1.4.5 Beam Combiner
a Brillouin fiber laser. Such devices are often made as
fiber ring lasers. Due to low resonator loss, they can Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) can be

have a relatively low pump threshold and a very exploited in passive combination of multiple beams

small linewidth. The Brillouin Pump is injected into in a fiber. This method may be helpful in increasing

the ring cavity and then Photonic Crystal Fiber via the brightness of array of fiber amplifiers. Four off-

the circulator to generate the backward propagating axis beams are combined in a long multimode

Stokes light at opposite direction. However, since the optical fiber using a novel all-optical mount. The

PCF length is not sufficient enough, the back- beam that comes out has spatial coherence

scattered light due to Rayleigh scattering is relatively properties of LP01 mode. By using off-axis pumps,

higher than the Stokes light. Both back-scattered the threshold of SBS can be raised several times in

pump and the Stokes lights are amplified by the bi- comparison to on-axis pump beams.
2.1.4.6 Pipeline Buckling Detection
directionally pumped Bi-EDF (Bismuth-based
erbium-doped fiber) and oscillate in the ring cavity A distributed Brillouin fiber sensor can be used to

to generate dual-wavelength laser. However, the detect localized pipe-wall buckling in an energy pipe

nonlinear gain by both PCF and Bi-EDF only with internal pressure, concentric load, and bending

amplifies the Stokes light and thus the Stokes light is load by measuring the longitudinal and hoop strain

more dominant and laser is generated at the Stokes distributions. A localized pipe-wall buckling takes

wavelength [24].Optical isolators are used to block place away from the middle of the pipe. The

the Brillouin pump from oscillating in the cavity and locations of such buckling are found and

also to ensure a unidirectional operation of the BFL. distinguished using strain load data.

PC is used to control the birefringence of the ring

IJSER © 2016
http://www.ijser.org
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 11, November-2016 221
ISSN 2229-5518

Figure 8: SRS transfers optical power from shorter

wavelengths to longer wavelengths.

Figure 7: (a) Spontaneous Raman scattering

phenomenon. (b) Stimulated Raman scattering
phenomenon [26].
2.2 Stimulated Raman Scattering
Stimulated Raman scattering was discovered by
Raman in 1928 thus it is known as Raman Effect.
Stimulated Raman Scattering is an important
nonlinear process as it can severely limit the
performance of multichannel lightwave system. On Figure 9: Schematic illustration of scattered photons

IJSER
the other hand by carefully monitoring this process lose energy (Stokes shift) or gain energy (anti-Stokes
can turn optical fibers into broadband Raman shift) [27].
amplifiers and tunable Raman lasers.
During Stimulated Raman scattering, small fraction
of power is transferred from one optical field to
another whose frequency is shifted down. Near the
right end, a significant part of the power is shifted
into longer-wavelength components by stimulated
Raman. Figure 10: Schematic illustration of spontaneous
The incident light acts as a pump and generates the Raman Scattering from a quantum-mechanical
frequency shifted radiation called Stokes waves. viewpoint. A photon of reduced energy hws is
For intense pump fields Stokes wave grows rapidly created spontaneously after a pump photon of
inside the medium such that most of the pump energy hwp excites the molecule to a virtual state
energy is transferred to it. (shown as dashed lines) [28].
It transfers some of the photons to new frequencies.
The scattered photons may lose energy (Stokes shift) 2.2.1 Raman-Gain Spectrum
or gain energy (anti-Stokes shift). If the pump beam The initial growth of the stokes wave is given by
dls
is linearly polarized, the polarization of scattered = gRIPIS … [28]
dz
photon may be the same (parallel scattering) or Where Is is the Stokes intensity, Ip is the pump
orthogonal (perpendicular scattering) [27]. intensity, and the Raman-gain coefficient gR.
It can be described quantum mechanically as When a probe beam is introduced in the optical
scattering of a photon of energy hwp by a molecule fiber, it will be amplified because of the Raman gain
to a lower-frequency photon with energy hws, as the and as the Raman scattering generates photons
molecule makes transition to a vibrational state. within the entire bandwidth of the Raman-gain
spectrum, all frequency components are amplified
especially gR. When the pump power exceeds a
threshold value gR builds up almost exponentially.
IJSER © 2016
http://www.ijser.org
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 11, November-2016 222
ISSN 2229-5518
As a result, SRS leads to generation of the Stokes
wave whose frequency is determined by the peak of 2.2.3 Techniques for controlling the SRS Threshold
the Raman gain. An additional amount of power is needed at the
receiver to maintain the system as the nonlinear
effect results in signal impairment. Given below are
some methods employed to control the SRS
threshold.
Presence of dispersion reduces the SRS penalty. In
presence of dispersion, signals in different channels
travel at different velocities and hence reducing
chances of overlap between pulses propagating at
different wavelengths [29].
Figure 11: Normalized Raman gain when pump and
By decreasing channel spacing SRS penalty can be
stokes waves are copolarized and dotted line shows
reduced.
the situation when pump amd stokes waves are
The power level should be kept below threshold
orthogonally polarized [28].
level which requires the reduction in distance
between amplifiers. The SRS imposed limitations on
2.2.2 Raman Threshold
the maximum transmit power per channel.
The pump power does not remain constant along the

