UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

LECTURE NOTES
ON

UNCONVENTIONAL
MACHINING PROCESS

Prepared
By

RAM BABU DARA

Senior Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Aditya Nagar, ADB Road, Surampalem, East Godavari Dist, Andhra Pradesh-533437

1
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

Syllabus:

ELECTRO–CHEMICAL MACHINING: Fundamentals of electro chemical machining,

electrochemical grinding, electro chemical honing and deburring process, metal removal rate
in ECM, Tool design, Surface finish and accuracy, economic aspects of ECM – Simple
problems for estimation of metal removal rate, Electro-stream drilling, shaped tube
electrolytic machining.
Fundamentals of chemical machining, advantages and applications

ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING:

 What is ECM?
• Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a method of removing metal particles by an
electrochemical process instead of standard machining methods.
• It gives a new perspective to machining process and being an indicator of new
technologies.
• Characterized as „Reverse Electroplating‟ means it removes metal instead of adding it
• Normally used for mass production and for hard materials that are difficult to
machine using conventional processes
• Both external and internal geometries can be machined
• Its uses are limited to electrically conductive materials

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is based on a controlled anodic electrochemical

dissolution process of the workpiece (anode) with the tool (cathode) in an electrolytic cell,
during an electrolysis process.
ECM Works Based on Faraday's First Law
• Amount of chemical change (amount of metal dissolved) is proportional to the
quantity of electricity passed (current x time)
V = Clt
Where
V = volume of metal removed
C = specific removal rate which work material
l = current; t = time

2
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

• Michael Faraday discovered that if two electrodes are placed in a bath containing a
conductive liquid and D.C. potential is applied across-them, “metal can be de- plated
from the anode and plated on the cathode”

• This principle was in use for a long time in a process called 'electroplating'. With
certain modifications, ECM is the reverse of electro plating

Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis for ECM process

3
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

Figure 3.1: Chemical reactions between tools and workpiece

• During ECM, metal from the anode (or workpiece) is removed atom by atom by
removing negative electrical charges that bind the surface atoms to their neighbors.
• The ionized atoms are then positively charged and can be attracted away from the
workpiece by an electric field.
In an electrolytic cell (or ECM cell), material removal is governed by Faraday's laws of
electrolysis given below
1. The amount of chemical change produced by an electric current (or the amount of
substance deposited or dissolved) is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed.
2. The amounts of different substances deposited or dissolved by the same quantity of
electricity are proportional to their chemical equivalent weights
The electrochemical reactions occurring in the electrochemical machining process are
as follows:
• At the anode the iron atoms covert into the iron ions (cations) :
Fe = Fe2+ + 2e-
• The electrons lost by the iron atoms travel to the cathode through the DC power
supply.
• At the cathode the electrons react with water molecules forming
gaseous Hydrogen and hydroxyl ions (anions) according to the reaction:
H2O + 2e- = H2 + 2OH-
• The cations and the anions react in the aqueous solution and create insoluble ferrous
hydroxide:
Fe2+ + 2OH- = Fe(OH)2
• The insoluble hydroxide is taken away by the flowing electrolyte and then it
precipitates at the tank bottom forming the sludge.

4
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

Figure 3.2: Schematic layout of electro chemical machining process

Working Principle:

• DC Power supply. The machining rate in electrochemical machining is proportional to

the electric current density. In order to achieve high values of the machining rate
electrochemical machining is commonly performed at a high direct current exceeding
1000 A. The voltage of the process is 5-25 V.

• Electrolyte circulation system. The products of the electrochemical reaction should be

removed from the gap between the work piece and the tool. Accumulation of the
reaction products causes decrease of the process efficiency and reduction of the rate
of machining. Therefore the electrolyte flow speed should be high. Commonly it is in
the range 1,000-10,000 ft/min ( 300-3,000 m/min). The electrolyte is continuously
filtered in order to trap the precipitated reaction products (sludge).

• Mechanical system. One of the most important parameters of electrochemical

machining is maintaining a constant voltage level. This is achieved by the control
system providing a movement of the tool at a constant speed equal to the linear rate of
machining. The process in a steady state is performed at a constant (typically gap
0.004-0.016”/0.1-0.4 mm). A firm fixation of the work piece provided by the fixture,
the table and the frame is also important for stable operation of the system at a
constant gap. Conventional machining equipment including CNC machines may be
modified for electrochemical machining process.

5
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

• Control system. Electrical parameters of the process, , tool feed speed and parameters
of electrolyte circulation system are controlled by the control system, which provide
stable and efficient operation of the unit.

Figure 3.3: Samples made by Electro chemical machining process

Tool material
• Properties expected out of the tool material:
• High electrical and thermal conductivity
• Good stiffness
• Easy machinability - particularly important if complex shaped tools are required
• High corrosion resistance - to protect itself from the highly corrosive electrolyte
solution
• Rigidity - Rigidity of the tool construction and material is important because the high
pressure can cause deflection of the tool
• Easily available
• Generally aluminium, copper, brass, bronze, carbon, copper -manganese, copper-
tungsten, titanium, cupro-nickel and stainless steel are used

Tool design considerations

Two major aspects of tool design:
1. Determining the tool shape so that the desired shape of the job is achieved
2. Other considerations such as electrolyte flow, insulation, strength and fixing
arrangements

6
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

• Modification of the tool profile to get the required final surface is relatively complex -
FEM can be used to get the final tool design
• Designer must determine the nature and the extent of the required deviation or gap
allowances from the mirror image configuration, while providing for a uniform and
sufficiently high flow rate of electrolyte in the gap to allow a practical MRR
• Tool dimensions must be slightly different from the nominal mirror dimensions of the
completed part to allow for ECM overcut
• Part and the cathode must have adequate current-carrying capacity
• ECM cell must have strength and rigidity to avoid flutter and arcing

Electrolyte
• Electrolytes used in ECM should be carefully selected so that they provide the
necessary reactions without plating the cathode
• Functions expected:
• Completing the electrical circuit between the tool and the workpiece
• Allowing the desirable machining reactions to take place
• Carrying away the heat generated during the operation
• Carrying away products of reaction from the zone of machining

Desirable electrolyte properties

• High electrical conductivity - easy ionisation
• Low viscosity - for easy flow
• High specific heat - to carry more heat
• Chemical stability - to be chemically neutral or does not disintegrate during the
reaction
• Resistance to formation of passivating film on the workpiece surface
• Non corrosiveness and non-toxicity
• Inexpensiveness and easy availability
Salt solutions with water forming a large proportion satisfy many of the above conditions and
therefore they are generally used
Process parameters
• MRR with ECM are sufficiently large and comparable with that of the conventional
methods

7
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

• The rate of material removal in ECM is governed by Faraday‟s law and is a function
of current density.
• Current density is not only controlled by the amount of current that the power supply
is delivering, but also by the size of the IEG
• A small IEG results in the highest current density. However, when its very small,
there is a danger of sludge particles bridging the gap and causing a short circuit
• When the gap is too large, current density is reduced, resulting in a poor surface finish
and decreased MRR
• Other variables that affect the current density and the MRR are:
1. Voltage
2. Feed rate
3. Electrolyte conductivity
4. Electrolyte composition
5. Electrolyte flow
6. Workpiece material
Voltage
• Voltage across the cutting gap influences the current and the MRR and is controlled in
most ECM operations
• Low voltage decreases the equilibrium machining gap and results in a better surface
finish and finer tolerance control
• Increased current leads to electrolyte heating – low temperature of the electrolyte is
conducive for a better surface finish and tolerances
Feed rate
• Feed rate determines the current passed between the tool and thework
• As the tool approaches the work, the length of the conductive path decreases and the
magnitude of the current increases
• High feed rate results in higher MRR
• High feed rates also decreases the equilibrium machining gap resulting in
improvements of the surface finish and tolerance control
• Most rapid feed possible is not only highly productive but also produces the best
quality of surface finish
• At slower feed rates, the MRR decreases as the gap increases resulting in the rise of
resistance and drop in the current
• Limitations of feed rate are removal of hydrogen gas and products of machining;
8
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