IJSER
fiber and also fiber losses are to be considered when
2.2.4 Raman- Induced Crosstalk
talking about Raman threshold thus it is governed
The same Raman gain that is beneficial for making
by set of two coupled equation:
dIs fiber amplifiers and lasers is also detrimental to
= gRIpIs − αsIs,
dz WDM systems. The reason is that a short-
Where αs and αp account for fiber losses at the wavelength channel can act as a pump for longer-
Stokes and pump frequencies, respectively. wavelength channels and thus transfer part of the
dIp ωp
=− gRIpIs − αpIp, pulse energy to neighboring channels. This leads to
dz ωs
One can readily verify that in the absence of losses, Raman-induced crosstalk among channels that can
d Is Ip affect the system performance considerably.
� + � = 0.
ωs ωp
dz
The two-channel system with the short-wavelength
Integrating the equation over whole range of the
channel acts as a pump. The power transfer between
Raman-gain spectrum.
the two channels is governed by equations that can
∞
be solved analytically if the fiber loss is assumed to
Ps (L) = ∫−∞ hω exp [gR(ωp − ω)IoLeff − αsL]dω
be the same for both channels ( αS-αP), an
assumption easily justified for typical channel
Assuming αs ≈ αp the threshold condition becomes spacings near 1.55 µm. The association reduction in
the short-wavelength channel power is obtained
Peff exp(gRP0Leff/Aeff)= P0, from the pump-depletion factor.

Assuming a Lorentzian shape for the Raman-gain Ip (L) 1+ro

Dp = = … [30]
Ip (0)exp ⁡
(αpL ) 1+roG
spectrum, the critical pump power, to a good
approximation, is given by
gR P Leff The power penalty can be written as (in decibels)
≈ 16 … [28]
Aeff ΔR =10 log(1/DP)
A similar analysis can be carried out for the
backward SRS. The threshold condition in that case
2.2.5 Applications of SRS Phenomenon
is still given by the above Equation but the
The SRS process is considered in many applications,
numerical factor 16 is replaced with 20.
which includes,
IJSER © 2016
http://www.ijser.org
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 11, November-2016 223
ISSN 2229-5518
matching and broad gain-bandwidth which is
2.2.5.1 Raman fiber lasers advantageous in wavelength division multiplexed
Fiber based Raman lasers are developed by systems.
employing the SRS phenomenon. The partially
reflecting mirrors M1 and M2 form a Febry-Perot
cavity. Inside the cavity a piece of single mode fiber
is placed in which SRS process occurs due
wavelength-selective feedback for the Stokes light.
This results in intense output. The spatial dispersion
of various Stokes wavelengths allows tuning of the
Figure 14: Schematic of Raman fiber amplifier [31].
laser wavelength through an intracavity prism. The
Raman amplification during a round trip should be
Raman amplification may be realized as a
as large as to compensate the cavity losses, and this
continuous amplification along the fiber which let
determines the Raman threshold power. Higher-
the signal never to become too low. Raman amplifier
order Stokes wavelengths are generated inside the
is bidirectional in nature and more stable.
fiber at high pump powers. Again these wavelengths
are dispersed spatially by the intra-cavity prism in
association with separate mirrors for each Stokes
beam. Such kind of Raman laser can be operated at

IJSER
several wavelengths simultaneously.