• Also higher feed rate requires fine filtering

Electrolyte conductivity
• Affects the resistance across the gap
• Increasing the concentration will cause conductivity to rise
• Temperature increases of the electrolyte also increases conductivity
• Low concentration and low temperature will results in lower MRR
Electrolyte composition
• Composition directly influences conductivity, MRR and surface characteristics
• Parameters used for a given application may not yield the same ECM results if a
different type of electrolyte is used
• Normal development of an operation begins with the selection of the correct
electrolyte. The other parameters and the cathode are adjusted to get the desired result
Electrolyte flow rate
• The velocity and the electrolyte flow through the gap is also an important parameter
affecting the surface finish and MRR
• If the velocity is too low, the heat and by-products of the reaction build in the gap
causing non-uniform material removal
• A velocity that is too high will cause cavitation, also promoting uneven material
removal
• Increased electrolyte velocities require larger electrolyte pumps that add capital cost
to the system
• Pressure control is the method of controlling the flow rate
PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS:
Figure 3.4 shows the main elements that control the process behavior. Electrolyte type,
concentration, flow rate, and temperature directly affect the current density and, therefore, the
removal rate, accuracy, and surface quality. On the other hand, the workpiece atomic weight
and valence control the removal rate and the surface roughness. Other machining parameters
such as feed rate and gap voltage are responsible for maintaining the required level of current
density and, therefore, the removal rate, and surface quality.

9
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

Figure 3.4: Main elements of machining by EC erosion

Material removal rate: According to Faraday‟s laws, the main factor that affects the MRR is
the current density. It is, therefore, expected that the type of electrolyte, its concentration and
temperature, and the size of the machining gap affect the MRR. Figure 3.5 shows the effect
of tool feed rate and gap voltage on the current density and the MRR.

Figure 3.5: Parameters affecting the MRR

Accuracy: Generally, low oversize (small gap width) represents a high degree of process
accuracy. The accuracy of machined parts is affected by the current density that controls the
machining gap width. The latter is affected by the material equivalent, gap voltage, feed rate,
and electrolyte properties including rate, pH, temperature, concentration, and pressure. For
high process accuracy, conditions leading to narrow machining gaps are recommended.
These include the use of high feed rate and NaNO3 electrolytes and provide tool insulation
that limits the side machining of the hole. Figure 3.6 shows the effect of gap voltage and feed
rate on the size of the machining gap, which is inversely proportional to machining accuracy.

10
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

Dimensional tolerances for ECM are ±0.13 mm for the frontal gap and ±0.25 mm for the side
gap. Overcut of 0.05 mm, taper of 1 mm/mm, and a corner radii of 5 mm are possible and
depend on the configuration of the cathodic tool used.

Figure 3.6: Parameters affecting the electrode gap width.

Surface finish: Surface finish of the machined parts by ECM is usually 0.3–1.9 μm Ra for the
frontal gap area and as rough as 5 μm Ra or more for the side gap area. Microscopic surface
defects, such as intergranular attack, are caused by selective ECM attack on certain
constituents of the alloy at low current. Figure 3.7 shows the effect of gap voltage and feed
rate on the surface roughness by ECM. Deterioration of surface roughness can be caused by
large grain size, insoluble inclusions such as graphite in cast iron, variation in workpiece
composition, and the precipitation of intermetallic compounds at grain boundaries.

Figure 3.7: Parameters affecting the surface roughness

11
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

ECONOMICS OF ECM
The total cost of machining a single component by ECM, Cpr, is made from the following
Components:
1. Machining time cost, Ctm. This element decreases when using high feed rates.
2. Cost related to the tool, Ct. This includes the cost of toolmaking and tool changing as
a result of damage by the incidence of sparking when using high machining rates. The
tool cost, therefore, increases at high feed rates.
3. Cost related to the electrolyte, Ce. It includes the electrolyte cost, filter cost,
electrolyte changing cost, and the cost of changing the filter. This element rises at
high machining rates.
4. The cost of nonproductive time, Cst. This component of cost is not affected by the
machining rate.
Therefore,
Cpr = Ctm + Ct + Ce + Cst

Figure 3.8 shows the graphical presentation of the main elements of total ECM cost. It is
accordingly clear that an optimum feed rate that realizes minimum cost (economical feed
rate) exists. Machining at lower feed rates increases the machining time and impairs the
product accuracy and surface quality. On the other hand, machining at higher feed rates raises
the current density and the material removal rate, however, electrolyte heating, boiling, and,
consequently, the occurrence of sparking damage the tool and workpiece and raise the
production cost as shown in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.8: Variation of total production cost with ECM feed rate

12
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

Figure 3.9: Variation of total production cost, removal rate, and surface roughness with
ECM feed rate.

Applications of electrochemical machining

• Machining of hard materials. The process parameters and the tool life time do not
depend on the hardness of the work piece therefore electrochemical machining is
often used for machining hard materials. Turbine blades and rifle barrels are
fabricated by electrochemical machining.
• Producing holes and cavities which can‟t be obtained by conventional machining
methods.
• Die sinking. Electrochemical machining is often used as an alternative to the cavity
type electric discharge machining (EDM).
• Fabrication of thin walled parts. Electrochemical machining does not produce surface
stress in the work piece therefore even very brittle and easily deformed materials may
be machined in thin walled shapes.
• Grinding of a work piece by a rotating wheel, which performs grinding operation
through an electrolyte. The wheel is conductive and cathodically connected. Non-
conductive hard particles are set on the wheel surface. The particles provide a
constant gap through which an electrolyte is continuously fed. Hard and brittle
materials are ground by the method.
Advantages of electrochemical machining:
• The rate of machining does not depend on the hardness of the work piece material.
• The tool does not wear. Soft materials (e.g., copper) may be used for tool fabrication.
• No stresses are produced on the work piece surface.

13
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

• No burrs form in the machining operation.

• High surface quality may be achieved.
• High accuracy of the machining operation.
Disadvantages of electrochemical machining:
• Higher cost.
• Electrolyte may cause corrosion of the equipment.
• Large production floor is required.
• Only electrically conductive materials may be machined.
• Not environmentally friendly process.

Electrochemical Honing (ECH)

Electrochemical honing (ECH) combines the high removal characteristics of ECM and the
conventional honing process. As shown in Figure 3.10, the cathodic tool carries
nonconductive honing stones that are responsible for the mechanical abrasion action, while
the ECM current passes through the conductive spindle that carries the stones. Fine abrasives
are used to maintain the interelectrode gap size of 0.076–0.250 mm and, moreover,
depassivate the anodic surface from the oxides formed by ECM. ECH employs DC current at
a gap voltage of 6–30 V that ensures a current density of 465 A/cm2. Sodium nitrate solution
of 240 g/L is used instead of the more corrosive sodium chloride (120 g/L) or acid
electrolytes. Electrolyte temperature of 38°C, pressure 1,000 kPa, and flow rate 95 L/min are
commonly used.
The material removal rate for ECH is three to five times faster than conventional honing and
four times faster than internal cylindrical grinding. Tolerances in the range of ±0.003 mm are
achievable and surface roughness in the range of 0.2–0.8 μm. For a stress-free surface, the
last few seconds of action should be for pure ECM process, which produces a stress-free
surface and ensures geometrically accurate bores. The process can tackle pinion gears of
high-alloy steel as well as holes in cast tool steel components. As a result of the rotating and
reciprocating motions, combined with the ECM, the process ensures the following:
1. Reduction of errors in roundness, waviness, and taper
2. Production of stress- and burr-free parts
3. Machining materials that are sensitive to heat and distortion

14
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

Figure 3.10: ECH schematic.

Electrochemical Grinding:
Electrochemical grinding (ECG) is similar to ECM except that the cathode is a specially
constructed grinding wheel as shown in Figure 3.11. The insulating abrasives of diamond or
aluminum oxide (60–320 grit) are set in a conductive bonding material. These abrasive
particles act as a spacer between the grinding wheel conductive bond and the workpiece.
Accordingly, a constant interelectrode gap of about 0.025 mm or less is maintained for the
flow of the NaNO3 electrolyte. The wheel rotates at a surface speed of 20–35 m/s. On the
application of the gap voltage of 4–40 V, a current density of about 20–240 A/cm2 is created
that removes metal mainly by ECM. The mechanical grinding accounts for an additional 5%–
10% of the total material removal by abrading the possible insoluble films from the anodic
workpiece surface. Removal rates by ECG are four times faster than conventional grinding
and it always produces burr-free and unstressed parts. The volumetric removal rate is
typically 1,600 mm3/min.

15
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

Figure 3.11: ECG schematic.