Figure 12: Schematic representation of a tunable

Figure 15: Variation of amplifier gain GA with the
Raman laser [31].
pump power P0. Different symbols show the
experimental data for three values of input signal
power. Solid curves show the theoretical prediction
using gR=9.2*10-14 m/W [32].

2.2.6 Demerits of Stimulated Raman scattering

Raman gain introduces interchannel crosstalk in
Figure 13: Schematic of a high-power all-fiber Raman
WDM systems.
laser.
Crosstalk can be reduced by lowering channel
powers but it limits the number of channels.
2.2.5.2 Raman Fiber Amplifiers
Merits of Stimulated Raman scattering
The SRS phenomenon may be applied to provide
Raman amplifiers are a boon for WDM systems as it
optical amplification within optical fibers. The SRS
can be used in the entire 1300–1650 nm range
process in fiber causes energy transfer from the
whereas EDFA bandwidth limited to ∼40 nm near
pump to the signal. The Raman amplification may
1550 nm.
occur at any wavelength as long as appropriate
Distributed nature of Raman amplification lowers
pump laser is available. There are three basic
noise [33].
components of Raman amplifier: pump laser,
3. Comparison of Stimulated Raman and
wavelength selective coupler and fiber gain medium.
Stimulated Brillouin scattering
A schematic diagram is shown in Figure. Raman
amplification exhibits advantages of self phase

IJSER © 2016
http://www.ijser.org
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 11, November-2016 224
ISSN 2229-5518
S Parame Stimula Stimulate backwa
r ter ted d rd.
. Raman Brillouin
Scatteri Scatterin
n ng g 4 Stokes For The
o Shift SRS, Stokes
. Stokes shift is
1 Origina The The shift is smaller
ting Raman Brillouin of by 3
Factor scatteri scattering higher orders
ng is occurs order [36]of
result due to of magnitud
of Bragg magnit e for SBS.
individ type ude.
ual scattering 5 Materia The Brillouin
molecu from l strengt scattering
lar propagati Disord h of depends
motion. ng er Raman on the
acoustic scatteri disorder

IJSER
wave, ng is of the
i.e., bulk indepe material.
motion of ndent
large of the
number disorde
of r of the
molecule materia
s are l.
involved. 6 Gain Raman The
2 Thresh The The Bandwi gain Brillouin
old thresho threshold dth bandwi gain
power ld power dth bandwidt
power level for occurs h is
is high SBS is over a extremel
in SRS quite low broad y narrow.
as [34], i.e., range
compar 1 mW for of
ed to a CW frequen
SBS. pump. cies.
3 Propag SRS The SBS
ation can occurs 4. CONCLUSION
directio occur only in Scattering phenomenon and its various types are
n in both backward discussed. Normally scattering phenomenon put
directio direction limitation on optical systems. Fiber nonlinearities are
ns, i.e., [35]. feared by telecom system designers because they can
forwar affect system performance adversely. But with
d and suitable system arrangement they can be exploited in
IJSER © 2016
http://www.ijser.org
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 11, November-2016 225
ISSN 2229-5518
many applications. . Fiber nonlinearities can be 15. S.P. Singh, R. Gangwar and N Singh,” Nonlinear
managed thorough proper system design. Typical scattering effects in optical fiber”, Progress in
threshold power for SBS is about 1.3 mW while for electromagnetic research, PIER 74, 379-405, 2007.
SRS, it is about 570 mW. The typical value of channel 16. Gerd Keiser,”Optical fiber communication”,
power in optical systems is below 10 mW. Therefore, edition four, 428-432.
SRS is not a limiting factor for single-channel 17. S.Shahi and S.W.Harun, ”Brillouin fiber laser
lightwave systems while SBS puts limitations on with significant reduced gain medium length
such systems. When it is properly under control it operating in L-Band region”, Progress in
can be enormously useful; but on other occasions it electromagnetic Research letters, vol.8, 143-149, 2009.
can intrude, disturb and degrade. Nonlinear effects 18. Ming-jun Li, “Managing nonlinearity in optical
are useful for many device and system applications: fiber for high-power lasers”
optical switching, soliton formation, wavelength 19. R. W. Tkach, A. R. Chraplyvy, and R. M.
conversion, broadband amplification, Derosier, Electron. Lett. 22, 1011. , 1986.
demultiplexing, etc. New kinds of fibers have been 20. G. P.Agrawal, “Nonlinear fiber optics”, edition 4,
developed for enhancing nonlinear effects. chapter 9.
References 21. Govind P.Agrawal, “Nonlinear effects in optical
1.Gerald Farrell,” Optical Communications fiber”, ©2006.
Systems”, Attenuation in optical fibers”. 22. J. Botineau, E. Picholle, and D. Bahloul, Electron.
2. Govind P.Agrawal, Nonlinear fiber optics, fourth Lett. 31, 2032 , 1995.