Traditional grinding leaves tolerances of about ±0.003 mm and creates heat and stresses that
make grinding thin stock very difficult. In ECG, however, achieved tolerances are usually
about ±0.125 mm. ECG can grind thin material 1.02 mm, which normally wraps by the heat
and pressure of the conventional grinding process. The surface finish produced varies from
0.2 to 0.3 μm Ra. For better surface quality and a closer dimensional tolerance, a finish pass
at low voltage of 3–5 V and relatively high speed of 250–500 mm/min is recommended. ECG
process is particularly effective for the following:
• Machining difficult-to-cut materials (sintered carbides, Inconel alloys, Nimonic
alloys, titanium alloys, and metallic composites)
• Grinding, cutting off, sawing, and tool and cutter sharpening
• Removal of fatigue cracks from under seawater steel structures
The process ensures the following advantages:
• Absence of work hardening
• Elimination of grinding burrs
• Absence of distortion of thin fragile or thermo sensitive parts
• Good surface quality
• • Longer grinding wheel life
Electrochemical superfinishing (ECS) has the following drawbacks:
• High capital cost
• Limited to electrically conductive materials
• Corrosive nature, disposal, and filtration of the electrolyte
• Loss of accuracy when the inside corners are ground

16
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

Electrochemical buffing (ECB)

Electrochemical buffing (ECB), shown in Figure 3.12, uses a carbon fiber cloth that rubs the
anodic workpiece against a revolving cathode fiber buff. NaCl or NaNO3 electrolyte is
supplied to the machining zone, while the machining current flows from the workpiece to the
cathode through the carbon cloth. Electrochemical dissolution of the anodic specimen mainly
takes place on the surface of the specimen where it is rubbed by the carbon cloth buff. The
current density, the type of electrolyte, and the workpiece material control the polishing
speed. For high-speed polishing, NaCl electrolyte is used where high current density is
ensured. The addition of Al2O3 abrasives (200 mesh number) to the machining medium
increases the rate of material removal; however, surface smoothness and brightness decrease.
During ECB, a passive oxide film is normally formed on the surface of the stainless steel
workpiece.

Figure 3.12: EC super finishing using conductive stones.

Electrostream (capillary) drilling

Electrostream (capillary) drilling: This is used for producing fine holes that are too deep to
produce EDM and too small to be drilled by shaped tube drilling (STEM). As shown in
Figure 3.13, the cathodic tool is made from a glass nozzle of 0.025–0.50 mm diameter. To
conduct the machining current through the acid electrolyte that fills the interelectrode gap, a
platinum wire electrode is fitted inside the glass nozzle. Solutions of sulfuric, nitric, or
hydrochloric acid with a concentration of 12–20 weight % are common electrolytes.
Electrolyte temperature is normally 40°C for sulfuric acid and 20°C for the rest. Electrolyte
pressure that ranges between 275 and 400 kPa is recommended (Rumyantsev and Davydov,

17
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

1984). A gap voltage of 70–150 V is employed, which is 10 times greater than those for
normal ECM.
A typical application is the drilling of small rows of cooling holes of 0.127– 1.27 mm
diameter in turbine blades, with depth-to-diameter ratio up to 50/1. The process produces
cooling ducts running at an angle of 45° to the surface of the blade and having a diameter less
than 0.8 mm. Drilling wire EDM start holes of less than 0.5 mm are also produced by
electrostream (ES). Feed rates for ES range from 0.75 to 2.5 mm/min. Normal tolerances are
within ±10% of the produced hole diameter and are ±0.05 mm for the depth tolerance.

Figure 3.13: ES drilling schematic diagram.

Shaped tube drilling

Shaped tube drilling: The process is a modified variation of ECM that uses acid electrolytes
for producing small holes from 0.76 to 1.62 mm in diameter with depth- to-diameter ratio
180:1 in electrically conductive materials. It is difficult to machine such small holes using
normal ECM because the produced insoluble precipitates obstruct the flow path of the
electrolyte. As shown in Figure 3.14, the tool is a conducting cylinder with an insulating
coating on the outside. The normal operating voltage is 8–14 V DC when a machining current
up to 600 A can be supplied. When a nitric acid electrolyte solution (15% v/v, temperature of
about 20°C) is pumped through the gap at 1 L/min at 10 V with a feed rate of 2.2 mm/min to
machine a 0.58 mm diameter hole of 133 mm depth, a diametral overcut Cd of 0.265 mm and
a hole conicity of 0.01/133 are produced.
Because the process uses acid electrolytes, it is limited to the drilling of holes in stainless
steel or other corrosion-resistant materials in jet engines and gas turbine parts. Other
applications include turbine blade cooling holes, fuel nozzles, starting holes for wire EDM,

18
UNIT-III UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

drilling holes for corrosion-resistant metals of low conventional machinability, and drilling
oil passages in bearings where EDM causes cracks.

Figure 3.14: Shaped tube drilling schematic diagram

19