IJSER
edition. 23. N. A. Olsson and J. P.van der Ziel, Appl. Phys.
3. Min Zhong, “Light scattering by small particles”, Lett. 48, 1329 (1986).
2010. 24. S.P.Smith, F.Zarinetchi, and S. Ezekiel, Opt. Lett.
4. P Chakrabarti,”Optical fiber communication”, 16, 393, 1991.
irregularities (Senior, 2008). 25. Progress in electromagnetic research letters, vol.
5. Dr. B.G.Potter,” Attenuation in optical fibers”, 8, 2009.
Module 3. 26. S.P. Singh, R. Gangwar and N Singh, “Nonlinear
6. Alden, Princeton University, “The Rayleigh scattering effects in optical fiber”, Progress in
criterion”, lecture 7, 2002. electromagnetic research, PIER 74, 388, 2007.
7. Integrated publishing, “Introduction to fiber 27. Raman Spectroscopy, ANDOR (an Oxford
optis”. Instruments company).
8. P Chakrabarti,”Optical fiber communication”, 28. Govind P.Agrawal,” Nonlinear fiber optics”,
irregularities (Senior, 2008). Fourth edition.
9. Dirk Samiec,” Distributed fiber optics temperature 29. S.P. Singh, R. Gangwar and N Singh, “Nonlinear
and strain measurement with extremely high spatial scattering effects in optical fiber”, Progress in
resolution”. electromagnetic research, PIER 74, 398-399, 2007.
10. Module 4, Signal distortion on optical fibers- 30. Govind P.Agrawal,” Nonlinear fiber optics”,
Attenuation. fourth edition.
11. Djafar K. Mynbaev and Lowell L. Scheiner, 31. S.P. Singh, R. Gangwar and N Singh, “Nonlinear
“Fiber-optic communication technology”. scattering effects in optical fiber”, Progress in
12. Gerd Keiser,”Optical fiber communication”, electromagnetic research, PIER 74, 2007.
edition four, 428-432. 32. Govind P.Agrawal,” Nonlinear fiber optics”,
13. R. H. Stolen and A. Ashkin, “Optical Kerr effect fourth edition.
in glass waveguide”, Appl. Phys. Lett. 22, 294 (1973) 33. Govind P.Agrawal ,”Nonlinear fiber optics and
14. S.P. Singh, R. Gangwar and N Singh,” Nonlinear its applications in optical signal processing”,
scattering effects in optical fiber”, Progress in 34. G. P.Agrawal, Nonlinear fiber optics, fourth
electromagnetic research, PIER 74, 401, 2007. edition, chapter 9.
IJSER © 2016
http://www.ijser.org
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 7, Issue 11, November-2016 226
ISSN 2229-5518
35. Rahul Umesh Kale, Pavan Mahadeo Ingale, Harmanjeet Singh Parmar, Persuing Electronics and
Rameshwar Tukaram Murade,”Comparison of SRS Communications Engineering from Guru Nanak
& SBS (Non Linear Scattering) In Optical Fiber”, Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, Gmail id-
International Journal of Recent Technology and Engi [email protected]
neering (IJRTE) ISSN: 2277-3878, Volume-2, Issue-1, ER. Nimarjit Kaur, Persued Electronics and
March 2013. Communications Engineering from Khalsa College
36. G. P.Agrawal, Nonlinear fiber optics, edition 4, of Engineering and Technology, Amritsar, Punjab,
chapter 9. India, Gmail id- [email protected]

IJSER

IJSER © 2016
http://www.ijser.org